TASK 1: Individual work ( 20% ) a) Read and make sort notes on how two sounds in English are produced

The sound should be a part of the kbsr/ kssr English Syllabus The sounds may be consonants, vowels or diftong Your notes should include the points and manner of articulation in producing these sounds.

Consonants are defined as the sounds articulated by temporary obstruction in the air stream which passes through the mouth. The obstruction made by the articulators may be `total', `intermittent', `partial', or may merely constitute a narrowing sufficient to cause friction. In the articulation of consonants almost all articulators are involved. Especially the position of the soft palate causes the division of consonants into `oral consonants' and `nasal consonants'. when the soft palate is raised, `oral consonants' are produced; the soft palate is lowered, `nasal consonants' are produced. In English /m/, /n/, and / /are nasal consonants and rest of all are oral consonants. The function of vocal cords also causes the division of consonants as `voiceless' and `voiced'. When vocal cords are kept apart, voiceless consonants as /p, t, k, c, f, 0, s, s, h/ are produced whereas their vibrations produce voiced consonants as /b, d, g, j, v,. Consonants in phonetics are referred to as `contains' which often appear as the marginal elements in the `syllable'. They seldom form nucleus of the syllable except some case. The consonants `n' and `l' in the second syllable of the words `button' and `apple' form nucleus. Consonants are identified or classified in terms of `voicing', `place of articulation', and `manner of articulation'. discussed above are classified in terms of: 1. voicing 2. place of articulation 3. manner of articulation Consonants as

1.

VOICING OF CONSONANTS

On the basis of voicing, consonants are divided into `voiced consonants' and `voiceless consonants'. Voiced consonants are those which are articulated with the vibration of the vocal cords. In English voiced consonants are /b, d, g, j, v, , z, z/. Voiceless consonants are articulated without vibration of vocal cords or it may be said that during the production of voiceless consonants vocal cords are kept apart. Examples: /p, t, k, c, f, 0, s, s, h/.

POINT OF ARTICULATION On the basis of the points of articulation, consonants are divided as: 1. Bilabial (or labial): Both lips as the primary articulators articulate with each other. Examples: /p/, /b/, /m/, /w/. Letters b p m w Sounds [b] [p] [m] [w] Examples baby, best, buy, bring, blind, absent, about, number, labour, robber, tub paper, person, pick, pour, public, repair, apple, keep, top, crisp make, men, mind, mother, must, my, common, summer, name, form, team wall, war, way, west, wind, word, would, swear, swim, twenty, twist

2.

Labio-dental: The lower lip articulates with the upper teeth.

Examples: /f/, /v/.

Letters f v

Sounds [f] [v]

Examples fast, female, five, forest, fund, fry, flight, often, deaf, cuff vast, vein, vivid, voice, even, review, invest, give, move, active

3.

Interdental: The tip and the rims of the tongue articulate with the upper teeth.

Examples: /o/, / /.

4.

Alveolar: The blade, or top and blade of the tongue articulates with the

alveolar ridge (the upper teeth ridge). Examples: /t/, /d/, /s/, /z/, /n/, /l/, /r/. Letters d Sounds [d] [s] [z] [t] Examples day, dear, die, door, duty, admire, hidden, lady, kind, ride, ended send, simple, song, system, street, lost, kiss, release; cause, present, reason, realism, advise, always, is, was task, tell, time, tone, tune, hotel, attentive, student, boat, rest

5.

Palato-alveolar: The blade, or the tip and blade of the tongue articulates with

the alveolar ridge and there is at the same time a raising of the front of the tongue towards the hard palate. Examples: /c/, /j/, /s/, /z/, /j/.

6.

Velar: A glottal obstruction, or a narrowing causing friction and vibration

between the vocal cords. However, some consonants in this category may be produced without vibration between the vocal cords. Examples: /k/, /g/, /h/, / /.

2.

