Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Mainka and Judy A. Mills Source: Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine, Vol. 26, No. 2 (Jun., 1995), pp. 193-200 Published by: American Association of Zoo Veterinarians Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/20095462 . Accessed: 30/09/2013 05:35
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp
.
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.
American Association of Zoo Veterinarians is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine.
http://www.jstor.org
This content downloaded from 62.151.65.108 on Mon, 30 Sep 2013 05:35:50 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 26(2): 193-200, 1995 Copyright 1995 by American Association of Zoo Veterinarians
EDITORIAL WILDLIFE AND TRADITIONAL CHINESE AND DEMAND FOR MEDICINE-SUPPLY WILDLIFE SPECIES
Susan A. Mainka, D.V.M., and Judy A. Mills, M.S.
Abstract: Traditional Chinese medicine dates back more than 5,000 years and many animal treatments. The use of wildlife in these medications is products are included in recommended In particular, wild populations of creating a drain on already declining free-ranging populations. tigers, bears, rhinos, and swiftlets are under threat due to their use in traditional medications. Where possible, farming of some of these species has been attempted to provide a steady source of materials for medical use. Although substitutes and alternatives for these medicines are being sought, other solutions to this problem must be pursued, including improved protection of species in their habitats, strict legislation controlling domestic and international trade and enforcement of these laws, and increasing public awareness of the threats to wildlife. Key words: Traditional medicine, tiger, bear, rhino, swiftlet.
HISTORY
An ancient Chinese legend tells of a farm er in Yunnan in southwest China Province who found a snake near his home and beat it with a hoe. Several days later he found and the same snake, with wounds healed, to the kill tried it. snake ap again Again peared in a few days and again the farmer the farm tried to kill it. This time, however, er observed the snake slithering away into some weeds and beginning to eat them. The weeds were Panax and today notoginseng their styptic properties have been well doc umented. Much of traditional Chinese med in legends such as icine (TCM) is steeped as the powder such and many drugs, this, have been proven from Panax notoginseng, to be clinically useful. is thought Traditional Chinese medicine to date back to the time of the emperor Shen
He tested many of these herbs and, for the next 2,000 years, his findings were passed to generation from generation by word of
mouth.
Published
references
to TCM
in China
World Wide Fund forNature, 1196Gland, From the Switzerland (Mainka); and TRAFFIC East Asia, c/o WWF Hong Kong, GPO 12721, Central, Hong Kong
(Mills). Address correspondence to J. A. Mills.
193
This content downloaded from 62.151.65.108 on Mon, 30 Sep 2013 05:35:50 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
194
to demand the returned home techniques their demands abolition of TCM. However, were met with outrage by all classes of Chi nese society and TCM maintained its po sition as an important part of medical prac
tice.
an Even today in most Asian countries, resource an exploitable imals are considered In con with values based on their utility. on basic zo textbooks temporary Chinese species are described ology, many by their in medicines," for "usefulness especially members of the ursid, felid, and cervid IUCN Red Data groups.24 The Vietnam Book lists bears as an important species due to their use in TCM.
in the in China Mao Zedong's policies increased use of 1950s and 1960s promoted TCM and thereby many Chinese species' the loss of 3,000 ti destruction, including de gers {Panthern tigris).13 In 1958 Mao clared the "Four Pests" campaign and a na tional effort to eliminate sparrows, flies, a and rats was begun. Within mosquitoes, conceded of Agriculture year the Ministry that "the war against sparrows had been a as millions of insects normally mistake," were invading all birds consumed these by the Great homes.16 Next, during told his people to "Or Leap Forward, Mao to change their channels; make der rivers that the mountains give way,"11 and with on a continuing Chinese people embarked Chinese "Se destruction. program of environmental vere damage was done to all kinds of forests Smil.38 concludes throughout China," The traditions of Chinese medicine spread as mi of China the Asia peoples throughout the continent, particu grated throughout when of Mao's the reign, days larly during fled the Communist thousands regime. took with them their atti These migrants and their belief in the tude toward wildlife newfound affluence efficacy of TCM. With in their new homelands, they were able to continue products at an consuming wildlife
ever-increasing rate.
billion
major are 2,200 traditional medicine factories and the industry 460,000 employs people.10 There were 2,297 TCM hospitals in China
Part of this illegal trade involves a medicines made from wildlife, in In Asia. China there alone, industry
in 1992 and 200 million were outpatients to 2.7 million cases ad treated in addition mitted.3 In almost all cases, the nations from which wildlife are taken to supply the TCM market are poor while are the consuming nations to rectify this difference may rich. Helping lessen the threat to wildlife at the source, sources of income if alternative especially can be derived from keep (e.g., ecotourism) ing animals alive.
