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Chapter 9 OutlineMemory- Persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information.Flashbulb memory: a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event.Information processing
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Human memory like a computer 1. Get info into our brain –encoding: processing of info into memory system2. Retain info –storage: retention of encoded info over time3. Get it back later –retrieval: process of getting into out of memory storage
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  Humans store vast amounts of info in long-term memory: relatively permanentand limitless storehouse of the memory system
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  Short-term memory: activated memory that holds few items briefly; phonenumber just dial
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The Atkinson-Shiffrin classic three-stage model of memory suggests that we (1)register fleeting sensory memories, some of which are (2) processed into on-screenshort-term memories, a tiny fraction of then are (3) encoded for long-term memoryand possibly later retrieval.
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The working-memory model includes visual-spatial and auditory subsystems,coordinated by a central executive processor that focuses attention where needed.Encoding: Getting Information In
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  Automatic processing: unconscious encoding of incidental info; occurs withlittle or no effort, without our awareness, and without interfering with our thinking of other things; space, time, frequency, well-learned info
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Effortful processing: encoding that requires attention and conscious effort
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  After practice, effort processing becomes more automatic
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  Can boost memory through rehearsal: conscious repetition of info, either tomaintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage
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 Next-in-line effect: when people go around circle saying names/words, poorest memories are for name/word person before them said
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  Information received before sleep is hardly ever remembered areconsciousness fade before processing able
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  Retain info better when rehearsal distributed over time –phenomenon calledspacing effect: tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through cramming
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When given a list of items and ask to recall, people often demonstrate serial position effect: tendency to recall best the last and first items in a listWhat we encode
 
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Rehearsal will not encode all info equally well because processing of info is in 3ways1. Semantic encoding: encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words2. Acoustic encoding: encoding of sound, especially the sound of words3. Visual encoding: encoding of picture images
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  Fergus Craik and Endel Tulving flashed a word to people, asking question thatrequired processing either visually, acoustically, or semantically; semanticencoding was found to yield much better memoryVisual Encoding
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Imagery: mental pictures; powerful aid to effortful processing, especially whencombined with semantic encoding like how we can easily picture where we wereyesterday, where we sat, and what we wore.
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  Mnemonic: memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery andorganizational devices
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  Chunking: organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occursautomatically
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  We are able to remember info best when able to organize it into personalmeaningful arrangements
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We tend to remember concrete nouns better than abstract nouns because, we canassociate both an image and a meaning with the object or noun, but only a meaningwith process.
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In hierarchies, we process information by dividing it into logical levels, beginningwith the most general and moving to the most specific.
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Forgetting as Encoding Failure
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Failure to encode info –never entered memory system
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  Much of what we sense, we never notice
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Raymond Nickerson and Marilyn Adams discover most people cannot pick the realAmerican penny from different onesStorage: Retaining Information
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  Sensory memory: immediate, initial recording of sensory info in memory system
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  we have short temporary photographic memory called iconic memory:momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; photographic/picture-imagememory lasting no more than a few tenths of a sec
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fleeting memory for auditory sensory images called echoic memory: momentarysensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and wordscan still be recalled within 3 or 4 sec; auditory = ear, which starts with “e” likeechoic
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Short-Term Memory-without active processing, short-term memories have limitedlife
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short-term memory limited in capacity –about 7 chunks of info; at any givenmoment, can consciously process only very limited amount of info
 
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Long-Term Memory-capacity for storing long-term memories is practicallylimitless though forgetting occurs as new experiences interfere with retrieval andas physical memory trace gradually decays
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  Karl Lashley removed pieces of rat’s cortex as it ran through maze; found that nomatter what part removed, partial memory of solving maze stayed; concludedmemories don’t reside in single specific spot
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Psychologists then focused on neuronsSynaptic Changes
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Long-term potential (LTP): increase in a synapse’s firing potential after brief,rapid stimulation; believed to be neural basis for learning and memory
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  After long-term potential occurs, passing electric current through brain won’tdisrupt old memories, but wipe up recent experiences; like how a football player with blow to head won’t recall name of play before the blow
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CREB can switch genes off or on.Stress Hormones and Memory
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Drugs that block neurotransmitters also disrupt info storage; drunk people hardlyremembers previous evening
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  Stimulating hormones affect memory as more glucose available to fuel brainactivity, indicating important event –sears events onto brain; remembering firstkiss, earthquake
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The amygdale, an emotion-processing structure in the brain’s limbic system,arouses brain areas that process emotion.Storing Implicit and Explicit Memories
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These memories are processed in part by the cerebellum.
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Explicit memories are processed in various sub regions of thehippocampus
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The implicit and explicit memory systems are independent.
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Hippocampus is a temporary processing site for the explicit memories.
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The cerebellum stores the implicit memories created by classical conditioning.
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Implicit memory formation requires the cerebellum
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Damage to the hippocampus may destroy the ability to consciously recallmemories, without destroying skills or classically conditioned responses.
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Damage to the left hippocampus has trouble remembering verbal information.
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Damage to the right hippocampus has trouble in recalling visual designs andlocations.
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  Through scans, found that Hippocampus, neural center located in limbic system,helps process explicit memories for storage
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  When hippocampus removed from monkeys, lose recent memories, but oldmemories intact, suggesting hippocampus not permanent storage
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