PLACE OF ARTICULATION

The possible places of articulation form a continuum along the upper surface of the vocal tract; therefore the places listed above should be seen as arbitrary (but conventional) divisions which can be modified if necessary through the use of additional categories, e.g., "interdentally", "alveolar-palatal" or "prevelar". English exemplifies several places of articulation: bilabial [p], [b] and [m]; labiodental [f], [v] and [ ] (the "m" in "triumph" is labiodental, in harmony with the following [f] sound); dental [ ] and []; alveolar [t], [d], [n], [s], [z], [ ], [l]; post alveolar [ ]; palatal [j]; and velar [k], [ ] and [ ]. Uvular place of articulation is illustrated by the formal pronunciation of "r" in French or German (a uvular trill [R], or, often, a voiced fricative), as heard, for example, in classical singing. Pharyngeal place of articulation will probably take considerably more practise for you to perfect, partly because until you can produce and identify the other fricatives formed in the back of the mouth (i.e. [x], [ ], [ ], [h] and [ ]), you will not be confident that you are not forming any of these when you are attempting to produce pharyngeal friction. Friction in the pharynx is created by drawing the root of the tongue backwards, almost as if being strangled, though not quite as extreme. Once you can control the distinction between velar, uvular and glottal friction, the ability to regulate pharyngeal friction will develop with practise.

3.

MANNER OF ARTICULATION

The manner of articulation describes the different types of obstructions made by the articulators. These obstructions may be total, intermittent, partial or may merely constitute a narrowing sufficient to cause friction. According to the manner of articulation consonants are divided into `plosives', `affricates', `fricatives', `lateral', `retroflex', and `nasals'. Plosives (stops): For this, there occurs a complete closure at some point in the vocal tract, behind which the air pressure builds up and is released explosively. Examples: /p/, /t/, /k/, /b/, /d/, /g/.

Affricates: For this, a complete closure appears at some point in the mouth, behind which the air pressure builds up; the separation of the articulators is slow with that of a plosive, so that friction is a characteristic second element of the sound. Examples: /c/, /j/.

Fricatives: Two articulators approximate to such an extend that the air stream passes through them with friction. The sounds produced in this way are called fricatives. Fricatives may be voiced as /v/, / /, /z/, /z/ and voiceless as /f/, /0/, /s/, /s/, /h/. Fricatives differ also in the shape of the narrow opening in which they are produced. In /f/, /v/, /0/, / / it is relatively wide from side to side but very narrow from top to bottom. Because of this slit like shape of the opening, these sounds are called `slit fricatives'. In contrast, in /s/, /z/, /c/, /j/, the opening is much narrower from side to side and deeper from top to bottom. These sounds are called `groove fricative'.

Lateral: For lateral, a partial closure is made at some point in the mouth, the air stream being allowed to escape from one or both sides of the contact. For example, /l/ in `loud' or `late'.

Retroflex: In the production of this sound, the tip of the tongue is raised towards the alveolar ridge without touching it. The sides of the tongue are pressed against the upper back teeth. As the sound is produced, air flows out over the tip of the tongue and vocal cords vibrate. Example: /r/.

Nasals: These sounds are produced with a complete closure at some point in the mouth but the soft palate is lowered and hence the oral cavity is blocked and air escapes through nasal cavity. These sounds are continuants. In the voiced form, they have no noise component. They are, to this extent, vowel like. Examples: /m/, /n/, / /.

Example consonants with one word in KBSR/KSSR Syllabus

b) Read and make short notes on the following terms and how they are related to word formation processes ( eg. Coinage, conversion, back-information, blending etc) 1. Free morpheme 2. Bound morpheme 3. Derivational morpheme 4. Inflection morpheme

Morphemes are what make up words. Often, morphemes are thought of as words but that is not alwaystrue. Some single morphemes are words while other words have two or more morphemes within them.Morphemes are also thought of as syllables but this is incorrect. Many words have two or more syllablesbut only one morpheme. Banana, apple, papaya, and nanny are just a few examples. On the otherhand, many words have two morphemes and only one syllable; examples include cats, runs, and barked. Morpheme a combination of sounds that have a meaning. A morpheme does notnecessarily have to be a word.Example: the word cats has two morphemes. Cat is a morpheme, and s is amorpheme. Every morpheme is either a base or an affix. An affix can be either a prefixor a suffix. Cat is the base morpheme, and s is a suffix. Affix a morpheme that comes at the beginning (prefix) or the ending (suffix) of a base morpheme. Note: An affix usually is a morpheme that cannot stand alone. Examples: -ful, -ly, -ity, -ness. A few exceptions are able, like, and less.