Following
the establishment
Tiger (Panthera tigris sp.) Status and trade: As of 1994 there were es individuals from the timated to be 5,000-7,400 five remaining tiger subspecies left in the wild.13
This content downloaded from 62.151.65.108 on Mon, 30 Sep 2013 05:35:50 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
Their use in TCM represents the most serious threat to their survival in the wild. Countries which still have wild tigers are generally poor and the temptation is great to supply the demand and improve their own standard of living. In addition, the break up of the former U.S.S.R. into smaller states with undeveloped protection systems for habitat contianing tigers has led to increased exploitation of tigers in these areas.7 (U.S.$/kg Tiger bone is a valuable commodity 12-375) and one skeleton can provide more than
the annual gross national product for one person
in the Collection of Commentaries on the Classic of theMateria Medica.5 Almost all parts and products of the tiger, from whiskers (used to treat toothaches) to feces (used to treat piles), are used
for medicines. 133? The most popular is tiger bone,
inmost countries which have free-ranging tigers. The major exporter of tiger bone and other medicines containing tiger derivatives is China, with reported annual trade (data from 1990 to 1993)30'33 amounting to 604 kg of bone and 6.75+ million derivatives (including at least 71,014 kg of bone).1330 Major importing nations include South Korea (average 374 kg/yr during the last 20 years) and Japan, the United States, and Tai wan. It is interesting that the Chinese scientists report that there are likely less than 80 wild tigers remaining in the wild, yet export data for bone alone is equivalent to 300 tigers and they are not
among the major importers.30
which is valued for treatment of conditions such as rheumatism. Of all the bones, the hum?rus is said to be the most effective. The recommended daily dose of tiger bone is 3-6 g,5 and since the average adult tiger has a skeleton weighing only ?20 kg, one animal would only be an annual supply for 9-18 rheumatism sufferers. It is estimated that if only 0.1% of Chi na's population used tiger bone products, the world's tigers would disappear within a year.30 Use of tigers in medications is not restricted to TCM. Traditional medicine practiced in India prescribes tiger fat for rheumatism and as a cure for leprosy. Traditional Vietnamese medicine advises use of tiger bones for relief of rheumatism and stewed tiger bone soup as a general tonic for
convalescents.32
Clinical
animals,
A tiger farm has been established inChina with the help of the government but have been the subject of recent controversy. In May 1993, when China's government agreed to U.S. demands to place a domestic ban on tiger trade, banks sup porting tiger farms terminated funding.40 This left farms with no cash flow and no market for their product, but a captive group of tigers to
maintain.
algesic, and calming effects.5 In Hong Kong, fur ther research is under way to determine if there are any unique properties in tiger bone that are not present in other species' bone. Many substi tutes for tiger bone have been suggested. Clinical research using dog bone shows that it works but
may have excessive effects.5 Bones of other spe
(Parascaptor sp.) and leopard (Panthern pardus) may also be useful, but they
species.
Tigers are listed under the Convention on In ternational Trade of Endangered Species ofWild Fauna and Flora (CITES) Appendix I. At the most recent Conference of the Parties (COP) held in Florida in 1994, a resolution regarding tigers was introduced by a consortium of 10 range and consumer countries. The resolution, which passed
unanimously, called on all Parties and non-Par
Other felids the only felids Tigers are by no means used in medicines. For example, the jaw of a clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa) or do cat teeth or claws are used as a sed mestic ative and as a treatment for dog bites.26 Bear (Ursus spp., Selenarctos Status the world, thibetanus)
ties to work with traditional medicine commu nities to eliminate the use of tiger bone. InMarch 1995, the governments of China and India signed an unprecedented joint protocol calling for a crackdown on illegal trafficking in tiger products and the launch of a worldwide campaign to dis courage the use of tiger parts in traditional med
icine.
and trade: Of the bear species in all but two (American black bear and polar bear [Ursus [Ursus americanus] are thought to be in decline.37 maritimius] A 1991 report estimated that the Soviet Far East had only 4,000 Selenarctos and 9,000 Ursus arctos.34 During year Chinese scientists estimated thibetanus the same that there
uses: The first references to tiger Medicinal use in traditional medicine date back to 500 A.D.
