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Composting
Composting
is the purposeful biodegradationof organic matter , such as yard andfood waste.Thedecompositionis performed by micro-organisms, mostly  bacteria, butyeasts and fungi
[1]
 can also act. In low temperature phases a number of macroorganisms, such asspringtails,ants, nematodes,isopods andearthworms also contribute to the process, as well assoldier fly,fruit fliesand fungus gnats. There are a wide range of organisms in the decomposer community.
[2]
Composting can bedividedinto the following types:-hot (fast) or cold (slow),home (small scale) or industrial (large scale),and high tech or low tech.The aims, inputs, and end results may vary somewhat in the different tehniques. As wellas techniques, effort, and time requirements also vary amongst them, but the sameessential biological processes are involved in all the types.
•
A
biodegradable
material is capable of being completely broken down under theaction of microorganisms into carbon dioxide, water and biomass. It may take avery long time for some material to biodegrade depending on its environment(e.g. wood in an arid area versus paper in water), but it ultimately breaks downcompletely. Many contaminating materials not dealt with in common compostingare in fact "biodegradeable", and may be dealt with via bioremediation, or other special composting approaches
[3]
.
•
A
compostable
material biodegrades substantially under specific compostingconditions. It is metabolized by the microorganisms, being incorporated into theorganisms or converted intohumus.The size of the material is a factor in determining compostability, and mechanical particle size reduction can speed the process. Large pieces of hardwood may not be compostable under a specific set of composting conditions, whereas sawdust of the same type of wood may be. Some biodegradeable materials are only compostable under very specific conditions,usually with an industrial process.
Materials requitred for composting
To work effectively four basic things are required by Composting organisms:-
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Carbon ("C" or carbohydrates), for energy - the microbialoxidationof carbon produces the heat. High carbon materials tend to be brown and dry.
 
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 Nitrogen ("N" or protein), to grow and reproduce more organisms, to oxidize thecarbon. High nitrogen materials tend to be green and wet.
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Oxygen, for oxidizing the carbon, the decomposition process.
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Water, in the right amounts to maintain activity without causing anaerobicconditions.Certain ratios of these elements will provide beneficial bacteria with the nutrients to work at a rate that will heat up the pile, but in that process much water will be released as vapor   ("steam"), and the oxygen will be quickly depleted. This generates the need to activelymanage the pile. The hotter the pile gets, the more often added air and water is necessary;the air/water balance is critical to maintaining high temperatures until the materials are broken down. At the same time, too much air or water also slows the process, as does toomuch C (or too little N).The most efficient composting occurs with a C:N mix of about 30 to 1. All organics have both carbon and nitrogen, but amounts vary widely, with characteristics noted above(dry/wet, brown/green)
[7]
. Fresh grass clippings have an average ratio of about 15 to 1 anddry autumn leaves about 50 to 1 depending on species. Mixing equal parts by volumeapproximates the ideal C:N range. Few individual situations will provide the ideal mix of materials at any point in time - in this respect, home composting is like horseshoes, perfect is great, but close still works. Observation of amounts, and consideration of different materials
[8]
as a pile is built over time can quickly achieve a workable techniquefor the individual situation.Ingredients that are primarily carbon include:
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Dry, straw-type material, such as cereal straws and corn stalks
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Dry leaves (best shredded, as with a rotary mower, to prevent matting)
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Sawdust, coarse (good for maintaining aeration) or fine (smaller particle size, butmay compact)
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Paper, corrugated cardboard, box board, and office paper or newsprint (soy-basedinks)Ingredients with relatively high nitrogen content include:
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Green plant material, like fresh crop residues, green hay (especially alfalfa), grassclippings and weeds
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Manure from poultry (high N, use sparingly), and herbivorous animals such ashorses, cows and llamas
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Kitchen waste - fruit and vegetable cooked waste and trimmings, juicing-pulpresidue, and coffee groundsFor "back yard" composting, mixing the materials as they are added increases the rate of decomposition, as does reduced particle size (ie, chopped, shredded), or materials can beadded in alternating layers, about 15 cm (6 in) thick. Keeping a carbon "cache" handy tothe pile for covering and mixing with fresh wet additions (lawn clippings, kitchen scraps)
 
is simplist. Special additions or activators are not necessary, although some sprinklings of good garden loam as a first pile is built will aid more rapid working by
inoculating 
it with beneficial soil bacteria, and some of the material from the first finished batch can be usedin the subsequent mixes.Agricultural limeis not advised - the bacteria prefer a slightlyacidic pH,and their processing invariably results in a near-neutral product. Seaweed meal, rock dust or rock flour ,and other trace elementamendments are best added to the finished compost, or directly to the garden.
Importance
Compostingupcyclesorganic kitchen and yard waste and manures into an extremelyuseful humus-like,soilend-product. This permits the return of vital organic matter, nutrients, and particularly bacteria, that are vital to plant nutrition to thesoil, and reduces the amount of green wastegoing into landfills. Managed aerobic composting arranges environmental conditions so they are optimal for the natural processes to take place.There is a popular expression: "compost happens", but it is helpful to engineer the best possible circumstances for large amounts of organic waste to decompose quickly andefficiently, with the greatest conservation of useful nutrients and mass. Uncontrolledcomposting is when compost "happens", and although that may be functional in somecircumstances, as with forest floor detritus, a neglected heap of kitchen and yard wasteswill more likely result in "smells happen", or "rodents happen" long before usefulcompost does.Decomposition similar to composting occurs throughoutnature, however the process can be slow, and in closed environments, decomposition viaanaerobic microbes, which  produce disagreeable odors (ammonia,hydrogen sulphide, or methane), will most likely result. A form of biodegradation practiced deliberately in absence of oxygen is calledanaerobic digestion, an increasingly used commercial or industrial process, as it enablescapture of  bioenergy in the form of  biogas, whereas aerobic composting releases the majority of boundcarbon-energy as excess heat (which helps sanitize the material) aswell as biogenic CO
2
to theatmosphere, which can best be minimized in a controlledaerobic situation.Although composting has long been used in subsistence farming and home gardening for creating garden-readysoil,it is becoming better understood and increasingly important as a tool for reducingmunicipal solid waste
[4]
 . Much household waste is compostable, butfew individuals compost. The decomposition of organic material sent to landfills is a principal cause of methane, an importantgreenhouse gas, so reducing the amount of  organic waste landfilled is a key element in the fight against climate change. In suburbanand rural areas, much of the organic waste could be removed from the waste stream by promoting "passive composting" where consumers compost their yard waste and kitchenscraps on their own land, regardless of whether the material is ever actively re-used as"soil".
[5]
 In urban areas with dwellings predominantly lacking individual yard space, thereare indoor small scale composting alternatives, such asvermicomposting and  bokashi composting
[6]
 
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