Base a morpheme that gives a word its meaning. The base morpheme cat gives the wordcats its meaning: a particular type of animal.

Prefix: an affix that comes before a base morpheme. The in the word inspect is a prefix.

suffix: an affix that comes after a base morpheme. The s in cats is a suffix. a) Free morpheme

1.

Free morpheme a morpheme that can stand alone as a word without another

morpheme.It does not need anything attached to it to make a word. Cat is a free morpheme. "A word like 'house' or 'dog' is called a free morpheme because it can occur in isolation and cannot be divided into smaller meaning units. . . . The word 'quickest' . . . is composed of two morphemes, one bound and one free. The word 'quick' is the free morpheme and carries the basic meaning of the word. The 'est' makes the word a superlative and is a bound morpheme because it cannot stand alone and be meaningful." (Donald G. Ellis, From Language to

Communication.Lawrence Erlbaum, 1999).

2. Bound morpheme Morphemes which cannot occur on its own as an independent (or separate) word. Affixes (prefix, suffix, infix and circumfix) are all bound morphemes.

3. Derivational morpheme Derivational morphemeshave clear semantic content. In this sense they are like content words, except that they are not words. . . . [W]hen a derivational morpheme is added to a base, it adds meaning. The derived word may also be of a different grammatical class than the original word, as shown by suffixes such as -able and -ly. When a verb is suffixed with -able, the result is an adjective, as in desire + able. When the suffix -en is added to an adjective, a verb is derived, as in dark + en. One may form a noun from an adjective, as in sweet + ie."

(Victoria Fromkin, Robert Rodman, and Nina Hyams, An Introduction to Language, 10th ed. Cengage, 2013)

Derivational morphemes are used to change the grammatical categories of words. For example, the derivational morpheme -er is used to transform the verbbake into the nounbaker. The morpheme -ly changes the adjectivequick into the adverbquickly. We can change adjectives such as happy into nouns such as happiness by using the derivational morpheme -ness. Other common suffixes include -ism, -tion, -able, -mentand -al. Derivational morphemes can also be prefixes, such as un-, in-, pre- and a-.

"Derivational morphemes can be added to free morphemesor to other derivational morphemes. For example, the verb transform consists of the root word form and the prefix trans-, a derivational morpheme. It can become the noun transformation by adding the derivational morpheme -ation. By adding -al to ation, the adjective transformational is created."(Lynne Hebert Remson, "Oral Language." Literacy for the New Millennium, ed. by Barbara J. Guzzetti.Praeger, 2007)

4.

Inflectional morpheme

Inflectional morphemes are bound morphemes that alter the grammatical state of the root or stem. They do not carry any meaning on their own, as is the nature of bound morphemes, but serve a critical function in inflected languages such as English. (It should be noted, however, that English is more of an analytic language, one that depends more heavily on sentence structure than conjugations and declensions.) These bound morphemes express such concepts as tense, number, gender, case, aspect, and so on. In other words, they are grammatical markers. Unlike derivational morphemes they do not change the syntactic category of a word. A verb remains a verb no matter the inflectional morpheme, and a noun a noun. Additionally, they cannot be joined to incomplete morphemes. For example, you can add the derivational bound morpheme "atic" to "unsystem" to get "unsystematic." You cannot, however, add a possessive marker to make "unsystem's." English used to be highly inflected and had a very rich variety of inflectional morphemes. Now, however, there are only eight left. They are: -s third person singular present She waits at home. She waited at home. She is waiting at home. She has eaten the donut. She ate the donuts. Lisa's hair is short. Lisa has shorter hair than Mary. Lisa has the shortest hair.

-edpast tense -ingprogressive -enpast participle -splural -'spossessive -ercomparative -estsuperlative

Inflectional morphemes typically follow derivational morphemes in the hierarchy of morpheme structure. IE, they occur last, at the end of the morpheme, not before any derivational morphemes. It is, for example, "unlikely hoods" for more than one unlikely hood, not something like "unlikelyshood." Some words do not take the regular inflectional morphemes; they are irregular, or, more technically, suppletive. The past tense of "buy" is not "buyer," but "bought." This is an irregularity that is simply memorized. The examples were taken from An Introduction to Language, Sixth Ed. by Victoria Fromkin and Robert Rodman.