This content downloaded from 62.151.65.108 on Mon, 30 Sep 2013 05:35:50 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
196
were With
no more
than
20,000
wild
bears
in
China.9 for medicinal demand increasing a further made from 10,000 bears, products for the pur animals were kept in captivity pose of bear farming.29 One captive bear can in 1 year as produce as much bile product a harvest of 40-50 wild bears.9 Surgery is on bears that have reached adult performed the size (usually >100 kg) to marsupialize can so off be milked that bile gall bladder just prior to each meal. The remaining bears are either allocated to a breeding program are or and too young to be used juveniles for bile milking.1 Current Chinese statistics report that one farm bear will produce an average of 70 ml bear can of bile per day.914 One milking produce 2.2 kg of bile powder during a 5-year to the harvest from life compared production a wild bear (47-52 g). Therefore, each farm to spare the harvest of 220 bear is estimated wild bears.10 bear farming has its prob Unfortunately, is not successful and lems. Captive breeding are prone to amyriad bears used for milking common of which the most of diseases,2739 are a Pseudomonas infection at aeruginosa the marsupialization site1 and cholecystitis (an 80% incidence at one farm42). Milk bears bile pro that are ill have greatly decreased use ductivity.43 The net result is continued source as a for the medical of wild bears of bear products States, India, In and China.29 South donesia, Hong Kong, Korea, perhaps the largest consumer of bear in the world, imported more gall bladders ingredients. Major exporting nations include Japan, the United
American black bear ( Ursus americanus) was II in an attempt to listed under Appendix curtail trade due to the fact that gall bladders from all bear species look alike. uses: Almost all species Medicinal of bears can be used in TCM; however, the Chinese pharmaceutical industry uses pri the Asiatic black marily the brown and betanus)
tos).10
thi arc
from their bile to their feet, are Bears, used in more than 74 different medicinal The active ingredient in bear preparations.41 acid (UDCA), bile, tauro-ursodeoxycholic has been shown to have a therapeutic effect in the treatment of liver disease and is used to dissolve inWestern medicine gall stones can also without UDCA be syn surgery.36 but most Orientals thetically manufactured believe that product derived from the live animal to be more efficacious and that de rived from wild bears the most effective of all. Substitutes for bear bile which have been include bile from domestic suggested pig, and shark, some of which eagle, elephant, are more efficacious than bear bile in treat ing certain disease conditions.12 Bear gall bladder is used as an analgesic in doses of 400-1,100 and antipyretic mg per treatment.18 Bear bile can cost as much as U.S.$210/g in but averages U.S.$15/g Hong Kong.21
to Status and trade: There are estimated be < 12,000 rhinos of five different species remaining in the wild.17 South Africa is home
This content downloaded from 62.151.65.108 on Mon, 30 Sep 2013 05:35:50 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
MAINKA
AND MILLS-TCM
AND WILDLIFE
197
black white
rhino horn weighs 2.88 kg, average rhino horn weighs 4.00 kg).23 Assum ing equal parts black and white rhino horn in those shipments, that 16,500 this means
also be an effective
sub
ungulates
rhinos provided horn during this period, of to Hong Kong. which 40% was exported East African However, export data for this is up to four times lower than cor period for receiv import information responding as nations such This Japan. ing discrepancy of exports was indicates that underreporting in nations the horn. widespread supplying call for rhi Numerous Chinese medicines no horn but only five are commonly pre rhi of sale of scribed. The economic impact no horn products is huge. In South Korea, common the market for the most rhino Woo Hwang Chung Shim Won, medication, It should be is U.S.$19 million annually.28 noted that the use of rhino horn in this med and is no ication is illegal in South Korea pharmaceutical longer used by licensed firms. recent CITES COP, South At the most Africa presented a proposal to downlist their I to white rhino population from Appendix II and this proposal was accepted, but only to for purposes of transporting live animals less robust wild augment populations. uses: Use in Medicinal of rhino horn re TCM dates back to 200 B.C.6 Chinese search shows that rhino horn does have an effect on rats but only at high antipyretic doses.6 Horn from Asian species is thought to be more effective than that from African species, and prices reflect this belief. For the period 1982-1986 average prices of African to China was U.S.$538/kg horn imported while the price for Asian U.S.$10,998/kg.23 Although have attributed the demand for rhino horn to aphrodisiac there is no clinical properties, research to support this and this use is not noted in TCM texts. as a cardiotonic Rhino horn is prescribed or antipyretic with average doses of 1-2 g for rhino suggested, including water buffalo horn,1935 but larger doses (up to 10 g) are required. Saiga antelope (Saiga tar per treatment.18 horn have been Some substitutes horn was in the West we
