ELASTICITY

 ELASTICITY
 COMPOSITES

Elasticity: Theory, Applications and Numerics

Martin H. Sadd
Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford (2005)
 Recoverable Instantaneous
Elastic
Time dependent Anelasticity
Deformation
Instantaneous
Plastic
Permanent Time dependent

Viscoelasticity
Elasticity Linear
Elasticity
Non-linear
Atomic model for elasticity

dU
F 
dr

A B nA mB
U  n  m F   n 1  m 1
r r r r
Attractive Repulsive
A' B'
A,B,m,n → constants
F  p  q
m>n
r r
 A B A' B'
U  n  m F  p  q
r r r r

Repulsive Repulsive
Potential energy (U) →

Force (F) →
r0

r → r →

r0
Attractive Attractive

r0 Equilibrium separation
 Near r0 the red line (tangent to the F-r curve at r = r0)
coincides with the blue line (F-r) curve

r →
Force →

r0

For displacements around r0 →

Force – displacement curve is approximately linear
 THE LINEAR ELASTIC REGION
 Young’s modulus (Y / E)**

 Young’s modulus is :: to the –ve slope of the dF

F-r curve at r = r0
Y 
dr
2
dF d U
Y   2
Stress →

Tension dr dr

strain →
Compression

** Young’s modulus is not an elastic modulus but an elastic constant

Stress-strain curve for an elastomer

Tension

Stress →
T due to uncoiling
of polymer chains
C
strain → T

Due to efficient
filling of space Compression

T > C
 Other elastic modulii

  = E. E → Young’s modulus

  = G. G → Shear modulus
 hydrodynami = K.volumetric strain K → Bulk modulus

t
 
l

E
G
2(1   )

E
K
3(1  2 )
 Bonding and Elastic modulus

 Materials with strong bonds have a deep potential energy well with a high
curvature  high elastic modulus
 Along the period of a periodic table the covalent character of the bond and
its strength increase  systematic increase in elastic modulus
 Down a period the covalent character of the bonding ↓  ↓ in Y
 On heating the elastic modulus decrease: 0 K → M.P, 10-20% ↓ in modulus

Along the period → Li Be B Cdiamond Cgraphite

Atomic number (Z) 3 4 5 6 6
Young’s Modulus (GN / m2) 11.5 289 440 1140 8

Down the row → Cdiamond Si Ge Sn Pb

Atomic number (Z) 6 14 32 50 82
Young’s Modulus (GN / m2) 1140 103 99 52 16
 Anisotropy in the Elastic modulus

 In a crystal the interatomic distance varies with direction

→ elastic anisotropy
 Elastic anisotropy is especially pronounced in materials with
► two kinds of bonds
E.g. in graphite E [1010] = 950 GPa, E [0001] = 8 GPa
► Two kinds of ordering along two directions
E.g. Decagonal QC E [100000]  E [000001]
 Material dependence Elastic modulus
Property
Geometry dependence

Elastic modulus in design

 Stiffness of a material is its ability to resist elastic deformation of

deflection on loading → depends on the geometry of the component.
 High modulus in conjunction with good ductility should be chosen (good
ductility avoids catastrophic failure in case of accidental overloading)
 Covalently bonded materials- e.g. diamond have high E (1140 GPa)
BUT brittle
 Ionic solids are also very brittle

Ionic solids → NaCl MgO Al2O3 TiC Silica glass

Young’s Modulus (GN / m2) 37 310 402 308 70
 METALS
► First transition series → good combination of ductility &
modulus (200 GPa)
► Second & third transition series → even higher modulus, but higher
density
 POLYMERS
► Polymers can have good plasticity → but low modulus
dependent on
◘ the nature of secondary bonds- Van der Walls / hydrogen
◘ presence of bulky side groups
◘ branching in the chains
 Unbranched polyethylene E = 0.2 GPa,
 Polystyrene with large phenyl side group E = 3 GPa,
 3D network polymer phenol formaldehyde E = 3-5 GPa
◘ cross-linking
Increasing the modulus of a material

 METALS
► By suitably alloying the Young’s modulus can be increased
► But E is a structure (microstructure) insensitive property
 the increase is  fraction added
► TiB2 (~ spherical, in equilibrium with matrix) added to Fe to increase E

 COMPOSITES
► A second phase (reinforcement) can be added to a low E material to ↑ E
(particles, fibres, laminates)
► The second phase can be brittle and the ductility is provided by the
matrix → if reinforcement fractures the crack is stopped by the
matrix
COMPOSITES

Laminate Aligned Particulate

composite fiber composite
composite

Modulus parallel to the direction of the fiberes

 Under iso-strain conditions
Ec  E f V f  EmVm  I.e. parallel configuration
 m-matrix, f-fibre, c-composite
Volume fractions
Composite modulus in isostress and isostrain conditions

 Under iso-strain conditions [m = f = c]

E c  E f V f  E mVm
 I.e. ~ resistances in series configuration

1 V f Vm  Under iso-stress conditions [m = f = c]

   I.e. ~ resistances in parallel configuration
Ec E f Em
 Usually not found in practice

in Ef
st ra
Iso ss
Ec →

e
str For a given fiber fraction f, the
Iso modulii of various conceivable
Em composites lie between an upper
bound given by isostrain condition
and a lower bound given by
f isostress condition
A B
Volume fraction →