GRAPHIC ORGANIZERS OF FREE MORPHEME BOUND MORPHEME DERIVTIONAL MORPHEME INFLECTIONAL MORPHEME

BOUND MORPHEME * A sound or a combination of sound that cannot stand alone as a word. * The S in cats is a bound morpheme and it does not have any meaning without the free morpheme cat

AFFIX * DERIVATIONAL * INFLECTIONAL

MORPHEME * A combination of sound that have meaning * Example: the words cats has two morpheme. Cat is a morpheme and s is a morpheme. .morpheme is either a base or an affix

ROOT * GRUNTLE

OPEN CLASS FREE MORPHEME * A Morpheme that can stand alone s word without another morpheme. * it does not need nything ttched to it to make a word. * Cat is a free morpheme * NOUNS * VERBS * ADJECTIVES * DVERBS

BOUND MORPHEME * A sound or a combination of sound that cannot stand alone as a word. * The S in cats is a bound morpheme and it does not have any meaning without the free morpheme cat AFFIX * DERIVATIONAL * INFLECTIONAL

MORPHEME * A combination of sound that have meaning * Example: the words cats has two morpheme. Cat is a morpheme and s is a morpheme. .morpheme is either a base or an affix

ROOT * GRUNTLE OPEN CLASS * NOUNS * VERBS * ADJECTIVES * DVERBS

FREE MORPHEME * A Morpheme that can stand alone s word without another morpheme. * it does not need nything ttched to it to make a word. * Cat is a free morpheme

CLOSED CLASS * DETERMINERS *CONJUNCTIONS *PREPOSITIONS *PRONOUNS *A UXILIARY

EXAMPLE OF MORPHEME

ONE MORPHEME

Boy ( one syllable) Desire, lady, water ( two syllables) Crocodile ( three syllables)

TWO MORPHEME

Boy + ish Desire +able

THREE MORPHEME

Boy + ish + ness Desire + able + ity

FOUR MORPHEME

Gentle + man + li + ness Un + desire + able + ity

MORE THAN FOUR

Un + gentle + man + li + ness

 Bound morpheme ( affixes ) must be attached to the word. They are prefixes, infixes, suffixes and circumfixes. Such as { clued } as in include, exclude, preclude or they may be grammatical ( such as { PLU} = PLURAL as in boys, girls, and cats

Free morphemes are those that can stand alone. EXAMPLE: Girl, system, desire, hope, act, phone , happy

DERIVATIONAL MORPHEMES

ROOT + DERIVATIONAL MORPHEME a new word with a new meaning . ( Usually change grammatical class ) N + DERIVATIONAL MORPHEME EX : Boy + ish Adj.

VERB + DERIVATIONAL MORPHEME EX: Acquit + al, clear + ance Adj. + DERIVATIONAL MORPHEME EX: Exact + ly , quiet + ly

Noun

Adverb

INFLECTIONAL MORPHEMES
Inflectional morpheme have grammatical meaning or function in the sentence. They never change part of speech. For example: BOUND MORPHEME : EX> to in connection with verb ( an infinitive with to ) BOUND MORPHEME : EX, S , ed He sails the ocean blue

-S third person singular present

She waitS at home

She waited at home - Ed pst tense - Ing progressive - En past prticiple - S plural - S possessive - Er comparative She is eatingthe donuts Mary has eaten the donuts She ate the donuts Lisa s hair is short Lisa has short hair than Kate - Est superlative Lisa has the shortest hair

EXAMPLE WORDS USING INFLECTIONAL AND DERIVATIONAL MORPHEME

INFLECTIONAL MORPHEME
worked cats walking speaks John's faster slowest

DERIVATIONAL MORPHEME
modernise drinkable national nonsense infrequent overexcited dishonest

The morphemes in the list on the left contribute in some way to the insertion of the words in a particular grammatical context, so that the word agrees with this context in terms of tense, number, person etc. The changes in meaning that these morphemes bring are minimal. These are called inflectional morphemes, note that these are all suffixes. The morphemes in the list on the right bring considerable semantic changes to the word, often word class is changed, e.g. modern (adj.)> modernise (v.); drink (v.) > drinkable (adj.); nation (n.) > national (adj). These are called derivational morphemes because they are used to derive new words. Derivational morphemes may be prefixes or suffixes.