of deer products is one of the best and most popularly ani employed mal-based TCMs. In China alone, more than 300,000 deer are farmed for antlers and oth er products.9 Antlers of deer (Cervus sp.) are Use known to treat everything from anemia and to The most impotence.35 potent lumbago medicine is said to come from freshly cut antlers in velvet. Epidermal growth factor has been isolated from deer (C. elaphus) antlers in velvet.19 Red deer (C. elaphus) antler in fresh vel vet can cost up to U.S.S 1,000 per kg (pers. used obs.). Fetal deer extract is used to treat "fe male" problems. Musk deer (Moschus mos a cardio chiferus) secretions are considered
tonic.35
Serow (Capricornis kg) or blood (U.S.$4 used for rheumatism ga (Saiga saiga was
sp.) antlers (U.S.S83/ per small bottle) are relief. Demand for sai horn is so great that II of CITES
are used to treat kidney skeletons and sell for U.S.$370/kg, while pan cir golin (Manis sp.) scales help promote culation and lactation.35 Bat stones
Status and trade: The swiftlet genus Col localia has 30 species of birds which make
This content downloaded from 62.151.65.108 on Mon, 30 Sep 2013 05:35:50 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
secretion their nests using a mucilaginous as Nests of cement.25 of sublingual glands for human four species have been harvested use, but the most prized are those of the and Ger swiftlet (C.fuciphaga) Edible-nest both of which main's swiftlet (C. germani), are comprised entirely of saliva.22 Both of these species are distributed along coasts in 8 g southeast Asia. An average nest weighs and 1991 imports to Hong Kong alone
that may be of compounds value, epidermal therapeutic including growth factor20 as well as a potent "co-mi index of togen that can enhance the mitotic A Con stimulated lympho maximally contain several
cytes."19
Other birds Raptor claws have been sold as a sedative while red junglefowl (Gallus sp.) claws are owls used to treat swollen throats.25 Whole are used to treat migraines and convul
sions.19
Reptiles
and Amphibians
are used in TCM extensively. Reptiles Entire bodies of Viperidae (minus the head) are steeped in alcohol and used as sedatives or antirhuematics.35 The plastron of turtles or the carapace of tortoises are used to treat are used to treat kidney diseases.35 Geckos impotence.19
Invertebrates
as an from cicada are employed Moltings Earth and antispasmodics.35 tipyretics worms spp.) are used to treat (Lumbricus or stroke paralysis, while cen convulsions to treat fright, tipedes are used in remedies shock.35 traumatic and tetanus,
This content downloaded from 62.151.65.108 on Mon, 30 Sep 2013 05:35:50 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
MAINKA AND MILLS-TCM AND WILDLIFE 199 are needed. Local education cam centivies, paigns to inform residents about the status resources and how to con of their wildlife serve them are critical. Public education about the problems facing wildlife species that are used and about alternatives which are needed. may be available must National governments to promote enforce legislation use of habitats and discourage and sustainable create
LITERATURECITED
1. Anon. extraction 1991. from The living study of raising bears and bile bears. Proc. 2nd East Asia Bear 195-196. (English Status Biodiversity: World Conservation United marches abstr.) of the Mon
Conf., Harbin, China, Pp. 2. Anon. 1992. Global Earth's Living Resources.
overexploi tation of wildlife. While many governments in place, enforce already have legislation ment is not yet a priority. Internationally, treaties such as CITES can help to control in endangered species. of the countries in many Unfortunately, volved in trade are not members of CITES or have limitations, both financial and lo cross-border trade in implementing the treaty. domestic in individ Adjunct legislation ual countries to control trade in wildlife, such as the Pelly amendment?legislation that allows the United States to place trade sanctions that acts in against any country gistical, contravention of international wildlife trea ties such as CITES?can also be useful.
Star Press, Beijing, China. (196). New 4. Baum, un 1993. Asia's J., and C. Goldstein. tamed business. Far Eastern Econ. Rev. 19 August: A. Gamble, and T.Kaptchuk. Medicine Materia Medica. 1993. Eastland Eth ef J.
Press, Seattle, Washington. 6. But, P. P., L. Lung, and Y. Tarn. 1990. of rhinoceros horn. I. Antipyretic nopharmacology fects of rhinoceros I. C, on horn 30: the and other animal horns. Ethnopharmacol. 7. Chestin, liminary Unpublished 8. Good, industry Malaysian 9. Gui, data 157-168.
and A. V. Poyarkov. 1993. Pre trade in Russia. illegal wildlife 1989. Birds'nest in Sarawak. Pan July 1969. and and Chi use Parts
report. L., and P. M. H. Wong. and swiftlet conservation Forestry X., Conference,
Kuantan,
(Paper unpublished)
management strategy. Proc. na. P. 126. and D. Gong. 1991. Conservation for Asiatic black bear?challenge 2nd East Asia Bear Conf., Harbin, and medical Trade of Bear
assistance with alter Finally, devising or substitutes derived from native medicines com non-endangered species or synthetic is imperative. pounds It is estimated that full implementation of the Biodiversity Convention in the de billion.2 veloping world would cost U.S.S20 the revenue from 2 years' illegal Therefore, trade in wildlife could pay the costs of con this industry serving the resource on which this revenue will obvi depends. However, for use by conser ously not be available vationists. commu Therefore, continuing nication com between the conservation and the TCM community is essen munity tial. Only with and informed willing participation by both sides will sustainable use of wildlife in traditional medicine be achieved.
Switzerland. Gland, 14. Jia, Z., andZ. Zhou. secretion of black bear. Proc.
Bear Conf.
China. P. 198. (English abstr.) Harbin, 15. Kang, and J. B. Sigurdsson. N., C. J. Hails, 1991. Nest construction and egg laying in edible-nest swiftlets and the implications for harvesting. Ibis 133: 170-177. 16. Karnow, S. 1990. Mao and China?A Legacy of Turmoil, 3rd ed. Penguin Books USA, New York, New York. 17. Kemf,E., Gland, and P. Jackson. 1994. Wanted Alive!:
This content downloaded from 62.151.65.108 on Mon, 30 Sep 2013 05:35:50 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
200
J. D.
1976.
Chinese
Herbs-Their Swindon
Bot Book
and Pharniacodynamics. Hong Kong. Pp. 303-315. Company, Y. C. 1987. Animal 19. Kong, medicines. Proc. AAZV.
tional
X.
T.
medicines
Traditional
A glimpse of the tradi of animal In: Viet origin. Medicine. The Gioi Publishers, 1993. Bone in Taipei. TRAF
Pp. 450-451. T. T. Yip, K. M. Y. C, W. M. Keung, 20. Kong, 1987. Evidence that and M. H. Ng. Ko, S. W. Tsao, in swiftlet's factor is present epidermal (Col growth 87B: 221-226. Biochem. localia) nest. Comp. Physiol. 21. Lau, A., C. Ngai, 1993. and D. S. Melville. for sale in Hong Kong. Study on bear gall bladders
Proc. 2nd East Asia Far East, USSR. P. 137. (Abstr.) China.
1986. Chinese Herbal Medicine. Reid, D. P. Shambhala Boston, Massachusetts. Publications, 1995. Ursodeoxycholic acid is not 36. Sano, M. only a substitute for bear bile. Proc. Int. Symp. Trade
Kingdom. bridge, N. 23. Leader-Williams, in Rhino Horn: A Review. Cambridge, 24. Ma, Animals. United Y. Q.
TRAFFIC
Heilongjiang
1984. Smil,V. in China. Destruction York. P. 245. 39. Wang, Y., 1991. and J. Li. with
E.
(Chinese)
1956. The 25. Marshall, A. J., and S. J. Folley. in edible-nest swiftlets of nest-cement (Collo origin 126: 383-389. Soc. Lond. calia spp.). Proc. Zool. E. B. 1992. The trade and uses of wild 26. Martin,
Zou, bear
Proc. 2nd East Asia Bear bronchopneumonia. P. 165. (English abstr.) China. Conf., Harbin, P. 40. Woolrich, 1993. The shame of China's tiger 1August. trap. South China Morning Post, Hong Kong, use of bears. Proc. 41. Xing, Z. 1991. The medical 2nd East Asia Bear Conf., Harbin, China. P. 167. (En glish abstr.) test of 1991. Contrast 42. Zhang, Z., and G. We. of black of cholecystitis three different therapeutics China. bears. Proc. 2nd East Asia Bear Conf., Harbin, P. 167. (English abstr.) 1991. The therapeutic 43. Zhang, Z., and G. Wu. of drawing test of subsequent after operation diarrhea bile in live bears. Proc. 2nd East Asia Bear Conf., Har P. 200. (English abstr.) bin, China.
Publications,
This content downloaded from 62.151.65.108 on Mon, 30 Sep 2013 05:35:50 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions