CONTENTS

Chapter No. Chapter 1 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 Topic BASIC ASPECTS OF PROTECTION Principles of Relays Some Terms Associated it! Protecti"e Relayin# $%nctions of Protecti"e Relayin# T!e Re&%irements of Protecti"e Relayin# 'lassification of Relays (peratin# Principles of different types of Relays Testin# and )aintenance of Protecti"e Relays Test *&%ipment Chapter 2 2.1 2.2 Chapter 3 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 Chapter 4 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.3 4.10 Static Relyin# 'oncepts PROTECTIVE RELAYS +ntrod%ction '!aracteristic '%r"e MOTOR PROTECTION ("erload Protection Sin#le P!asin# Protection or ,n-alance Protection S!ort 'irc%it Protection Stallin# Protection ./oc0 Rotor Protection1 2ifferential Protection *art! Protection ,nder"olta#e Protection TRANSFORMER PROTECTIONS Transformer Protections Protection a#ainst +nternal $a%lts Principles of Protection System 4as 2etection ("er 5eatin# Protection ("er '%rrent 6 *art! /ea0a#e Protection Percenta#e 7ias 2ifferential Protection ("er 8olta#e Protection ("er $l%9in# Protection ("er 2ifferential Protection Page No.

'5APT*R 5 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.3 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 5.14 '!apter 6 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 '!apter 7 7.1 7.2 7.3 '!apter 8 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 '!apter 3 3.1 3.2 3.3

GENERATOR PROTECTION +ntrod%ction Stator *art! $a%lts Rotor *art! $a%lt Protection 4enerator +ntert%rn $a%lt Protection 4enerator :e#ati"e P!ase Se&%ence '%rrent Protection 4enerator /oss of *9citation Protection 4enerator )inim%m +mpedance Protection 4enerator 2ifferential Protection 4enerator ("erall 2ifferential Protection 4enerator Re"erse Po er Protection 4enerator ("er $re&%ency Protection 4enerator ,nder $re&%ency protection 4enerator T!ermal ("erload Protection 4enerator ("er"olta#e Protection BUS ZONE-PROTECTION AN BREA!ER BAC!UP PROTECTION +ntrod%ction 7%s 7ar Protection ; Re&%irements Types of 7%s-ar Protection /o +mpedance Sc!eme .7iased1 /ocal 7rea0er 7ac0<%p ./771 Protection ISTRIBUTION FEE ER PROTECTION +ntrod%ction ,nit Protection +2)T ("erc%rrent 6 *art! $a%lt Protection LINE PROTECTION " ISTANCE SC#EMES$ +ntrod%ction )eas%rin# '!aracteristics =ones of Protection P!ase Se&%ence 'omparator for )5( '!aracteristic Additional feat%res of 2istance Relays 'arrier Aided Sc!emes CURRENT AN VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER +ntrod%ction '%rrent Transformers 8olta#es Transformers LOCAL

'!apter 10 10.1 10.2 10.3

IGITAL RELAYING +ntrod%ction P' 7ased Sc!emes for Testin# Protecti"e Relays Testin# of a 2istance Relay

C#APTER % 1

BASIC ASPECTS OF PROTECTION

1&' Pr()*(p+e, -. Re+a/, *"ery electrical e&%ipment is desi#ned to ill flo t!ro%#! t!e or0 %nder specified normal conditions. +n case of s!ort circ%its> eart! fa%lts etc.> an e9cessi"e c%rrent indin#s of t!e connected e&%ipment and ca%se !ic! ill dama#e t!e indin#. +n a po er a-normal temperat%re rise> do n of t!e %nit> !ic!

station> non<a"aila-ility of an a%9iliary> at times> may ca%se total s!%t ill res%lt in !ea"y loss of re"en%e.

So> in modern po er system> to minimise dama#e to e&%ipment t o alternati"es are open to t!e desi#ner> one is to desi#n t!e system so t!at t!e fa%lts cannot occ%r and ot!er is to accept t!e possi-ility of fa%lts and ta0e steps to #%ard a#ainst t!e effect f t!ese fa%lts. Alt!o%#! it is possi-le to eliminate fa%lts to a lar#er de#ree> -y caref%l system desi#n> caref%l ins%lation coordination> efficient operation and maintenance> it is o-"io%sly not possi-le to ens%re cent percent relia-ility and t!erefore possi-ility of fa%lts m%st -e accepted? and t!e e&%ipment are to -e protected a#ainst t!e fa%lts. To protect t!e e&%ipment> it is necessary to detect t!e fa%lt condition> so t!at t!e e&%ipment can -e isolated from t!e fa%lt dama#e. T!is f%nction is performed -y a relay. +n ot!er constantly meas%rin# t!e electrical &%antities> it!o%t any ords> protecti"e

relays are de"ices t!at detect a-normal conditions in electrical circ%its -y !ic! are different %nder !ic! may c!an#e !ic! normal and fa%lty conditions. T!e -asic &%antities

d%rin# fa%lty conditions are "olta#e> c%rrent> fre&%ency> p!ase an#le etc. 5a"in# detected t!e fa%lt relay operates to complete t!e trip circ%it res%lts in t!e openin# of t!e circ%it -rea0er t!ere-y isolatin# t!e e&%ipment from t!e fa%lt. T!e -asic relay circ%it can -e seen in Fig. No. 1.1

FIG& 1&1 1&1 S-0e Ter0, A,,-*(ate1 2(th Pr-te*t(3e Re+a/()4 Circuit Breaker: electrical circ%it +t is an (n<load s itc!> %sed to ma0e or -rea0 an !en it is carryin# c%rrent.

Current Transformer: T!ese are %sed for meas%rin# protection p%rpose since it is not possi-le to meas%re "ery !i#! c%rrents directly> it ill -e

stepped do n means of a c%rrent transformer to a-o%t 5A or 1A and t!e secondary c%rrent ill -e meas%red and monitored.

Voltage Transformer: T!ese are also %sed for meas%rin# p%rpose and protecti"e relayin# p%rpose. Since it is not practica-le to meas%re and monitor !i#! and e9tra !i#! "olta#es t!ey are stepped do n to 1108 and t!e secondary "olta#e is meas%red and monitored. Relay time: +t is t!e inter"al -et een t!e occ%rrence of t!e fa%lt and clos%re of relay contact. Pick Up: T!e operation of relay is called relay pic0 %p. Pic0 %p "al%e or t!e le"el is t!e "al%e of operatin# &%antity at !ic! t!e relay operates.

Back up Protection: A protecti"e system intended to s%pplement t!e main protection in case t!e latter s!o%ld -e ineffecti"e> or to deal t!e operatin# @ones of t!e main protection. Protected Zone: +t is t!e portion of a po er system protected -y a #i"en protecti"e system. Protecti e !ear: T!ese are t!e apparat%s> incl%din# protecti"e relays> c%rrentA"olta#e transformers and ancillary e&%ipment for %se in a protecti"e system. Protecti e Relay: A relay is desi#ned to initiate disconnection of a part of an electrical installation or to operate a arnin# si#nal> in case of a fa%lt or ot!er a-normal condition in t!e installation. A protecti"e r3elay may incl%de more t!an one %nit electrical relay and accessories. Rating: +t is t!e nominal "al%e of an ener#i@in# &%antity 'T 6 8T secondary ratin#. Resetting Value: +t is "al%e of t!e c!aracteristic &%antity at relay ret%rns to its initial position. !ic! t!e !ic! appears in it! fa%lts in t!ose parts of t!e po er system t!at are not readily incl%ded in

t!e desi#nation of a relay. T!e nominal "al%e %s%ally corresponds to t!e

Unrestricted Protection: +t is a protection system defined @one of operation and time #radin#.

!ic! !as no clearly

!ic! ac!ie"es selecti"e operation only -y

Basic "ym#ols: T!e e&%ipments t!ey represent are as #i"en -elo B "r. No. 1. "ym#ol $%uipment 'irc%it 7rea0er 2. +solator S itc!in# &unction d%rin# normal and

a-normal conditions> interr%pt t!e fa%lt c%rrents. 2isconnectin# a part of t!e system from li"e parts %nder no lad conditions. 2isc!ar#in# t!e "olta#e on t!e lines to t!e eart! after disconnection. 2i"ertin# t!e !i#! "olta#e s%r#es to eart!. Steppin# do n t!e c%rrent for meas%rement> protection> and control. Stoppin# do n t!e "olta#e for t!e p%rpose of protection> meas%rement and control.

3.

*art! s itc!

4.

/i#!tin# Arrestor

5.

'%rrent Transformer

6.

8olta#e Transformer

1&2

F5)*t(-), -. pr-te*t(3e Re+a/()4 To so%nd an alarm> so t!at t!e operator may ta0e some correcti"e action andA or to close t!e trip circ%it of circ%it -rea0er so as to disconnect a component d%rin# an a-normal fa%lt condition s%c! as o"erload> %nder "olta#e> temperat%re rise etc. To disconnect t!e fa%lty parts as &%ic0ly as possi-le so as to minimise t!e dama#e to t!e fa%lty art. *9B +f a #enerator is disconnected immediately after a indin# fa%lt only a fe coils need replacement. +f t!e fa%lt is s%stained> it may -e -eyond repaira-le condition.

To locali@e t!e effect of fa%lt -y disconnectin# t!e fa%lty part from t!e !ealt!y part> ca%sin# least dist%r-ance to t!e !ealt!y system.

To disconnect t!e fa%lty part as &%ic0ly as possi-le to impro"e t!e system sta-ility and ser"ice contin%ity.

1&3

The re65(re0e)t, -. pr-te*t(3e re+a/()4 Spee17 Protecti"e relayin# s!o%ld disconnect a fa%lty element as &%ic0ly as possi-le> in order to impro"e po er system sta-ility> decrease t!e amo%nt of dama#e and to increase t!e possi-ility of de"elopment of one type of fa%lt into ot!er type. )odern !i#! speed protecti"e relayin# !as an operatin# time of a-o%t 1 cycle. Se+e*t(3(t/7 +t is t!e a-ility of t!e protecti"e system to determine t!e point at !ic! t!e fa%lt occ%rred and select t!e nearest of t!e circ%it !ic! leads to clearin# of fa%lt it! minim%m or no -rea0ers> trippin# of dama#e to t!e system.

Se),(t(3(t/7 +t is capa-ility of t!e relayin# to operate relia-ly %nder t!e act%al minim%m fa%lt condition. +t is desira-le to !a"e t!e protection as sensiti"e as possi-le in order t!at it s!all operate for lo &%antity. "al%e of act%atin#

Re+(a8(+(t/7 Protecti"e relayin# s!o%ld f%nction correctly at all times %nder any 0ind of fa%lt and a-normal conditions of t!e po er system for system. !ic! it !as -een desi#ned. +t s!o%ld also not operate on !ealt!y conditions of

S(0p+(*(t/7 T!e relay s!o%ld -e as simple in constr%ction as possi-le. As a r%le> t!e simple t!e protecti"e sc!eme> less t!e n%m-er of relays> and contacts it contains> t!e #reater ill -e t!e relia-ility. ill increase directly it! t!e

E*-)-0/7 'ost of t!e protecti"e system s!o%ld stri0e a -alance -et een and economy.

de#ree of protection re&%ired. 2ependin# on t!e sit%ation a desi#ner it! t!e de#ree of protection re&%ired

1&4

C+a,,(.(*at(-) -. Re+a/, $lectromagnetic attraction type relays: T!ese relays operate -y t!e "irt%e of a pl%n#er -ein# dra n into a solenoid or an armat%re -ein# attracted to ards t!e poles of an electroma#net. *nduction type Relays: +n !is type of relay> a metal disc or c%p is allo ed to rotate or mo"e -et een t o electro<ma#nets. T!e fields prod%ced -y t!e t o ma#nets are displaced in space and p!ase. T!e tor&%e is de"eloped -y interaction of t!e fl%9 of one of t!e ma#nets and t!e eddy c%rrent ind%ced into t!e discA%p -y t!e ot!er. Thermal Relay: T!ey operate d%e to t!e action of !eat #enerated -y t!e passa#e of c%rrent t!ro%#! t!e relay element. T!e strip consists of t o metals !a"in# different coefficients of e9pansions and firmly fi9ed to#et!er t!ro%#!o%t t!e len#t! so t!at different rates of t!ermal e9pansion of t o layers of metal ca%se t!e strip to -end !en c%rrent is passed t!ro%#! it.

'.(.' )epending upon their principle of operation they are classified as:

"tatic Relays: +t employs discrete electronic components li0e diodes> transistors> @enners> resistorsAcapacitors or +nte#rated circ%its and %se electronic meas%rin# circ%its li0e le"el detectors> comparators> inte#raters etc. to o-tain t!e re&%ired operatin# c!aracteristics. +o ing Coil Relays: +n t!is relay a coil is free to rotate in ma#netic field of a permanent ma#net. T!e act%atin# c%rrent flo s t!ro%#! t!e

FIG& 1&3

coil. T!e tor&%e is prod%ced -y t!e interaction -et een t!e field of t!e permanent ma#net and t!e field of t!e coil. '.(., Relays can #e classified depending upon their application also. ("er "olta#e> o"er c%rrent and o"er o"er po er relays> in ta0es place "al%e. !ic! operation !en t!e "olta#e> c%rrent or po er rises a-o"e a specified

,nder "olta#e> %nder c%rrent %nder fre&%encies lo operation ta0es place -elo a specified "al%e.

po er relays> in

!ic!

!en t!e "olta#e> c%rrent fre&%ency or po er fall !ic! operation occ%rs !en t!e

2irectional or re"erse po er relaysB +n direction of t!e applied po er c!an#es.

2istance RelaysB +n t!is type> t!e relay operates "olta#e and c%rrent c!an#e -eyond a specified limit.

!en t!e ratio of t!e

2ifferential RelaysB (peration ta0es place at some specific p!ase or ma#nit%de difference -et een t o or more electrical &%antities.

'.(.- Relays can also #e classified according to their time of operation I),ta)ta)e-5, Re+a/7 +n ca%sin# operation. e.()(te t(0e +a4 Re+a/7 T!is operates after a set time la#> d%rin# t!e t!res!old &%antity of t!e parameter is maintained. I)3er,e t(0e +a4 Re+a/7 T!is operates after a set time /a-> d%rin# t!res!old. 1&9 Operat()4 Pr()*(p+e, -. 1(..ere)t t/pe, -. Re+a/,7 T!ese are &%ite commonly %sed relays. Sc!ematic dia#ram of ind%ction disc type relay is s!o n in Fig. No. 1.2 T!e o%tp%t of t!e c%rrent transformer is fed to a lim- of t!e *<s!aped core> t!e second indin# .11 on t!e center !ic! t!e operatin# &%antity of t!e parameter is maintained a-o"e its operatin# !ic! !ic! operation ta0es place after ne#li#i-ly small inter"al of time from t!e incidence of t!e c%rrent or ot!er &%antity

'...' *ntroduction o er current and earth fault relays:

indin# .21 on t!e lim-

FIG& 1&4 FIG& 1&9 is connected to t o conC%nction indin#s on t!e poles of t!e * and , s!aped cores. !ic! in

T!e ma#netic fl%9 across !e air #ap ind%ce c%rrents in t!e disc>

it! t!e fl%9 prod%ced -y t!e lo er ma#net> prod%ces a it! t!e c%rrent fed into !ic! can

rotational tor&%e. A ma#net .31> is %sed to control t!e speed of t!e disc. T!e time of operation of t!e relay "aries in"ersely it -y t!e c%rrent transformer of t!e protected circ%it. T!e permanent ma#net %sed for -rea0in# !as a tendency to attract iron filin#s>

pre"ent operation. So care !as to -e ta0en in Fig. 1.3.

!ile man%fact%rin# t!is type

of relays. Time<c%rrent c!aracteristics ind%ction type relays !as -een #i"en

'..., Balanced Beam Relays: +t consists of a !ori@ontal -eam pi"oted centrally> it! one armat%re attac!ed to eit!er side. T!ere are t o coils one on eac! side. T!e c%rrent in one coil #i"es operatin# tor&%e. T!e -eam is #i"en a sli#!t mec!anical -ias -y means of a sprin# so t!at %nder normal conditions trip contacts ill not ma0e and t!e -eam remains in !ori@ontal position. D!en t!e operatin# tor&%e increases t!en t!e -eam tilts and closes t!e trip contacts. +n c%rrent -alance system -ot! coils are ener#ised -y c%rrent deri"ed from 'TEs. +n impedance relays> one coil is ener#i@ed -y c%rrent and ot!er -y "olta#e. +n t!ese relays t!e force is proportional to t!e s&%are of t!e c%rrent> so it is "ery diffic%lt to desi#n t!e relay. T!is type of relay is fast and instantaneo%s. +n modern relays electroma#nets are %sed in place of coils (See Fig. 1.4.). '...- Permanent / +agnet +o ing / Coil Relays: T!ere are t o #eneral types of mo"in# coil relays. (ne type is similar to t!at of a mo"in# coil indicatin# instr%ment> employin# a coil rotatin# -et een t!e poles of a permanent ma#net. T!e ot!er is> employin# a coil mo"in# at ri#!t an#les to t!e plane of t!e poles of a permanent ma#net. (nly direct c%rrent meas%rement is possi-le FIG& 1&: FIG& 1&; T!e action of a rotatin# coil type is s!o n in t!e Fig. 1.5. A li#!t rectan#%lar coil is pi"oted so t!at its sides lie in t!e #ap -et een t!e t o poles of a permanent ma#net and a soft iron core. T!e passa#e of c%rrent t!ro%#! t!e coil prod%ces a deflectin# tor&%e -y t!e reaction -et een t!e permanent ma#netic field and t!e field of t!e coil (See Fig. 1.5) T!e mo"in# contact is carried on an arm !ic! is attac!ed to t!e mo"in# it! -ot! t!e types.

coil assem-ly. A p!osper -ron@e spiral sprin# pro"ides t!e resettin# tor&%e. +ncreasin# t!e contact #ap and t!%s increasin# t!e tension of t!e sprin# permits "ariation in t!e &%antity re&%ired to close t!e contacts.

Time c%rrent c!aracteristic of a typical mo"in# coil permanent ma#netic relays is s!o n in Fig. 1.6.

'...( 0ttracted armature relays: +t is re&%ired to clear t!e fa%lts in po er system as early as possi-le. 5ence> !i#!<speed relay operation is essential. Attracted armat%re relays !ea"e a coil or an electroma#net ener#ised -y a coil. T!e coil is ener#ised -y t!e operatin# &%antity !ic! may -e proportional to circ%it c%rrent or "olta#e. A pl%n#er or a rotatin# "ane is s%-Cected to t!e action of ma#netic field prod%ced -y t!e operatin# &%antity. +t is -asically sin#le act%atin# &%antity relay. Attracted armat%re relays respond to -ot! A' and 2' &%antities. T!ey are "ery fast in operation. T!eir operatin# time seconds and resettin# time is as lo ill not "ary m%c! it! t!e amo%nt of c%rrent. (peratin# time of t!e relay is as lo as 10<15 m

as 30 m sec can -e o-tained in t!ese

relays. T!ese relays are non<directional and are simple type of relays. *9amples of attracted armat%re type relays are #i"en in Fig. 1.7. '.... Time 1ag Relays: T!ese are commonly %sed in protection sc!emes as a means of time discrimination. T!ey are also fre&%ently %sed in control> delayed a%to< reclosin# and alarm sc!eme to allo time for t!e re&%ired se&%ence of operations to ta0e place> and to meas%re t!e d%ration of t!e initial condition to ens%re t!at it is not merely transient. 8ario%s met!ods are %sed to o-tain a time la# -et een t!e initiation of t!e relay and t!e operation of its contact mec!anism. T!ese incl%des #earin#> permanent ma#net dampin#> friction> t!ermal means or R.'. circ%its. +n some cases t!e time la# in operation of t!e contacts is ac!ie"ed -y a separate mec!anism released -y a "olta#e operated elements. T!e release mec!anism may -e an attracted armat%re or solenoid and pl%n#er. T!e operatin# time of s%c! relay is independent of t!e "olta#e applied to t!e relay coil. (ne of t!e simplest forms of time la# relay is pro"ided -y a merc%ry s itc! in !ic! t!e flo of merc%ry is impeded -y a constriction in t!e merc%ry -%l-. T!e s itc! is tilted -y a simple attracted armat%re mec!anism. T!e time settin# of s%c! a relay is fi9ed -y t!e desi#n of t!e t%-e. Anot!er met!od of o-tainin# s!ort time delays is to delay operation

of a normally instantaneo%s relay -y means of a de"ice

!ic! delays t!e

-%ild %p or decay of t!e fl%9 in t!e operatin# ma#net. T!e de"ice consists of a copper rin# .sl%#1 aro%nd t!e ma#net and can prod%ce delay on pic0%p as ell as delay on reset.

1&:

Te,t()4 a)1 Ma()te)a)*e -. Pr-te*t(3e Re+a/,7 ,nli0e ot!er e&%ipment> t!e protecti"e relays remain it!o%t any operation %ntil a fa%lt de"elops. 5o e"er> for a relia-le ser"ice and to ens%re t!at t!e relay is al ays "i#ilant> proper maintenance is a m%st. /ac0 of proper maintenance may lead to fail%re to operate. +t is possi-le for dirt and d%st created -y operatin# conditions in t!e plant to #et acc%m%lated aro%nd t!e mo"in# parts of t!e relay and pre"ent it from operatin#. To a"oid t!is> relays are to -e cleaned periodically. +n #eneral> o"erload relays sense o"er load -y means f t!ermal element. /oose electrical connections can ca%se e9tra !eat and may res%lt in false operation of t!e relay. To a"oid t!is> all t!e relay connections are to -e ti#!tened e"ery no and t!en.

To confirm t!at t!e relay operation at t!e partic%lar settin# %nder partic%lar conditions for !ic! t!e relay is meant for operatin#> e s!o%ld perform n%m-er of tests on t!e relays. F%ality control is #i"en foremost consideration in man%fact%rin# of relay. Tests can -e #ro%ped into follo in# fi"e classesB 1. Acceptance test 2. 'ommissionin# test 3. )aintenance tests 4. Repair tests 5. )an%fact%rers tests '.2.' 0cceptance test Acceptance tests are #enerally performed in presence of t!e c%stomer in t!e la-oratory or -y t!e c%stomer !imself. T!ese tests fall into t o cate#oriesB 1. Type tests s%c! as 5i#! fre&%ency dist%r-ance> +mp%lse "olta#e test> $ast transient test etc. on ne relays. T!ese tests are carried o%t to

pro"e t!e desi#n and are not recommended for normal prod%ction relays. 2. Ro%tine Tests li0e operatin# "al%e c!ec0> operatin# c!aracteristic on Relays !ic! ere %sed earlier and of pro"en desi#n> re&%irin# only minim%m necessary c!ec0s. After recei"in# t!e relays pac0a#e> it s!o%ld -e "is%ally e9amined for t!e dama#e in t!e transit. T!e follo in# preca%tions are to -e ta0en remo"in# t!e relay ; 'are to -e ta0en not to -end t!e li#!t parts A"oid !andlin# contact s%rface (peratin# mo"ement .disc> armat%re etc.1 is to -e c!ec0ed for free mo"ement after remo"in# t!e pac0in# pieces. 2o not ta0e steel scre dri"ers near t!e permanent ma#net. !ile

'.2., Commissioning Tests: T!ese are t!e field tests to pro"e t!e performance of t!e relay circ%it in act%al ser"ice. T!ese are repeated till correct operations are o-tained. T!ese are performed -y sim%lated tests load c%rrent or operatin# tests '!ec0in# it! t!e secondary circ%its ener#ised from a porta-le test so%rce? or sim%lated tests %sin# primary it! primary ener#ised at red%ced "olta#e. T!e follo in# steps are in"ol"ed in commissionin# tests. irin# on t!e -asis of t!e circ%it dia#ram

'!ec0in# '.T. polarity connections )eas%rin# ins%lation resistance of circ%its. '!ec0in# '.T. Ratios '!ec0in# P.T. ratio> polarity and p!asin# 'ond%ctin# secondary inCection test on relays. 'ond%ctin# primary inCection test '!ec0in# trippin# and alarm circ%its. Sta-ility c!ec0 for -alanced protections li0e differentialAR*$.

'.2.- +aintenance Tests )aintenance tests are done in field periodically. T!e performance of a relay is ens%red -y -etter maintenance. 7asic re&%irements of sensiti"ity> selecti"ity> relia-ility and sta-ility can -e satisfied only if t!e maintenance is proper.

T!e relay does not deteriorate -y normal %se? -%t ot!er ad"erse conditions ca%se t!e deterioration. 'ontin%o%s "i-rations can dama#e t!e pi"ots or -eatin#s. +ns%lation stren#t! is red%ced -eca%se of a-sorption of moist%re? poll%ted atmosp!ere affects t!e relay contacts> rotatin# systems etc.> Relays room> t!erefore> -e maintained d%st proof. +nsects may ca%se mal< operation of t!e relay. Relay maintenance #enerally consists ofB a1 +nspection of contacts -1 $orei#n matter remo"al c1 '!ec0in# adC%stments d1 '!ec0in# of -rea0er operation -y man%al contact closin# of relays. e1 'leanin# of co"er etc. '.2.( +aintenance "chedule: 1. 'ontin%o%s S%per"isionB Trip circ%it s%per"ision> pilot s%per"ision> relay> a%9iliary "olta#e s%per"ision> 7attery s%per"ision> 'T circ%it s%per"ision. 2. Relay fla#s are to -e c!ec0ed and resetted in e"ery s!ift. 3. 'arrier c%rrent protection testin# is to -e carried o%t once in a ee0. 4. Si9 mont!ly inspectionsB Trippin# tests> ins%lation resistance tests> etc. Secondary inCection tests are to -e carried o%t at least once in a year. T!e follo in# tests are to -e performed d%rin# ro%tine maintenanceB I),pe*t(-)7 7efore t!e relay co"er is remo"ed> a "is%al c!ec0 of !e co"er is necessary. *9cessi"e d%st> dirt> metallic material deposited on t!e co"er s!o%ld -e remo"ed. Remo"in# s%c! material t!e relay noted and remo"ed ill pre"ent it from enterin# !en t!e co"er is remo"ed. $o##in# of t!e co"er #lass s!o%ld -e !en t!e co"er !as -een remo"ed. S%c! fo##in# is

d%e to "olatile material -ein# dri"en o%t of coils and ins%latin# materials. 5o e"er> if t!e fo##in# is e9cessi"e> ca%se is to -e in"esti#ated. Since most of t!e relays are desi#ned to operate at 40o'> a c!ec0 of t!e am-ient temperat%re is ad"isa-le. T!e "olta#e and c%rrent carried -y t!e relay are to -e c!ec0ed it! t!at of t!e name plate details.

'.2.. +echanical ad3ustments and *nspection: T!e relay connections are to -e ti#!t> ot!er ise it may ca%se o"er!eatin# at t!e connections. +t ill ca%se relay "i-rations also. All #as0ets s!o%ld -e free from forei#n matter. +f any forei#n matter is fo%nd #as0ets are to -e c!ec0ed and replaced if re&%ired.

'ontact #aps and press%re are to -e meas%red and compared pre"io%s readin#s. /ar#e "ariation in t!ese meas%rements e9cessi"e ear> in !ic! case ali#nment is to -e c!ec0ed for proper operation.

it! t!e

ill indicate

orn contacts are to -e replaced. 'ontacts

'.2.2 $lectrical Tests and 0d3ustments C-)ta*t .5)*t(-)7 )an%ally close or open t!e contacts and o-ser"e t!at t!ey perform t!eir re&%ired f%nction. P(*< 5p7 4rad%ally apply act%atin# &%antity .c%rrent or "olta#e1 to see t!at pic0%p is it!in limits. ill indicate e9cess r-p -5t -r re,et7 Red%ce t!e act%atin# &%antity .c%rrent or "olta#e1 %ntil t!e relay drops o%t or f%lly resets. T!is test friction. Repair tests in"ol"e recali-ration> and are performed after maCor repairs. )an%fact%rers tests incl%de de"elopment tests> type and ro%tine tests. 1&; Te,t E65(p0e)t 4enerally protecti"e #ear is fed from a c%rrent transformer on t!e e&%ipments to -e protected and primary c%rrent inCection testin# c!ec0s all parts of t!e protection system -y inCectin# t!e test c%rrent t!ro%#! t!e primary circ%it. T!e primary inCection tests can -e carried o%t -y means of primary inCection test sets. T!e sets are comprisin# c%rrent s%pply %nit> control %nit and ot!er accessories. T!e test set can #i"e "aria-le o%tp%t c%rrent. T!e o%tp%t c%rrent can -e "aried -y means of -%ilt<in a%to transformer. T!e primary inCection test set is connected to A' sin#le p!ase s%pply. T!e o%tp%t is connected to primary circ%it of 'T. t!e primary c%rrent of 'T can -e "aried -y means of t!e test set. 7y %sin# t!is test one can find at !at "al%e of c%rrent t!e relay is pic0in# %p and droppin# o%t.

'.4.' Primary current in3ection test sets:

'.4., "econdary current in3ection test set: +t c!ec0s t!e operation of t!e protecti"e #ear -%t does not c!ec0 t!e o"erall system incl%din# t!e c%rrent transformer. Since it is a rare FIG& 1&=

occasion for a fa%lt to occ%r in 'T> t!e secondary test is s%fficient for most ro%tine maintenance. T!e primary test is essential ne #i"en in Fig. 1.8. '.4.- Test Benches: Test -enc!es comprise cali-rated "aria-le c%rrent and "olta#e s%pplies and timin# de"ices. T!ese -enc!es can -e con"eniently %sed for testin# relays and o-tainin# t!eir c!aracteristics. 1&= Stat(* Re+a/()4 C-)*ept, Static Relay is a relay in si#nal !ic! t!e comparison or meas%rement of !ic! #i"es a trippin# !en commissionin# a installation> as it c!ec0s t!e entire system. A simple test circ%it is

'.5.' *ntroduction electrical &%antities is done -y stationary net or0 is one in

!en t!e t!res!old "al%e is crossed. +n simple lan#%a#e static relay !ic! t!ere are no mo"in# parts e9cept in t!e o%tp%t de"ice. T!e !ic! may -e

static relay incl%des electronic de"ices> t!e o%tp%t circ%its of

electric> semicond%ctor or e"en electroma#netic. 7%t t!e o%tp%t de"ice does not perform relay meas%rement> it is essentially a trippin# de"ice. Static relay employs electronic circ%its for t!e p%rpose of relayin#. T!e entity "olta#e> c%rrent etc. is rectified and meas%red. D!en t!e o%tp%t de"ice is tri##ered> t!e c%rrent flo s in t!e trip circ%it of t!e circ%it -rea0er. Dit! t!e in"entions of semicond%ctors de"ices li0e diodes> transistors> t!yristors> @ener diodes etc.> t!ere !as -een a tremendo%s leap in t!e field of static relays. T!e de"elopment of inte#rated circ%its !as made an impact in static relays. T!e static relays and static protection !as #ro n into a special -ranc!. '.5., 0d antages of "tatic Relays: T!e static relays compared to t!e electroma#netic relays !a"e many ad"anta#es and a fe limitations.

'.5.- 1o6 Po6er Consumption Static relays pro"ide less -%rden on 'Ts and PTs as compared to con"entional relays. +n ot!er ords> t!e po er cons%mption in t!e meas%rin# circ%its of static relays is #enerally m%c! lo er t!an t!at for t!e electromec!anical "ersions. T!e cons%mption of one milli<8A is &%ite common in static o"er c%rrent relay !ereas as e&%i"alent

electromec!anical relay can !a"e cons%mption of a-o%t 2<3 8A. Red%ced cons%mption !as t!e follo in# merits. a1 -1 c1 d1 e1 'Ts and PTs of less ratin#s are s%fficient T!e acc%racy of 'Ts and PTs are increased Air #aped 'Ts can -e %sed Pro-lems arisin# o%t of 'T sat%ration are a"oided ("erall red%ction in cost '.5.( 7perating time T!e static relays do not !a"e mo"in# parts in t!eir meas%rin# circ%its> !ence relay times of lo impossi-le "al%es can -e ac!ie"ed. S%c! lo relay times are it! con"entional electroma#netic relays.

7y %sin# special circ%its t!e resettin# times and t!e o"ers!oot time can -e impro"ed and also !i#! "al%e of drop off to pic0 %p ratio can also -e ac!ie"ed. '.5.. Compact Static relays are compact. T!e %se of inte#rated circ%it !a"e f%rt!er red%ced t!eir si@e. 'omple9 protection sc!emes may -e o-tained -y %sin# lo#ic circ%its or matri9. Static relays can -e desi#ned it! #ood repeat acc%racies. :%m-er of c!aracteristics can -e o-tained in a sin#le e9ec%tion> %nli0e in case of t!eir *lectro<mec!anical co%nter parts. )ost of t!e components in static relays incl%din# t!e a%9iliary relays in t!e o%tp%t sta#e are relati"ely imm%ne to "i-rations and s!oc0s. T!e ris0 of %n anted trippin# is t!erefore less areas> s!ips> "e!icles> aeroplanes etc. '.5.2 Transducers Se"eral non<electrical &%antities can -e con"erted into electrical &%antities and t!en fed to static relays. Amplifiers are %sed '.5.4 1imitations A5>(+(ar/ 3-+ta4e re65(re0e)t7 T!is disad"anta#e is not of any importance as a%9iliary "olta#e can -e o-tained from station -attery s%pply and con"eniently stepped do n to s%it load re&%irements. !ere"er necessary. it! static relays as compared to electroma#netic relays. So> t!ese can -e applied in eart!&%a0e prone

Static relays are sensiti"e to "olta#e spi0es or "olta#e transients. Special meas%res are ta0en to o"ercome t!is diffic%lty. T!ese incl%de %se of s%r#e s%pressors and filter circ%its in relays> %se of screened ca-les in inp%t circ%its> %se of #al"anically isolated a%9iliary po er s%pplies li0e d.c.Ad.c. con"erters> %se of isolatin# transformers '.T.AP.T. inp%t circ%its etc. '.5.5 Temperature )ependence of "tatic Relays T!e c!aracteristic of semicond%ctors are infl%enced -y am-ient temperat%res. $or e9ample> t!e amplification factor o a transistor> t!e for ard "olta#e drop of a diode etc.> c!an#es T!is it! temperat%re "ariation. as a serio%s limitation of static relays in t!e -e#innin#. Acc%rate ide ran#e of temperat%re. ay t!at c!an#e in it! #ro%nded screens for

meas%rement of relay s!o%ld not -e affected -y temperat%re "ariation. Relay s!o%ld -e acc%rate o"er a
o o

.<20 ' to G50 '1 t!is diffic%lty is o"ercome -y a1 +ndi"id%al components in circ%its are %sed in s%c! a complete relay. -1 Temperat%re compensation is pro"ided -y t!ermistor circ%its. *9tra preca%tion for &%ality control of t!e components !as to -e ta0en. As t!e fail%re rate is !i#!est in early period of components life> artificial a#ein# of t!e components is normally done -y !eat soa0in#. FIG& 1&? FIG& 1&1' '.5.8 1e el )etectors A relay operates !en t!e meas%red &%antity c!an#es> eit!er from its normal "al%e or in relation to anot!er &%antity. T!e operatin# &%antity in most protecti"e relays is t!e c%rrent enterin# t!e protected circ%it. T!e relay may operate on c%rrent le"el a#ainst a standard -ias or restrain> or it may compare t!e c%rrent it! anot!er &%antity of !e circ%it s%c! as t!e -%s "olta#e or t!e c%rrent lea"in# t!e protected circ%it .$i#. 1.31. +n a simple electroma#netic relay %sed as le"el detector> #ra"ity or a sprin# can pro"ide t!e fi9ed -ias or reference &%antity> opposin# t!e force prod%ced -y t!e operatin# c%rrent in electroma#net. +n static relays t!e e&%i"alent is a 2.'. "olta#e -ias. c!aracteristic of component does not affect t!e c!aracteristic of t!e

*.#. +n t!e semicond%ctor circ%it (See Fig. 1.10) t!e transistor is re"erse -iased in normal conditions. :o c%rrent flo s t!ro%#! t!e relay coil %nder fa%lt conditions capacitor -iased and transistor ill -e c!ar#ed to G"e potential at t!e -ase side. ill -e for ard +f t!is potential e9ceeds t!at of t!e emitter> t!e 7<* C%nction comparison is made a#ainst t!e 2.'. fi9ed -ias. '.5.'9Comparators +n order to detect a fa%lt or a-normal conditions of !e po er system> electrical &%antities or a #ro%p of electric &%antities are compared in ma#nit%de or p!ase an#le and t!e relay operates in response to an a-normal relation of t!ese &%antities. T!e &%antities to -e compared are fed into a comparators as t o or more inp%ts? in comple9 relays eac! inp%t is t!e "ectorial s%m or difference of t o c%rrents or "olta#es of t!e protected circ%it> !ic! may -e s!ifted in p!ase or c!an#ed in ma#nit%de -efore -ein# compared. '.5.''Types of comparators: 7asically t!ere are t o types of comparators> "i@. FIG& 1&11 FIG& 1&12 FIG& 1&13 FIG& 1&14 a1 Amplit%de comparators> and -1 P!ase comparator T!e amplit%de comparator compares t!e ma#nit%des of t o inp%ts -y rectifyin# t!em and opposin# t!em. +f t!e inp%ts are A and 7> t!e o%tp%t of t!e comparator is A<7 and t!is is positi"e if A is #reater t!an 7 i.e. if t!e ratio of AA7 is #reater t!an one. T!eoretically> t!e comparison s!o%ld -e p%rely scalar> i.e. t!e p!ase relation of t!e inp%ts s!o%ld !a"e no effect on t!e o%tp%t> -%t t!is is %s%ally so if at least one inp%t is completely smoot!ened as ell as rectified. it! p!ase an#le? its

ill cond%ct t!ere -y trippin# t!e relay. T!%s t!e

T!e p!ase comparator ac!ie"es a similar operation

o%tp%t is positi"e if ar# A<ar# 7 is positi"e i.e. if ar# AA7 is less t!an H

!ere H is t!e an#le determinin# t!e s!ape of t!e c!aracteristic? H I 30 for a circ%lar c!aracteristic. 7ot! types of comparators can -e arran#ed eit!er for direct comparison .instantaneo%s1 or to inte#rate t!eir o%tp%t o"er eac! !alf cycle. 0mplitude Comparators: Fig.1.11 s!o s !o t o c%rrents can -e

compared in ma#nit%de only> %sin# rectifiers and> in fig. 1.16 t o "olta#es are compared. +n c%rrent comparator> t!e rectifiers pro"idin# a limitin# action so t!at t!e relay can -e made more sensiti"e> t!e "olta#e across t!e rectifier -rid#e remains s%-stantially constant and !ence t!e rectifiers and t!e sensiti"e relay are protected at !i#! c%rrents. +n "olta#e comparator> t!e increase of resistance at lo sensiti"e at lo c%rrents. '.5.',Circulating Current Comparator 7peration: :ormally t!e restrainin# c%rrent flo and operatin# c%rrent is @ero t!e flo in Fig. 1.12. FIG& 1&19 FIG& 1&1: T!e "olta#e across t!e restrainin# coil is ;8> across t!e relay ser"es as a -ias in t!e for ard direction of -rid#e 1. if t!e restrainin# c%rrent +r is f%rt!er increased> t!e "olta#e drop t!e relay t!res!old "olta#e of -rid#e 1 and + pat!s fairly flat topped !alf ill rise to a "al%e 8 t> t!e ill t!en cond%ct> t!en t!e c%rrent in t!e indin# of t!e ill -e as s!o n polari@ed relay in t!e -loc0in# direction. +f t!e restrainin# c%rrent is small of res%ltant c%rrent "olta#e ma0es t!e relay less "olta#e and t!e rectifiers are not protected at !i#!

ill -e s!o n in $i#. 1.13. T!e c%rrent t!ro%#! t!e relay consists of a"es as s!o n in Fig. 1.14. ill

The re3er,e (, tr5e (. I- .+-2, a+-)e7 T!e "olta#e drop across relay no -e 8 and t!is

ill -ias t!e restraint rectifier in its for ard direction.

D!en t!e "olta#e drop across t!e relay attains a "al%e 8t> correspondin# to t!e t!res!old "olta#e of t o rectifiers in t!e series> t!e s%rpl%s c%rrent from -rid#e 1 is spilled t!ro%#! -rid#e 2. T!is corresponds to t!e case of i o is #reater t!an ir in t!e Fig. 1.14.

D!en -ot! -rid#es are ener#ised sim%ltaneo%sly t!e relay is responsi"e to small differences -et een io and ir Fig.1.15. Opp-,e1 V-+ta4e C-0parat-r7 +n t!is "olta#e comparator t!e "olta#e drop in t!e resistance connected e9ternally in t!e -rid#e circ%its is compared. T!e c%rrent directions are s!o n in Fig. 1.16. +f t!e t o drops are e&%al no c%rrent ill flo t!ro%#! t!e relay coil and t!e relay ill flo ill not ill flo operate. +f !e t o "olta#es are not e&%al t!en %ne&%al c%rrents t!ro%#! t!e resistances and a c%rrent it!o%t re&%irin# a sensiti"e o%tp%t relay. T!e composite c!aracteristic .ideal1 for t!e relay is s!o n in

t!ro%#! t!e relay coil in a

direction determined -y t!e lar#est "olta#e drop in t!e resistor. T!at is> if t!e drop in t!e resistance of t!e operatin# -rid#e is more t!an t!at of t!e restrainin# -rid#e t!en a c%rrent ill flo in t!e operatin# direction t!ro%#! t!e relay. T!e re"erse is tr%e if t!e drop across t!e restrainin# resistance is more t!an t!e operatin# resistance. Phase Comparators: T!ere are t o main types of static p!ase comparatorsB FIG& 1&1; FIG& 1&1=

a1 T!ose -1 T!ose

!ose o%tp%t is a 2.'. "olta#e proportional to t!e "ector prod%ct !ic! #i"e an o%tp%t !ose polarity depends %pon t!e p!ase

of t!e t o A.'. inp%t &%antitiesB relation of t!e inp%ts. T!e later are sometimes called coincidence type and can -e direct actin# or inte#ratin#. '.5.'-7perating Principles of "tatic Time Current Relays: Fig. 1.17 s!o s t!e -loc0 dia#ram of a static time c%rrent relay. T!e a%9iliary '.T. !as taps on t!e primary for selectin# t!e desire pic0%p and c%rrent ran#e. +ts rectified o%tp%t is s%pplied to a fa%lt detector and an R' timin# circ%it. D!en t!e "olta#e of t!e timin# capacitor !as reac!ed t!e "al%e for tri##erin# t!e le"el detector> trippin# occ%rs. 7peration of a typical static time current relay: T!e c%rrent from t!e main '.T. is first rectified and smoot!ed -y capacitor J'sE and t!en passed

t!ro%#! !e tapped resistor JRsE so t!at t!e "olta#e across it is proportional to t!e secondary c%rrent. T!e spi0e filter R' protects t!e rectifier -rid#e a#ainst transient o"er "olta#es in t!e incomin# c%rrent si#nal> Fig. 1.18. '.5.'(Timing Circuit T!e rectified "olta#e across t!e JRsE c!ar#es t!e capacitor J'tE t!ro%#! resistor JRtE. D!en t!e capacitor "olta#e e9ceeds t!e -ase emitter "olta#e J8tE t!e transistor JT2E in t!e Fig. 1.20 -ecomes cond%cti"e> tri##erin# transistor JT3E and operatin# t!e trippin# relay. Re,ett()4 *(r*5(t7 +n order t!at t!e relay s!all !a"e an instantaneo%s reset> t!e capacitor J'tE m%st -e disc!ar#ed as &%ic0ly as possi-le. T!is is ac!ie"ed -y t!e detector as follo s .$i#. 1.131. T!e -ase of t!e transistor JT1E is normally 0ept s%fficiently positi"e relati"e to emitter to 0eep it cond%cti"e and !ence s!ort circ%itin# t!e timin# capacitor J'tE at KK in Fig. 1.20. D!en a fa%lt occ%rs t!e o"er c%rrent t!ro%#! t!e resistor JRsE ma0es t!e -ase of JT1E ne#ati"e and c%ts it off lea"in# J'tE free to -e c!ar#ed. D!en t!e fa%lt is cleared t!e FIG& 1&1? FIG& 1&2' c%rrent falls to @ero and t!e ne#ati"e -ias on JT1E disappears so t!at J'tE is a#ain s!ort circ%ited and disc!ar#ed immediately. A ea0ness of "ery fast instantaneo%s %nits is t!e tendency to o"er a"es. T!e instantaneo%s %nit can -e made

sensiti"ity on off<set c%rrent

insensiti"e to t!e 2.'. off set component -y ma0in# t!e a%9iliary '.T. sat%rate C%s a-o"e t!e pic0%p c%rrent "al%e and connectin# t!e capacitor and a resistor across t!e rectified inp%t to t!e le"el detector. T!is pre"ents trippin# %ntil -ot! !al"es of t!e c%rrent it! time c%rrent relayin#. --O-a"e are a-o"e pic0%p "al"e. T!at is> %ntil t!e off set !as #one> t!e s!ort delay t!%s entailed is accepta-le

C#APTER % 2 IN UCTION ISC TYPE I MT OVER CURRENT RELAYS

2&1 I)tr-15*t(-) +nd%ction types are most alternatin# fl%9 reacts idely %sed for protecti"e relayin# p%rposes !en in"ol"in# A.'. &%antities. Tor&%e is prod%ced in t!ese relays

it! eddy c%rrents ind%ced in a disc -y anot!er

alternatin# fl%9 of t!e same fre&%ency -%t displaced in time and space. T!ese relays are %sed as o"er c%rrent or eart! fa%lt relay. +n its simplest form> s%c! a relay consists of a metallic disc -et een t!e poles of t o electroma#nets (Fig. 2.1). T!e spindle of t!is disc carries a mo"in# contact contacts !en t!e disc rotates t!ro%#! an an#le !ic! -rid#es t o fi9ed !ic! is adC%sta-le. 7y !ic! is indicated -y a !ic! is free to rotate

adC%stin# t!is an#le t!e tra"el of t!e mo"in# contact can -e adC%sted so t!at t!e relay can -e #i"en any desired time settin# pointer on a time settin# dial. T!e dial is cali-rated from 0 to 1. T!ese fi#%res do not represent t!e act%al operatin# times -%t are m%ltipliers to -e %sed to con"ert t!e time 0no n from !e relay name plate c%r"e into t!e act%al operatin# time. T!e %pper electroma#net !as a primary and a secondary and is pro"ided settin# -rid#e indin#. T!e

primary is connected to t!e secondary of a '.T. in t!e line to -e protected it! tappin#s. T!ese tappin#s are connected to a pl%# !ic! is %s%ally arran#ed to #i"e se"en selections of

tappin#> t!e o"er c%rrent ran#e -ein# 50 per cent to 200 per cent in steps of 25L and t!e eart! fa%lt 10L to 40L or 20L to 80L in steps of 5L 6 10L respecti"ely. T!ese "al%es are percenta#es of t!e c%rrent ratin# of t!e relay. T!%s a relay may !a"e a c%rrent ratin# of 5A> indicatin# t!at it is s%ita-le for %se on 'T !a"in# secondary c%rrent ratin# of 5A -%t settin# of 50L t!e relay 200L it at any it! a o%ld start to operate at 2.5A. Similarly if set at

o%ld start to operate at 10A. T!%s t!e relay can -e set to pic0<%p

FIG& 2&17 NON

IRECTIONAL IN UCTION RELAY IRECTIONAL

FIG&2&27 TIME CURRENT C#RACTERISTIC OF A NON IN UCTION ISC RELAY

2esired tappin# and> t!erefore> c%rrent settin# can -e selected -y insertin# a pin sprin#<loaded Ca s of t!e -rid#e type soccer at t!e appropriate tap "al%e. D!en t!e pin is c!an#in# t!e settin# it!dra n for t!e p%rpose of !ile t!e relay is in ser"ice> t!e relay a%tomatically

adopts a !i#! settin#> t!%s ens%rin# t!at t!e '.T. secondary is not open circ%ited and t!at t!e relay remains operati"e for fa%lts d%rin# t!e process of c!an#in# t!e settin#s. T!e secondary lo er electroma#net as indin# s%rro%nds t!e lim-s of t!e ell. T!e tor&%e e9erted on t!e disc is d%e to t!e

interaction of eddy c%rrents prod%ced t!erein -y means of t!e lea0a#e fl%9 from t!e %pper electroma#net and t!e fl%9 from t!e lo er electroma#netB t!ese t o fl%9ed !a"in# a p!ase displacement -et een t!em. ,., Characteristic Cur e A set of typical time c%rrent c!aracteristic c%r"es of !is type of relay is s!o n in Fig. 2.2. T!e c%r"e s!o s t!e relation -et een t!e operatin# c%rrent in terms of c%rrent settin# m%ltiplier alon# t!e 9<a9is and operatin# time in seconds alon# t!e y<a9is. A c%rrent settin# m%ltiplier indicates t!e n%m-er of times t!e relay c%rrent is in e9cess of t!e c%rrent settin#. T!e c%rrent settin# m%ltiplier is also referred to as pl%# settin# m%ltiplier .P.S.).1. T!%s P.S.)I I Primary '%rrent Primary Primary '%rrent Settin# '%rrent Primary Settin# '%rrent

Primary '%rrent Primary '%rrent Settin# M'.T.Ratio D!ere> as is %s%ally !e case> t!e rated c%rrent of t!e relay is e&%al to t!e rated secondary c%rrent of '.T. $rom t!e fi#%re t!e operatin# time> seconds. T!is is sometimes called t!e -asic 3A10 c%r"e. +t is e"ident t!at at t!e same c%rrent settin# -%t t!e time m%ltiplier set at 0.8> t!e time of operation is 2.4 seconds. T!%s o #et t!e act%al tie of operation a#ainst any partic%lar time m%ltiplier settin#> m%ltiply t!e time of operation of t!e -asic c%r"e -y t!e m%ltiplier FIG& 2&3 !en c%rrent settin# m%ltiplier is 10 and !e time m%ltiplier is set at 1> is 3

settin#. T!%s in t!is e9ample t!e time of operation is 3 9 0.8 I 2.4 secs. T!e time c%rrent c!aracteristics of Fig. 2.2 are t!e in"erse definite minim%m time .+.2.).T.1 type since t!e time of operation is appro9imately in"ersely proportional to smaller "al%es of c%rrent and tends to a definite minim%m time as t!e c%rrent increases a-o"e 10 times t!e settin# c%rrent. T!e 2.).T. c!aracteristic is o-tained -y sat%ratin# t!e iron in t!e %pper ma#net so t!at t!ere is practically no increase in fl%9 after c%rrent !as reac!ed a certain "al%e. T!is res%lts in t!e flattenin# o%t of t!e c%rrent time c%r"e. $;ample: An +.2.).T. o"er c%rrent relay !as a c%rrent settin# of 150L

and !ad a time m%ltiplier settin# of 0.5. T!e relay is connected in t!e circ%it t!ro%#! a '.T. !a"in# ratio 500B5 amps. 'alc%late t!e time of operation of t!e relay if t!e circ%it carries a fa%lt c%rrent of 6000 A. t!e relay c!aracteristic is s!o n in $i#. 2.3. "olution: Sec fa%lt c%rrent 6000 9 500 Pl%# Settin# m%ltiplier .P.S.).1 I

I 60A

Actual Current in Relay Setting Current

60 5 xI 1.5

I8

Time from #rap! a#ainst t!is m%ltiplier of 8 I 3.15 sec. (peratin# time I 3.15 9 0.5 I 1.575 sec.

--O--

C#APTER % 3 MOTOR PROTECTION

*lectrical )otor is an important component of an ind%stry. S&%irrel ca#e ind%ction motor is most -elo . 3&1 O3er+-a1 Pr-te*t(-) A motor may #et o"erloaded d%rin# its operation -eca%se of e9cessi"e mec!anical load? .-1 Sin#le p!ase? .c1 7earin# fa%lt. An o"erloaded motor dra s o"erc%rrent res%ltin# in o"er!eatin# of t!e t!ermal o"erload relay indin# ins%lation. A reasona-le de#ree of o"erload protection can -e pro"ided -y 7i<metallic it! settin#> 15L for contin%o%sly rated motor and 40L for lar#e motors. )odern )otor Protection Relays pro"ide a + 2 sensiti"e T!ermal o"erload protection !a"in# a ran#e of e9ponential c%rrentAtime c!aracteristics to matc! it! t!e t!ermal it!stand c!aracteristic of motor. 3&2 S()4+e Pha,()4 Pr-te*t(-) -r U)8a+a)*e Pr-te*t(-) D!en one of t!e s%pply f%se of a 3 p!ase motor -lo s off or a terminal connection comes o%t> sin#le p!asin# at t!e motor may occ%r. +n s%c! case> motor may contin%e to rotate> -%t t!e t o !ealt!y p!ases may dra !i#! c%rrent leadin# to t!ermal stress on t!e ins%lation. 7esides> t!e :e#ati"e P!ase se&%ence .+21 component of t!e %n-alanced c%rrent> prod%ces a re"erse reaction field !ic! c%ts t!e Rotor iron and indin# at appro9imately do%-le t!e speed> t!ere-y ind%cin# do%-le fre&%ency eddy c%rrents> ca%sin# o"er !eatin# of t!e rotor. +2 -ased sin#le p!asin# protection !a"in# +n"erse or definite time delay is %sed to protect !e motor a#ainst !is e"ent%ality. $or small /.T. )otors> sin#le p!asin# pre"entor .%n-alanced "olta#e 82 or c%rrent +2 -ased1 is %sed to detect sin#le p!asin# and isolate t!e defa%ltin# )otor. 3&3 Sh-rt C(r*5(t Pr-te*t(-) A s!ort circ%it in t!e indin# or at t!e terminals of a motor> res%lts in indin# ins%lation. o"erc%rrent and t!%s o"er!eatin#Adama#e to t!e idely %sed in po er stations and ind%stries. To protect t!e motor !ic! are as listed from different fa%lts condition "ario%s protection are pro"ided>

An instantaneo%s !i#! set o"er c%rrent relay

it! a settin# s%fficiently

a-o"e t!e startin#Aloc0ed Rotor c%rrent is %sed for t!is protection. $or contactor controlled motors .%s%ally /.T.)otors of small ratin#s1> t!e s!ort circ%it protection is pro"ided -y t!e -ac0%p f%se in "ie limited -rea0 ratin# of t!e contactor. 3&4 Sta++()4 Pr-te*t(-) "L-*< R-t-r Pr-te*t(-)$ A motor may stall d%rin# its operation -eca%se of e9cessi"e mec!anical load res%ltin# in o"erloadin# of t!e motor. A definite time o"er c%rrent relay> it! a settin# of 1.5;2 times t!e )otor rated c%rrent> is %sed to protect t!e )otor a#ainst stallin# condition. T!e time delay set> is %s%ally a-o"e t!e Acceleration time and -elo t!e stall it!stand time. it!stand time less t!an t!e of t!e

$or !i#! inertia motors> !a"in# safe stall

startin# time> t!e stallin# protection is re&%ired to -e controlled -y a speed s itc!> mo%nted on t!e )otor s!aft. 2%rin# normal acceleration> t!e speed s itc! opens to disa-le t!e stallin# protection> !ereas d%rin# a #en%ine it!in t!e safe stall condition t!e speed s itc! remains closed> t!ere-y ena-lin# !e stallin# protection and disconnects t!e defa%ltin# )otor it!stand time. 3&9 (..ere)t(a+ Pr-te*t(-) To protect t!e motor a#ainst internal fa%lts> differential protection -ased on circ%latin# c%rrent principle pro"ided for lar#e critical motors. T!e differential protection re&%ires '.Ts of identical ratio and ratin#s .'lass PS1 on -ot! line and ne%tral side of t!e )otor for eac! p!ase .i.e. 6 '.Ts in total1. T!e differential relay is %s%ally of !i#! impedance type. 3&: Earth Fa5+t Pr-te*t(-) A motor may s%ffer an eart! fa%lt -eca%se of dama#e to t!e types of eart! fa%lt protections are in "o#%e. a1 Resid%ally connected eart! fa%lt protection it! a settin# of 10L or a-o"e. !ere it is :o time delay is re&%ired e9cept on contactor controlled motors indin# ins%lation. *art! fa%lt may occ%r in t!e connectin# ca-le also. ,s%ally t o

necessary to pre"ent eart! fa%lt element o"er ridin# t!e f%se> for infeeds a-o"e t!e -rea0 ratin# of t!e contactor. T!e relay is> !o e"er> re&%ired to

-e %sed transients.

it! a series sta-ilisin# resistor

!ic! impedes any %n-alance

c%rrent prod%ced d%e to %ne&%al errors in !e 'Ts d%rin# startin# -1 '.7.'.T. operated eart! fa%lt relay lo 3&; it! a settin# of typically 1L> !ere

eart! fa%lts are e9pected> re&%irin# "ery !i#! sensiti"ity.

U)1er3-+ta4e Pr-te*t(-) A red%ced s%pply to a motor !e ill increase motor losses and o"erloadin# of indin#. An +2)T or definite time %nder "olta#e relay operated off 7%s

P.T. is %sed to protect t!e motor> t!e %nder "olta#e relay trips t!e motors connected to t!e 7%s on %pstream s%pply fail%re and eliminates possi-ility of co<incident startin# of all motors to#et!er> !en t!e s%pply is s%-se&%ently restored. T!%s> pre"ents stressin# of t!e s%pply so%rce. 'omposite )otors Protection Relays .'on"entional analo# types1 pro"ide follo in# protection f%nctions. a1 -1 c1 d1 e1 T!ermal o"erload .AlarmATrip1 ; +T5 S!ort circ%it .+S'1 Sin#le P!asin# .+21 *art! $a%lt .+o1 Stallin# .++t1 :%merical "ersions are no f1 #1 !1 Prolon#ed startin# time Too many start /oss of load T!e :%merical "ersions !a"e data ac&%isition capa-ilities and pro"ide %sef%l ser"ice 2ata .s%c! as load c%rrents> +2A+o content in load c%rrent> t!ermal stat%s etc.1> !istoric data fa%lt data on operation. T!ese relays !a"e pro#ramma-le settin#s> pro#ramma-le o%tp%t relays and contin%o%s self monitorin# a#ainst any internal fail%res. a"aila-le !ic! offer follo in# additional

protection f%nctions> -esides t!ose #i"en a-o"e.

--O--

C#APTER % 4 TRANSFORMER PROTECTIONS

4&1 Tra),.-r0er pr-te*t(-), are pr-3(1e1 a1 A#ainst effects of fa%lts in t!e system to connected. -1 A#ainst effects of fa%lts arisin# in t!e transformer itself. (.'., Protections against faults in the "ystem a1 S!ort 'irc%its -1 5i#! 8olta#e> !i#! fre&%ency dist%r-ance c1 P%re *art! $a%lts. (.'.- "ystem "hort Circuits A s!ort circ%it may occ%r across any to p!ases .p!ase to p!ase1 or -et een any one line and eart! ne%tral .p!ase to eart!1. T!e effect is e9cessi"e o"er c%rrent and electro<ma#netic stresses proportional to s&%are of s!ort circ%it c%rrent. $or t!ese type of fa%lts additional reactance and additional -racin# of t!e transformer separate series reactance indin# and end leads is resorted to. T!is reactance may -e incorporated in t!e desi#n itself or it! primary of transformer is pro"ided. !ic! t!e transformer is

(.'.( <igh Voltage <igh fre%uency surges: T!ese s%r#es may -e d%e to arc!in# #ro%nds> s itc!in# operation s%r#es or atmosp!eric dist%r-ances. T!ese s%r#es !a"e "ery !i#! amplit%des> steep a"e front c%rrents and !i#! fre&%encies. 7eca%se of t!is> t!e -rea0do ns of t!e transformer t%rns adCacent to line terminals occ%rs ca%sin# s!ort circ%it -et een t!e t%rns. To ta0e care of t!is> t!e transformer di"ertors. "ystem Voltage =V >R+"? 7.2 N8 12.5 N8 *mpulse oltage 6ithstand le el >Peak alue? 60 N8 75 N8 indin# is to -e desi#ned to it!stand

t!e imp%lse s%r#e "olta#es as specified -elo

and t!en protect it -y s%r#e

33 N8 66 N8 145 N8 245 N8 4'' !V

170 N8 250 N8 550 N8 300 N8 1350 N8

S%r#e di"ertors are pro"ided from eac! line to eart!. T!ese consist of se"eral spar0 #aps in series -rea0do n it! a non<linear resistance. T!is spar0 #ap !en s%r#e reac!es t!e di"ertor and dist%r-ance is disc!ar#ed

to eart! t!ro%#! nonlinear resistance since at !i#! "olta#e di"ertors resistance is lo . T!ese s%r#e di"ertors s!o%ld !a"e rapid response> non< linear c!aracteristics> !i#! t!ermal capacity> !i#! system flo c%rrent interr%ptin# capacity and consistent c!aracteristics %nder all conditions. (.'.. "ystem $arth &aults a1 D!en ne%tral of t!e system is eart!edB < +t represents s!ort circ%it across t!e p!ase. 5ence> same protection as for s!ort circ%it can -e pro"ided. -1 D!en ne%tral is not eart!edB < S%r#e di"ertor #ears in front of transformer is %sed. 4&2 Pr-te*t(-) a4a(),t I)ter)a+ Fa5+t, a1 *lectrical fa%lts i1 ii1 indin#. iii1 i"1 "1 S!ort circ%it -et een t%rns on 58 6 /8 *art! fa%lts on tertiary tertiary indin#. indin# .inter t%rn fa%lts1 indin# or s!ort circ%it -et een t%rn of !ic! ca%se serio%s immediate dama#e -%t are detecta-le -y %n-alance of c%rrent or "olta#e. P!ase to *art! $a%lt or p!ase to p!ase fa%lts on 58 and /8 e9ternal terminals P!ase to eart! fa%lts or p!ase to p!ase fa%lts on 58 6 /8

Pro-lem in tap c!an#er #ear. -1 *ncipient faults: i1 ii1 iii1 T!ese are initially minor -%t s%-se&%ently de"elops

itself res%ltin# into dama#e to t!e transformer. T!ese may -e d%e to ; Poor electrical connection of cond%ctors d%e to -rea0do n of ins%lation of 'oolant fail%re 7loc0ed oil flo ca%sin# local !ot spot on indin#. laminations> core -olt fa%lts> clampin#s> rin#s etc.

i"1

'ontin%o%s %ne"en load s!arin# -et een transformers in parallel ca%sin# o"er!eatin# d%e to circ%latin# c%rrent.

4&3

Pr()*(p+e, -. Pr-te*t(-) S/,te0 Principles %sed are ; i1 ("er!eatin#

ii1 iii1 i"1 "1 "i1 "ii1 "iii1 i91 91

("er c%rrent ,n<restricted eart! fa%lts Restricted eart!<fa%lts Percenta#e -ias differential protection 4as detection d%e to incipient fa%lts ("er fl%9in# Tan0 eart! c%rrent detection ("er "olta#e Tap c!an#er pro-lems. 4&4 Ga, ete*t(-)

a1 7%c!!ol@ relay protection -1 Press%re relief "al"esAs itc!es .for !ea"y internal fa%lts1 (.(.' Buchhol@ Protection T!is is for t o types of fa%lts inside t!e transformer. a1 $or incipient fa%lts -eca%se of ; i1 ii1 'ore -olt ins%lation fail%re S!ort circ%it in laminations

iii1 /ocal o"er !eatin# -eca%se of clo##in# of oil i"1 *9cess in#ress of air in oil system "1 /oss of oil d%e to !ea"y lea0a#e "i1 ,ne"en load s!arin# -et een t o transformers in parallel ca%sin# o"er!eatin# d%e to circ%latin# c%rrent. T!ese #enerate #ases ca%sin# operation of %pper float and ener#ises t!e alarm circ%its. -1 $or serio%s fa%lts inside t!e transformer d%e to ; i1 S!ort circ%it -et een p!ases ii1 Dindin# eart! fa%lts iii1 P%nct%re on -%s!in# i"1 Tap c!an#er pro-lems

T!ese types of fa%lts are of serio%s nat%re and operate -ot! t!e floats pro"ided in t!e -%c!!ol@ relay and trip o%t t!e transformer. (.(., Principles of Buchhol@ Relay 7peration .$i#. 4.11 T!is relay is pro"ided in t!e connectin# pipe from transformer tan0 to conser"ator. T o floats are pro"ided inside t!e relay and are connected to merc%ry s itc!es. :ormally t!e relay is f%ll of oil and in case of #as collection t!e floats d%e to t!eir -%yopancy rotate on t!eir s%pports %ntil t!ey en#a#e t!eir respecti"e stops. +nitially fa%lt de"elops slo ly and !eat is prod%ced locally !ic! -e#ins to decompose solid or li&%id ins%latin# material and t!%s prod%ce inflamma-le #ases. 4as -%--les are collected in relay ca%sin# oil le"el to lo er do n. T!e %pper float rotates as !e oil le"el in t!e relay #oes do n and !en s%fficient oil id displaced t!e merc%ry s itc! contacts close and initiates alarm. $or serio%s fa%lts as descri-ed a-o"e> #as #eneration is more "iolent and t!e oil displaced -y #as -%--les flo s t!ro%#! connectin# pipe to conser"ator. T!is a-normal flo of oil ca%ses deflection of -ot! float and trip o%t t!e transformer. Recently t!e dissol"ed #as analysis tec!ni&%e .#as c!romato#rap!y1 is in %se for pre< detection of type of slo ly de"elopin# fa%lts inside t!e transformer !elps to decide is re&%ired to -e FIG& 4&1 CIRCUIT IAGRAM OF BUC##OLZ RELAY !ic! !et!er t!e transformer maintenanceAinternal inspection

carried o%t or ot!er ise> and t!%s !elps to predict transformer dama#e in f%t%re. (.(.- )issol ed !as 0nalysis T!e inflamma-le #ases dissol"ed in t!e transformer oil are mainly !ydrocar-on #ases .met!ane '54> *t!ane '256> *t!ylene '254. Acetylene '252> Propane> !ydro#en> car-on mono9ide and car-on dio9ide1. Dit! t!e !elp of dissol"ed #as analysis e&%ipment t!e concentration of t!ese #ases in PP) can -e 0no n and can -e cross c!ec0ed it! t!e +S standard. Also it! t!e !elp of Ro#erEs ratio met!od> t!e type of pro-a-le incipient fa%lt can -e C%d#ed and correcti"e action can -e ta0en in ad"ance to pre"ent fail%re of t!e transformer (Ref. Annex.1 &II). 4&9 O3er #eat()4 Pr-te*t(-) Protection is mainly re&%ired for contin%o%s o"er load of t!e transformer.

a1 Protection is -ased on meas%rement of meas%red -y t!ermal ima#e tec!ni&%e.

indin# temperat%re

!ic! is

-1 T!ermal sensin# element is placed in small poc0et located near t!e top transformer tan0 in t!e !ot oil. A small !eater fed fro a c%rrent transformer . indin# temp. '.T.1 in t!e lo er "olta#e terminal of one p!ase> is also located in t!is poc0et and prod%ces a local temp. rise> similar to t!at of main a-o"e #eneral temp. of oil. c1 Dindin# temperat%re !i#! alarmArip is pro"ided t!ro%#! merc%ry s itc!es in t!e indin# temp. indicators. d1 7y t!ermo<meters> merc%ry s itc!es !eat sensin# silicon resistance are also %sed for sensin# t!e temp. rise. e1 T!ermisters are pro"ided manly in t!e dry type transformers for temperat%re sensin#. Temperat%re of 55o a-o"e am-ient of 50o' is #enerally pro"ided for trippin#. 4&: O3er C5rre)t @ Earth +ea<a4e pr-te*t(-) +n case of transformer eart!ed t!ro%#! resistance or eart!ed t!ro%#! impedance. Resistance !rounding: T!e eart! fa%lt c%rrent in fa%lty fa%lt point and is in"ersely proportional to ne%tral resistance. +y I indin# in resistance #ro%nded transformer depends on "olta#e -et een ne%tral and indin# and proportional to copper losses>

(.2.' $arth 1eakage Protection

10kv x p Sq. root of 3.Rn

indin# to -e protected?

D!ere +y is eart! fa%lt c%rrent? PI percenta#e of

N8 ; line to line "olta#e and Rn I :e%tral 4ro%ndin# resistance. S%ita-le eart! fa%lt relay can -e pro"ided across '.T. in t!e ne%tral of t!e transformer dependin# %pon t!e minim%m eart! fa%lt c%rrent to -e detected. *mpedance !rounding: Transformer ne%tral is connected to t!e primary of ne%tral #ro%ndin# transformer. T!e s%ita-le resistance is connected in parallel it! t!e secondary of t!is ne%tral #ro%ndin# transformer. T!e eart! fa%lt relay .ne%tral displacement relay1 is connected across t!is resistance. T!e eart! fa%lt relay can -e set at a-o%t 2.5 percent of ma9im%m ne%tral "olta#e. T!e relay is time delayed for transient free operation.

(.2., 7 er current protection i1 5R' f%ses are pro"ided for small distri-%tion transformer. ii1 ("er c%rrent relays are %sed for po er transformers> considerin# t!e follo in#B a1 +2)T relays s!o%ld -e c!osen -1 2iscrimination -e pro"ided? c1 +nstantaneo%s trip facility for !i#! speed clearance of terminals s!ort circ%it s!o%ld -e pro"ided. d1 Settin# depends on transformer reactance or percenta#e impedance> fa%lts )8A> type of relay %sed. e1 Settin# of o"er c%rrent relays can -e sli#!tly !i#!er t!an rated ; f%ll load c%rrent .say 120 percent of $/1 it! proper discrimination. (.2.- Com#ined o er current and unArestricted $B& Protection (Ref. Fig. 4.2) a1 Typical o"er c%rrentAeart! fa%lt protection is s!o n for a 2eltaA start transformer in Fig. 4.2. -1 +2)T (A' elements on delta and star side> primarily ser"e as -ac0 %p protection a#ainst do nstream s!ort circ%its and are time co<ordinated it! do nstream (A' protections. c1 T!e !i#! set instantaneo%s (A' elements on 2elta side .connected to so%rce1 are pro"ided to detect se"ere terminal s!ort circ%its and &%ic0ly isolate t!e transformer. T!ese are set o"er and a-o"e t!e ma9im%m s!ort circ%it c%rrent infeeds of t!e transformer for star side fa%lts. d1 T!e start side eart! fa%lt protection .+2)T1 ser"es as a -ac0%p a#ainst do nstream eart! fa%lts and is re&%ired to -e s%ita-ly time #raded. T!is can eit!er -e resid%ally connected across t!e p!ase '.Ts or operated off a '.T. in t!e :e%tral *art! connection .stand-y eart! fa%lt relay1. T!e latter is considered to -e ad"anta#eo%s since it can detect star indin# eart! fa%lts> -eside pro"idin# -ac0%p for do nstream it! t!e load it! t!e ma9im%m *A$ c%rrent eart! fa%lts. Since t!e ne%tral '.T. ratio is not tied %p c%rrent> a lo er '.T. ratio consistent stand-y *A$ protection. e1 T!e *A$ protection on delta side is in!erently restricted to delta indin# eart! fa%lts and does not respond to eart! fa%lts on t!e star side> d%e it! circ%it protection of secondary side s!o%ld

limited -y :4R can -e pro"ided. T!is renders #ood sensiti"ity for t!e

to @ero se&%ence isolation pro"ided -y t!e delta connection. T!e delta side *A$ protection> t!erefore> ass%mes t!e form of R*$ FIG& 4&27 COMBINE 'AC AN EAF PROTECTION C!T

FIG& 4&37 RESTRICTE

EAF PROTECTION C!T

protection> ena-lin# sensiti"e settin# and instantaneo%s operation. T!e relay is connected in !i#! impedance mode resistor> as s!o n. (.2.( Restricted $arth &ault Protection: (Ref. Fig. 4.3) a1 R*$ protection is %sed to s%pplement t!e differential protection> partic%larly !ere star ne%tral of t!e transformer is #ro%nded t!ro%#! a ne%tral ro%ndin# resistor to limit t!e eart! fa%lt c%rrent. R*$ protection pro"ides increased co"era#e to t!e star -1 indin# a#ainst eart! fa%lts. and it! a series sta-ili@in#

T!e R*$ protection operates on t!e principle of Nirc!offEs la eart! connection. T!e relay is connected across t!e

re&%ires 'Ts of identical ratio and ratin#s as t!e p!ases and ne%tral parallel com-ination of t!e 'Ts in 5i#! +mpedance mode. c1 $or e9ternal eart! fa%lt> t!e associated 'Ts !a"e dissimilar polarities formin# a series connection. T!%s> t!e res%ltin# c%rrent t!ro%#! t!e relay is ne#li#i-le. $or internal fa%lt> !o e"er> t!e 'Ts !a"e similar polarities> formin# a parallel connection> t!%s addin# %p t!e c%rrent in t!e relay -ranc!. T!is ens%res positi"e operation of t!e relay. 4&; Per*e)ta4e B(a, (..ere)t(a+ Pr-te*t(-)

a1 +n t!is protection> operatin# c%rrent is a f%nction of differential c%rrent. -1 T!e "al%e of restrainin# c%rrent depends on 2nd and 5t! !armonic component of differential c%rrent d%rin# ma#netic inr%s! and o"er e9cited operation. c1 7ias c%rrent is a f%nction of t!ro%#! c%rrent .e9ternal fa%lt c%rrent1 and sta-ili@es t!e relays a#ainst !ea"y e9ternal fa%lt. 4&;&1 Ba,(* C-),(1erat(-) .-r 1(..ere)t(a+ pr-te*t(-) a1 Transformer ratioB t!e c%rrent transformers s!o%ld matc! to t!e rated c%rrents of t!e primary indin#s.

-1 Transfor er !onne"#ionB +n delta star connected transformer> t!e p!ase s!ift of 30o' -et een primary and secondary side c%rrent e9ist. Also @ero se&%ence c%rrent flo in# on t!e star side ill not prod%ce t!e reflected c%rrent in t!e delta on t!e ot!er side. To eliminate @ero se&%ence component on star side t!e c%rrent transformer m%st -e connected in delta and t!e c%rrent transformer of delta side m%st -e connected in start. c1 $or star A star transformer 'Ts on -ot! sides s!o%ld -e connected in delta. d1 +n order t!at secondary c%rrents from t o #ro%ps of 'Ts may !a"e t!e same ma#nit%de .i.e. primary side 'Ts and secondary side 'Ts1. T!e ratio of star connected 'Ts if 5 Amp> t!en t!ose of delta connected #ro%p may -e 5 A S&. Root of 3 I 2.83 Amps. e1 T!e operatin# c%rrent is a appropriate percenta#e of reflected t!ro%#! fa%lt c%rrent in t!e restrainin# .-ias1 coils and t!e ratio is termed as percenta#e slope. f1 (peratin# coil is pro"ided transformer it! "ectors s%m of t!e c%rrents in t!e

indin#s and t!e -ias coil sees t!e a"era#e scaler s%m of

t!e reflected t!ro%#! fa%lt c%rrent. Spill c%rrent re&%ired to operate t!e relay is e9pressed as percenta#e of t!ro%#! c%rrent. #1 T!e relay is also pro"ided it! an %nrestrained differential !i#! set> to !ic! are eno%#! to sat%rate t!e line ill operate in typically one

protect a#ainst !ea"y fa%lts

c%rrent transformers. T!e settin# of t!is !i#! set %nit is 0ept a-o"e t!e ma9im%m in r%s! c%rrent ma#nit%de. T!is cycle for !ea"y internal fa%lts. (.4., 7perating Principles for *nternal fault C e;ternal faults 5r()4 e>ter)a+ .a5+t *-)1(t(-) "thr-54h .a5+t$ (Fig. 4.4)$ '%rrent in pilot ires o%ld pass t!ro%#! !ole of -ias coils and only o%t of -alance c%rrent d%e to mis<matc! ca%sed -y (/T' and '.T. errors FIG& 4&4 FIG& 4&9

Do%ld flo

t!ro%#! operatin# coil. ,nder t!is condition -iasin# effect pre<

dominates and pre"ents t!e relay operation. 5r()4 ()ter)a+ .a5+t,7 (Fig. 4.5) +n t!is case> t!e reflected c%rrent flo s t!ro%#! only one !alf of -ias coil and t!e operatin# coil and -ac0 to 'T ne%tral connection. 5ere t!e operatin# &%antity pre<dominates res%ltin# into operation of t!e relay. 4&= O3er V-+ta4e Pr-te*t(-) a1 T o sta#e protection is pro"ided -1 T!e delayed trip is set at 110 percent of t!e rated "olta#e second time delay .typical1. c1 +nstantaneo%s settin# is 0ept at 115 ; 120 percent of t!e rated "olta#e d1 2%rin# "olta#e fl%ct%ations t!e A8R .A%tomatic 8olta#e Re#%lator1 ta0e care to a"oid o"er "olta#e condition if fl%ct%ations are operatin# limits .for 4enerator step<%p transformer1. 4&? O3er F+5>()4 Pr-te*t(-) a1 T!is protection is commonly %sed for 4enerator Transformers and lar#e inter connectin# transformers in t!e 4rid. -1 T!is condition arises d%rin# a-normal operatin# conditions i.e. !ea"y "olta#e fl%ct%ations at lo er fre&%ency conditions. T!is condition is e9perienced -y t!e transformer d%rin# !ea"y po er s in#s> cascade trippin# of t!e #enerator sets and 5T line in t!e 4rid> interstate system separation conditions and d%e to A8R malf%nctionin# d%rin# start<%p or s!%ttin# do n in case of 4enerator Transformers. c1 T!e po er fre&%ency o"er "olta#e ca%se -ot! stress on ins%lation and proportionate increase in t!e ma#neti@in# fl%9 inside t!e transformer d%e to !ic! t!e iron losses area increased and t!e core -olts #et ma9im%m component of fl%9> t!ere-y rapidly !eatin# and dama#in# its o n ins%lation and coil ins%lation. Red%ction in fre&%ency d%rin# !i#! "olta#e fl%ct%ation !as t!e same effect. FIG& NO& 4&: d1 Transformer s!o%ld -e isolated recommended -y t!e man%fact%rer. it!in one or t o min%tes or as ill it!in its it! t o

e1 T!e core fl%9 O 8Af

!ere 8 ; impressed "olta#e and f ; fre&%ency. 5e

inde9 of o"er fl%9in# is> t!erefore> 8Af. ("er fl%9in# relays !a"in# "aria-le 8Af settin# and time delays are %sed for t!is protection. (.'9 7 erall )ifferential Protection a1 -1 T!is is pro"ided for complete protection of #enerator and #enerator transformer and as s%c! is a compo%nd o"erall differential protection. +n addition to normal differential protection of #enerator> o"erall -iased differential protection relay is connected to protect t!e %nit as s!o n in Fig. 4.6. c1 d1 e1 20L pic0%p and 20L -ias settin# is pro"ided. .T!e "al%es are typical1. T!is is a s%pplementary protection for indi"id%al differential protection of t!e #enerator. ,nit a%9iliary transformers are pro"ided protection --O-it! separate differential

ANNEBURE % I

PERMISSIBLE CONCENTRATIONS OF ISSOLVE GASES IN T#E OIL OF #EALT#Y TRANSFORMER "TRANSFORMERS UNION AG$
!as 5ydro#en )et!ane Acetylene *t!ylene *t!ane 'ar-on mono9ide 'ar-on dio9ide 1ess than four Dear in ser ice 100A150 ppm 50A70 ppm 20A30 ppm 100A150 ppm 30A40 ppm 200A300 ppm 3000A3500 ppm (A'9 years in ser ice 200A300 ppm 100A150 ppm 30A50 ppm 150A200 ppm 100A150 ppm 400A500 ppm 4000A5000 ppm +ore than '9 Dears in ser ice 200A300 ppm 200A300 ppm 100A150 ppm 200A300 ppm 800A1000 ppm 600A700 ppm 3000A12000 ppm

ANNEBURE % II CO E FOR EBAMINING ANALYSIS OF GAS C-1e -. Ra)4e rat('252 '54 '254 '254 '256 H2 0 1 0 1 1 2 0 2 2 0 1 2 ISSOLVE IN MINERAL OIL AS PER CBIP TEC#NICAL REPORT :2& Rat(- -. Chara*ter(,t(* 4a,e, '&1 '&1-1 1-3 3

'ase :o. 0 1

'!aracteristic fa%lt :o fa%lt Partial disc!ar#e of lo ener#y density

0 0 -%t not si#nify< cant 1 1<2

0 1

0 0

Typical *9ample :ormal a#ein# 2isc!ar#e in #as<filled ca"ities res%ltin# from incomplete impre#nation> or s%per<sat%ration

2 3

Partial disc!ar#e of !i#! ener#y density 2isc!ar#e of lo ener#y

1 0

0 1<2

or ca"ita<tion or !i#! !%midity. As a-o"e> -%t leadin# to crac0in# or perforation of solid ins%lation 'ontin%o%s spar0in# in oil -et een -ad connections of different potential. 7rea0do n of

2isc!ar#es of !i#! ener#y

oil -et een solid materials. 2isc!ar#es it! po er -et een indin# or coils

flo or

t!ro%#!. Arcin#<-rea0do n of oil -et een coils to eart!. Selector

T!ermal fa%lt of lo temperat%re .150o'1 T!ermal fa%lt of lo temperat%re ran#e

-rea0in# c%rrent. 4eneral ins%lated o"er!eatin#

cond%ctor

/ocal o"er!eatin# of t!e core d%e to concentrations of fl%9>

150o<300o'

increasin# !ot sot temperat%re "aryin# from small spots in core> s!ortin# lin0s in core. ("er!eatin# of copper d%e to eddy c%rrents> -ad contactsA Coints .pyrolitic car-on formation1 %pto core and tan0 circ%latin# c%rrent. 0 2 2 < do <

T!ermal fa%lt of medi%m temperat%re ran#e 300o<700o'

T!ermal fa%lt of !i#! temperat%re 150o<300o'

C#APTER % 9 GENERATOR PROTECTIONS

9&1 I)tr-15*t(-) 4eneration are desi#ned to r%n at a !i#! load factor for a lar#e n%m-er of years and permit certain incidences of a-normal t!e incidences of a-normal or0in# conditions. T!e mac!ine and its a%9iliaries are s%per"ised -y monitorin# de"ices to 0eep or0in# conditions do n to a minim%m. it! protecti"e relays> !ic! in case of a 2espite of t!is monitorin#> electrical and mec!anical fa%lts may occ%r> and t!e #enerators m%st -e pro"ided fa%lt> &%ic0ly initiate a disconnection of t!e mac!ine from t!e system and> if necessary> initiate a complete s!%t<do n of t!e mac!ine. T!e follo in# are t!e "ario%s types of protections pro"ided for a 200A210 )D 4enerator. 1. Stator #ro%nd .eart!1 fa%lt protection a1 35L stator #ro%nd fa%lt protection -1 100L stator #ro%nd fa%lt protection 2. Rotor eart! fa%lt protection a1 $irst rotor eart! fa%lt protection -1 Second rotor eart! fa%lt protection 3. 4. 5. 6. 4enerator +ntert%rn fa%lt protection 4enerator :e#ati"e p!ase se&%ence protection 4enerator /oss of e9citation protection 4enerator )inim%m +mpedance .)5( -ac0%p1 protection

7. 8. 3. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

4enerator 2ifferential protection 4enerator ("erall differential protection 4enerator Re"erse po er protection 4enerator ("er fre&%ency protection 4enerator ,nder fre&%ency protection 4enerator T!ermal o"erload protection 4enerator ("er "olta#e protection 4enerator o%t of sep .Pole slippin#1 protection FIG& 9&1 FIG& 9&2 FIG& 9&3

9&2

Stat-r Earth Fa5+t,7 +n most co%ntries> it is a common practice to #ro%nd t!e #enerator ne%tral t!ro%#! a 4ro%ndin# Transformer !a"in# a loadin# resistor across its secondary. T!is met!od of eart!in# is called 5i#! +mpedance eart!in# !ere t!e eart! fa%lt c%rrent is limited to 5;10 Amps. T%ned reactor limit t!e #ro%nd fa%lt c%rrent to less t!an 1.0A are also %sed. T!e #enerator #ro%ndin# resistor normally limits t!e ne%tral "olta#e transmitted from t!e !i#! "olta#e side of t!e %nit transformer in case of a #ro%nd fa%lt on t!e 5.8. side to ma9im%m 2<3L of rated #enerator p!ase "olta#e. S!ort circ%its -et een t!e stator normally are diffic%lt to detect> indin# in t!e slots and t!e stator core !ic! !ic!

are t!e most common electrical fa%lt in 4enerators. +ntert%rn fa%lts> ill -e tripped -y t!e stator #ro%nd fa%lt protection. 5.2.1 8.E "tator !round fault Relay for !enerator (Fig.5.1) $or #enerators it! %nit transformer and

ill &%ic0ly de"elop into a #ro%nd fa%lt and

it! !i#! impedance #ro%ndin# it! !armonic imm%nity and

of t!e ne%tral> a ne%tral "olta#e relay of ma9im%m ne%tral "olta#e

independent time delay is %sed. T!e relay is normally set to operate at 5L it! a time delay of 0.3 ; 0.5 second. Dit! indin#. t!is "olta#e settin#> it protects appro9imately 35L of !e Stator +t also co"ers t!e #enerator -%s> t!e lo transformer and t!e !i#! "olta#e "olta#e

indin# of t!e %nit

indin# of t!e %nit a%9. Transformer.

Relay detailsB 64 A A 7 < :e%tral 2isplacement Relay !a"in# +2)T or definite time c!aracteristic. 9&2&2 1''C Stat-r Gr-5)1 .a5+t pr-te*t(-) .-r Ge)erat-r 4ro%nd fa%lts ca%sed -y mec!anical dama#e may occ%r close to t!e #enerator ne%tral. Today t!ere is a distinct trend to ards pro"idin# #ro%nd fa%lt protection for t!e entire stator protection1. T!e principle dia#ram of t!e relay is s!o n in $i#. 5.2. T!e 100L stator #ro%nd fa%lt sc!eme incl%des a 35L %nit .11> .21 !ic! protects t!e rest of t!e stator indin#. !ic! co"ers t!e stator indin# from 5L of t!e ne%tral and a 3rd !armonic "olta#e meas%rin# %nit indin# .100L stator #ro%nd fa%lt

$or #enerators

it! 3rd !armonic "olta#e less t!an 1L> a filter is a"aila-le

it! a dampin# factor of more t!an 100. D!en t!e #enerator is r%nnin# and !ere is no #ro%nd fa%lt near t!e ne%tral> t!e t!ird !armonic "olta#e %nit .21 and t!e "olta#e c!ec0 %nit .41 are -ot! acti"ated and t!e relay contact %sed in alarmAtrip circ%it is open. +f a ro%nd fa%lt occ%rs close to t!e #enerator ne%tral> t!e t!ird !armonic "olta#e %nit ill reset> operatin# relay contact ill close and alarm or trippin# is o-tained. T!e "olta#e c!ec0 %nit is incl%ded to pre"ent fa%lty operation of t!e relay at #enerator standstill or d%rin# t!e mac!ine r%nnin# %p or r%nnin# do n period. 4enerators !ic! prod%ce more t!an 1L t!ird !armonic "olta#e %nder all indin# %p to and incl%din#

ser"ice conditions> can !a"e t!e entire stator

t!e ne%tral point protected -y t!e 100L stator #ro%nd fa%lt relay. 9&3 R-t-r Earth Fa5+t Pr-te*t(-) ":4R1A:4R2$7 T!e field circ%it of #enerator .i.e. rotor indin#1 is a isolated 2.'. circ%it and not eart!ed any !ere. T!e field circ%it can -e e9posed to a-normal mec!anical or t!ermal stresses d%e to "i-rations> e9cessi"e c%rrents or c!o0ed coolin# medi%m flo . T!is may res%lt in a -rea0do n of t!e ins%lation -et een t!e field t!e stress !as -een too !i#!. indin# and t!e rotor iron at one point !ere

A sin#le eart! fa%lt in t!e field

indin# or its associated circ%its> t!erefore>

#i"es rise to a ne#li#i-le fa%lt c%rrent and does not represent any immediate dan#er. +f> !o e"er a second #ro%nd fa%lt s!o%ld occ%r> !ea"y fa%lt c%rrent and se"ere mec!anical %n-alance may &%ic0ly arise and lead to serio%s dama#e. +t is essential t!erefore t!at any occ%rrence of ins%lation fail%re is disco"ered and t!at t!e mac!ine is ta0en o%t of ser"ice as soon as possi-le. :ormally t!e mac!ine is tripped instantly on occ%rrence of second rotor eart! fa%lt. T!ree met!ods are a"aila-le to detect t!is type of fa%lts ; .$irst Rotor eart! fa%lt protection1 64R1. a1 Potentiometer met!od -1 A.'. inCection met!od c1 2.'. inCection met!od 5.3.1 Potentiometer +ethod (Fig. 5.3) +n t!is sc!eme> a center tapped resistor is connected in parallel main field indin# it! t!e indin# as s!o n in $i#. 5.3. T!e center point of t!e resistor is ill prod%ce a "olta#e across t!e relay. T!e ma9im%m "olta#e indin#. indin#> t!is point -ein# at a

connected to eart! t!ro%#! a "olta#e relay. An eart! fa%lt on t!e field occ%rrin# for fa%lts at t!e ends of t!e

A J-lind spotE e9ists at t!e center of t!e field

potential e&%al to t!at of t!e tappin# point on t!e potentiometer. To a"oid a fa%lt at t!is location remainin# %ndetected> t!e tappin# point on t!e potentiometer is "aried -y a p%s! -%tton or s itc!. +t is essential t!at station instr%ctions -e iss%ed to ma0e certain t!at t!e -lind spot is c!ec0ed at least once per s!ift. T!e sc!eme is simple in t!at no a%9iliary s%pply is needed. A relay ade&%ate. T!e potentiometer 5.3.2 it! a settin# 5L of t!e e9citer "olta#e is ill dissipate a-o%t 60 "olts.

0.C. *n3ection +ethod (Fig. 5.4) T!is sc!eme is s!o n in $i#. 5.4. +t comprises of an a%9iliary s%pply transformer> t!e secondary of !ic! is connected -et een eart! and one side of !e field circ%it t!ro%#! an interposed capacitor and a relay coil. T!e field circ%it is s%-Cected to an alternatin# potential at t!e same le"el t!ro%#! o%t> so t!at an eart! fa%lt any !ere in t!e field system rise to a c%rrent ill #i"e !ic! is detected -y t!e relay. T!e capacitor limits t!e

ma#nit%de of t!e c%rrent and -loc0s t!e normal field "olta#e> pre"entin# t!e disc!ar#e of a lar#e direct c%rrent t!ro%#! t!e transformer. FIG& 9&4

FIG& 9&9 T!is sc!eme !as an ad"anta#e o"er t!e potentiometer met!od in t!at t!ere is no -lind spot in t!e s%per"ision of t!e field system. +t !as t!e disad"anta#e t!at some c%rrent capacitance of t!e field ill flo to eart! contin%o%sly t!ro%#! t!e t!ro%#! t!e indin#. T!is c%rrent may flo

mac!ine -earin#s> ca%sin# erosion of t!e -earin# s%rface. +t is a common practice to ins%late t!e -earin#s and to pro"ide an eart!in# -r%s! for t!e s!aft> and if t!is is done t!e capacitance c%rrent ..-.- ).C. *n3ection +ethod (Fig. 5.5) T!e capacitance c%rrent o-Cection to t!e a.c. inCection sc!eme is o"ercome -y rectifyin# t!e inCection "olta#e as s!o n in $i#. 5.5. T!e d.c. o%t p%t of a transformer rectifier po er %nit is arran#ed to -ias t!e positi"e side of t!e field circ%it to a ne#ati"e "olta#e relati"e to eart!. T!e ne#ati"e side of t!e field system is at a #reater ne#ati"e "olta#e to eart!> so an eart! fa%lt at any point in t!e field indin# ill ca%se c%rrent to flo t!ro%#! t!e po er %nit. T!e c%rrent is limited -y incl%din# a !i#! resistance in t!e circ%it and a sensiti"e relay is %sed to detect t!e c%rrent. T!e fa%lt c%rrent "aries ma9im%m. T!e relay m%st !a"e eno%#! resistance to limit t!e fa%lt c%rrent to a !armless "al%e and -e s%fficiently sensiti"e to respond to a fa%lt t!e lo not -e so sensiti"e as to operate end of t!e !ic! at inCection "olta#e may !a"e a fairly !i#! resistance. T!e relay m%st it! t!e normal ins%lation lea0a#e it! fa%lt position> -%t t!is is not detrimental it!stand t!e o%ld -e !armless.

pro"ided t!e relay can detect t!e minim%m fa%lt c%rrent and

c%rrent> ta0in# into acco%nt of t!e !i#! "olta#e to eart! at t!e ne#ati"e indin# and any o"er "olta#e d%e to field forcin# and so on.

..-.( >a? "econd Rotor $arth &ault Protection 2(R, (Fig. 5.5 a) +n t!is test system is replaced -y a replica field system in t!e form of potential di"ider> t o 1N potentiometers in parallel %sed as s!o n in $i#%re 5.5 .a1 it! station 2.'. is it! SD1 at 1 st rotor *A$ position. 'lose

s itc! S1 c!ec0 t!at 1st rotor *A$ relay 8A*) .64R11 operated. FIG& 9&9 a

FIG& 9&9 8 S!ift SD1 to 7alance. (-tain -alance on t!e mA meter .4al"anometers1 -y coarse A fine adC%stment of potentiometer. S!ift SD1 on PTestQ position> c!ec0 operation of relay 64R2 -y closin# s itc! S2 t!%s creatin# an %n-alance !ic! sim%lates second *A$.

..-.( >#? Rotor $arth &ault (Fig. 5.5.%) T!e Sc!eme to detect Rotor *art! $a%lt in case of 7r%s!less e9citation system is s!o n in Fig. 5.5.(%). +n t!is case> Rotor *art! $a%lt relay forms t!e t!ree arms of a -rid#e !ose fo%rt! arm is t!e field indin# capacitance o Rotor -ody. 2%rin# Rotor eart! fa%lt> t!is capacitance #ets s!orted and t!e -rid#e -ecomes %n-alanced operatin# t!e relay. )ain e9citer indin#> rotatin# diodes and 4enerator field indin# is protected -y t!is relay.

9&4

Ge)erat-r I)tert5r) Fa5+t Pr-te*t(-) "?9ADBD C$ (Fig. 5.6) +ntert%rn fa%lts !a"e commonly -een disre#arded on t!e -asis t!at if t!ey occ%r t!ey ill &%ic0ly de"elop into eart! fa%lts. T!is is pro-a-ly tr%e if t!e ill ta0e a little lon#er in t!e re#ion of t!e fa%lt is in t!e slot portion -%t

end connection. An approac! of t!is 0ind is ne"er attracti"e and may -e entirely %nC%stified. T!ere is a possi-ility of t!e mac!ine -ein# "ery serio%sly dama#ed -efore t!e fa%lt e"ol"es to a condition t!at can -e detected -y t!e lon#it%dinal system. )odern medi%m si@e and lar#e si@e t%r-o #enerators !a"e t!e stator indin# desi#ned it! only one t%rn per p!ase per slot. $or t!ese mac!ine indin#. T!e latter is +ntert%rn fa%lts can only occ%r in case of do%-le #ro%nd fa%lts or as a res%lt of se"ere mec!anical dama#e of t!e stator end considered rat!er %nli0ely to occ%r. +t is #enerally considered diffic%lt to o-tain a relia-le protection a#ainst s!ort< circ%itin# of one t%rn if t!e stator per p!ase. $or #enerators it! split ne%trals> t!e con"entional inter<t%rn fa%lt set o"er<c%rrent relay indin# !as a lar#e n%m-er of t%rn

protecti"e sc!eme comprises a time delayed lo

!ic! senses t!e c%rrent flo in# in t!e connection -et een t!e ne%trals of

t!e stator

indin#. T!e fa%lt c%rrent can -e e9tensi"ely lar#e in case of

+ntert%rn fa%lt> !ence t!e time delay m%st -e s!ort> FIG& 9&: FIG& 9&; 0.2 to 0.4 sec and t!e o"er c%rrent relay m%st -e set !i#!er t!an t!e ma9im%m %n-alanced c%rrent in case of e9ternal fa%lts and t!e minim%m %n-alanced c%rrent for sin#le t%rn s!ort circ%it !a"e to -e o-tained from t!e man%fact%rer of t!e mac!ine. 2%e to t!e diffic%lties in o-tainin# a relia-le and sec%re intert%rn protection> it is in most cases omitted. +t is ass%med t!at t!e +ntert%rn fa%lt ill lead to a sin#le p!ase #ro%nd fa%lt at t!e fa%lty spot> and t!e mac!ine ill t!en -e ripped -y t!e #ro%nd fa%lt relay Relay is s!o it!in 0.3 ; 0.4 secs.

for one p!ase only. Similar connections are for ot!er t o

p!ases. Time delay of 200 sec. is pro"ided to a"oid operation of relay in system dist%r-ance condition. 9&9 5.7) D!en t!e #enerator is connected to a -alanced load> t!e p!ase c%rrents are e&%al in ma#nit%de and displaced electrically -y 120o. T!e ampere t%rn a"e prod%ced -y t!e stator c%rrents rotate sync!rono%sly and no eddy c%rrents are ind%ced in t!e rotor parts. ,n-alanced loadin# #i"es rise to a ne#ati"e se&%ence component in t!e stator c%rrent. T!e ne#ati"e se&%ence c%rrent prod%ces an additional ampere t%rn a"e !ic! rotates -ac0 ards> !ence it mo"es relati"ely to t!e rotor at t ice t!e sync!rono%s seed. T!e do%-le fre&%ency eddy c%rrents ind%ced in t!e rotor may ca%se e9cessi"e !eatin#> primarily in t!e s%rface of cylindrical rotors and in t!e damper salient poles. T!e appro9imate !eatin# effect on t!e rotor of a sync!rono%s mac!ine for "ario%s 2 + 2t I %n-alanced fa%lt or se"ere load %n-alance conditions is determined -y t!e prod%ct N> !ere indin# of rotors it! it! t!e rotor Ge)erat-r Ne4at(3e Pha,e ,e65e)*e C5rre)t Pr-te*t(-) "4:$ (FI&.

+2 t

:e#ati"e se&%ence c%rrent e9pressed per %nit of stator c%rrent Time in seconds a constant dependin# on t!e !eatin# c!aracteristic of t!e mac!ine .rotor1 i.e. type of mac!ine and t!e met!od of coolin# adopted for rotor.

.P,1 I N I

T!e capa-ility of mac!ine to

it!stand contin%o%sly %n-alanced c%rrents

is e9pressed as ne#ati"e se&%ence c%rrent in percent of rated stator c%rrent. Typical "al%es for #enerators are #i"en in ta-le. Type of generator +a;. permitted , *,.t A 'ylindrical rotor +ndirectly cooled 2irectly cooled 7 Salient pole rotor 2amper indin# indin# Dit!o%t damper it! 40 40 10 5 30 .5 ; 101 10 .5 ; 81 +a;. permitted continuous *, >E?

Sin#le p!ase and specially t o p!ase s!ort circ%its #i"e rise to lar#e ne#ati"e se&%ence c%rrents. T!e fa%lts are !o e"er> cleared -y ot!er relays in a tie m%c! s!orter t!an t!e operate time of t!e ne#ati"e se&%ence relay. A t o p!ase s!ort circ%it it! fa%lt c%rrent e&%al to 3.46 .2 S&.rt of 31 time

rated #enerator c%rrent implies a ne#ati"e se&%ence c%rrent component e&%al to t ice t!e rate c%rrent .2 p.%.1. 5ence a ne#ati"e se&%ence relay it! t!e settin#. 2 +2t I 10s o%ld trip it! a time delay of

10 I 2.5 sec. 22 *9ample on load dissymetries c%rrents in t!e #enerator are < 1. ,n-alanced sin#le p!ase loads<Traction loads and ind%ction f%rnaces. 2. Transmission line dissymetries d%e to capacitors> non<transposed p!ase ire or open cond%ctors .'.7. pole fail%re1 !ic! #i"e rise to ne#ati"e se&%ence

An open cond%ctor may #i"e rise to a considera-le ne#ati"e se&%ence c%rrent> as a ma9im%m of more t!an 50L of rated mac!ine c%rrent. T!e com-ination of t o or more of t!e a-o"e mentioned dissymetries case #i"e rise to !armf%l ne#ati"e p!ase se&%ence c%rrent> e"en if eac! of t!em #i"es rise to a relati"ely small %n-alance. T!e Fig. 5.7 '.T. and circ%it. 9&: Ge)erat-r L-,, -. E>*(tat(-) Pr-te*t(-) "4'G$ (Fig. 5.8) A complete loss of e9citation may occ%r as a res%lt of ; a. ,nintentional openin# of t!e field -rea0er -. An open circ%it or a s!ort circ%it of t!e main field c. A fa%lt in t!e a%tomatic "olta#e re#%lator .A8R1 field c%rrent is red%ced to @ero D!en a #enerator it! s%fficient acti"e load looses t!e field s%pply> it #oes it! t!e res%lt t!at t!e ill ill%strate t!e

o%t of sync!roni@ation and starts to r%n a sync!rono%sly at a speed !i#!er t!an t!e system> a-sor-in# reacti"e po er .8AR1 for its e9citation from t!e system> operates as an ind%ction #enerator. T!e ma9im%m acti"e po er t!at can -e #enerated sync!ronism it!o%t loss of

!en t!e #enerator losses its e9citation depends on t!e it! salient poles> t!e difference is normally it! an

difference -et een t!e direct a9is and &%adrat%re a9is sync!rono%s reactance. $or #enerators s%fficiently lar#e to 0eep t!e mac!ine r%nnin# sync!rono%sly? e"en acti"e load of 15I25L of rated load. $or cylindrical t%r-o #enerators> t!e direct ad &%adrat%re a9is reactance are practically e&%al> and t!e mac!ine falls o%t of sync!ronism e"en "ery small acti"e load. T!e slip speed increases T!e stator end re#ions and parts of t!e rotor %sed to detect field fail%re is an offset )5( Relay it! t!e acti"e load. ill -e o"er!eated> if t!e it! 30 o lead )TA .4041. it!in t!e Relay it! an e9ternal or it! a

mac!ine is permitted to r%n for a lon# time at !i#!er slip seeds. T!e relay on field fail%re> t!e terminal impedance loc%s mo"es c!aracteristics> ca%sin# operation. T!e relay is %sed -%ilt<in time delay for its transient free operation. FIG& 9&= FIG& 9&?

..2.' 7ut of "tep Protection of !enerator A #enerator may lose sync!ronism operation at a !i#! load it! t!e po er system> it!o%t fail%re of t!e e9citation system. 7eca%se of a se"ere system fa%lt dist%r-ance or it! a leadin# po er factor and !ence a relati"ely !ic! is &%ite different from t!e fail%re of field it! "ide it!in ea0 field. +n t!is condition>

system>. T!e mac!ine is s%-Cect to "iolent oscillations of tor&%e>

"ariations in c%rrent> po er and po er factor. Sync!ronism can -e re#ained if t!e load is s%fficiently red%ced -%t if t!is does not occ%r a fe resync!roni@e. T!e impedance of t!e #enerator meas%red at t!e stator terminals c!an#es mostly !en sync!ronism is lost -y t!e mac!ine. T!e terminal "olta#e ill -e#in to decrease and t!e c%rrent to increase> res%ltin# in a decrease of impedance and also a c!an#e in po er factor. A pole slippin# protection comprisin# of t o o!m relays is %sed to detect o%t of step operation. T!e relay monitors t!e load impedance at t!e mac!ine terminals and operates !en t!e terminal impedance loc%s !ic! corresponds to se&%entially crosses -ot! o!m relay c!aracteristics seconds it is necessary to isolate t!e #enerator and t!en

one pole slip -et een t!e defa%ltin# mac!ine and t!e system. 9&; Ge)erat-r M()(050 I0pe1a)*e "M#O Ba*<$ Pr-te*t(-) "21G1D G2D G3$7 T!e #enerator minim%m impedance protection .or +mpedance -ac0<%p protection1 is primarily pro"ided to protect t!e 4enerator a#ainst %ncleared e9ternal s!ort circ%its on t!e lines emanatin# from t!e station -%s -ars. T!e relay !as an impedance or offset )5( c!aracteristic and is set to co"er !e impedance of t!e lon#est line. T!e 4enerator transformer -ein# deltaAstar> introd%ces a 30o p!ase s!ift on t!e 58 side. To ens%re correct impedance meas%rement of t!e lines> t!e mac!ine "olta#e fed to t!e relay ."ia 4enerator 8.Ts1> is p!ase corrected -y %sin# +nterposin# "olta#e transformers .deltaAstar1 connected in t!e same "ector #ro%p as t!at of t!e 4en. Transformer. T!e relay operation is delayed -y %sin# e9ternal or -%ilt<in timer so as to discriminate it! line -ac0<%p protections.

("er c%rrent type of -ac0<%p protection is also %sed for 4enerator. T!is is %s%ally of "olta#e restraint or "olta#e controlled type !ere t!e "olta#e

inp%t from t!e 4enerator 8.T. is %sed to sensitise t!e o"er c%rrent protection on fa%lt. T!is ens%res Rpositi"e operation e"en t!o%#! t!e s%stained fa%lt c%rrent is less t!an t!e f%ll load c%rrent of t!e mac!ine d%e to t!e effect of armat%re reaction. T!e o"er c%rrent -ac0%p is also set ade&%ate time delay to coordinate 9&= Ge)erat-r it! it! do n stream -ac0%p protections.

(..ere)t(a+ Pr-te*t(-) "=;ADBDC$ (fig. 5.10)

..5.' Principle of 7peration '%rrent transformers at eac! end of t!e protected @one are interconnected -y an a%9iliary pilot circ%it as s!o n in Fig. 5.10. '%rrent transmitted t!ro%#! t!e one ca%ses secondary c%rrent to circ%late ro%nd t!e pilot circ%it it!o%t prod%cin# any c%rrent in t!e relay. A fa%lt it!in t!e protected @one compared c%rrents ill flo ill ca%se secondary c%rrents of opposite relati"e p!ase as in t!e relay> t!%s ener#i@es t!e relay. T!e relay "olta#e !ere ire -et een c%rrent transformer .'T1 and relay. indin# of t!e sat%rated c%rrent

it! t!e t!oro%#! fa%lt condition. T!e s%mmated "al%e of t!ese

settin# is decided from t!e secondary load drop -%y t!e follo in# form%la. 8ma9 I +11 .R'T G R/1 +
11

I Secondary s%-transient s!ort circ%it c%rrent. I resistance of pilot

R/

R'T I resistance of t!e secondary transformer.

T!e relay operatin# "olta#e is set !i#!er t!an 8ma9. T!e minim%m operatin# c%rrent depends mainly on t!e c%rrent settin# of t!e relay> t!e ma#neti@in# c!aracteristics c%rrent of t!e associated 'Ts and 'T Ratio. $or internal fa%lts> t!e fa%lt c%rrent e&%al to or a-o"e t!e minim%m operatin# "al%e of t!e relay> t!e "olta#e across t!e relay #oes %pto t!e FIG& 9&1' $%ll sat%ration "olta#e of t!e 'Ts and t!e relay operates in 10<15 msec. :on<linear Resistor .metrosils1 across t!e differential relay limits t!e "olta#e to a safe le"el. T!e primary operatin# c%rrent is normally -et een 1<5L of rated #enerator c%rrent. T!e relay re&%ires separate 'T cores. T!e differential relay is %s%ally !i#! impedance relay. T!e c%rrent transformers on t!e #enerator ne%tral and t!e line side s!all !a"e identical t%rns ratio and similar ma#neti@in# c!aracteristics. 5ence %nder normal

ser"ice

conditions

and

e9ternal

fa%lts>

it!

%nsat%rated

c%rrent

transformers> t!e "olta#e across t!e relay is ne#li#i-le. 7iased differential relays are also %sed for #enerator differential

protection. T!e operatin# principle is same as t!at for t!e -iased differential protection of transformers. 5o e"er> a moderate -ias .10 to 20L1 is ade&%ate for 4enerator since t!e mismatc! is primarily d%e to 'T errors> %nli0e in case of transformers 4enerator> %nli0e in case of transformers. 9&? Ge)erat-r O3era++ 1(..ere)t(a+ Pr-te*t(-) "=;GT$ (Fig. 5.1) T!is protection is %sed to protect t!e complete -%s of #enerator> #enerator transformer and !i#! "olta#e -%s side of %nit a%9iliary transformer. T!e special feat%res of t!e relay are ; 11 T!ro%#! c%rrent restraint for e9ternal fa%lts 21 )a#neti@in# inr%s! restraint 31 ("er e9citation restraint to co%nteract operation at a-normal ma#neti@in# c%rrents ca%sed -y !i#! "olta#eAlo fre&%ency. !en a !ere (/T' prod%ces ma9im%m mismatc! on end taps. 7esides> inr%s! imm%nity is not re&%ired incase of

T!e ma#neti@in# restraint is re&%ired to 0eep t!e relay sta-le near-y fa%lt on an adCacent feeder is cleared.

2%rin# t!e time of fa%lt> t!e terminal "olta#e of t!e main transformer is practically @ero and after fa%lt clearance i.e. !en t!e circ%it -rea0er of !e fa%lty feeder opens> t!e transformer terminal "olta#e &%ic0ly rises. T!is may ca%se se"ere reco"ery inr%s! c%rrents. T!e FIG& 9&11 FIG& 9&12 inr%s! restraint is also re&%ired from t!e 58 -%s. T!e o"er e9citation restraint is important since t!ere is a possi-ility of o"er "olta#e !en load is s%ddenly disconnected in !ic! t!e differential relay may trip t!e #enerator and t!e "olta#e remains !i#! %ntil t!e a%tomatic "olta#e re#%lator .A8R1 -ro%#!t it -ac0 to t!e normal "al%e. !en t!e %nit transformer is ener#i@ed

T!e relay !as an %nrestrained differential !i#! set %nit. T!e %nrestrained operation m%st -e set !i#!er t!an t!e ma9im%m inr%s! c%rrent of t!e transformer. +t #i"es fast trippin# .10<20m sec.1 T!e 'T and relay connections are s!o n in Fig. 5.11. 9&1' Ge)erat-r Re3er,e P-2er Pr-te*t(-) "32$ (Fig. 5.12) T!is is -asically t!e protection pro"ided for t!e prime mo"er i.e. t%r-ine. +f t!e dri"in# tor&%e -ecomes less s%c! as clos%re of main steam "al"es in case of steam t%r-o #enerator> t!e #enerator starts to net or0. T!e red%ction of steam flo or0 as a sync!rono%s compensator> ta0in# t!e necessary acti"e po er from t!e red%ces t!e coolin# effect on t!e or0 done -y t!e to t%r-ine -lades and o"er!eatin# may occ%r. T!e to r%n as a motor it s!o%ld -e immediately tripped

entrapped steam in t!e t%r-ine is t!en @ero. As #enerator is not desi#ned !en t!e steam flo t!e t%r-ine is stopped and to a"oid dama#e to t!e t%r-ine -lades. T!e #enerator c%rrents remain -alanced motor. $or lar#e t%r-o<#enerator> minim%m po er relay> !en t!e mac!ine is or0in# as a

!ere t!e re"erse po er may -e !en t!e

s%-stantially less t!an 1L> re"erse po er protection is o-tained -y a !ic! normally is set to trip t!e mac!ine acti"e po er o%t p%t is less t!an 1L of rated "al%e. T!e relay contains directional c%rrent relay cos S , !ere S !ic! meas%res t!e prod%ct +M

is t!e an#le -et een t!e polari@in# "olta#e and t!e

c%rrent to t!e relay. T!e scale ran#e %sed is 5<20mA for 1A and 30<120 mA for 5A rated 'T secondary c%rrents. Time delay of 2 seconds is pro"ided. T!e detail connections of 'T and relay are s!o n in Fig. 5.12. 9&11 9&12 Ge)erat-r O3er Fre65e)*/ Pr-te*t(-) Ge)erat-r U)1er Fre65e)*/ Pr-te*t(-) "14AA14TA=1$ T!e 4enerators are desi#ned to #i"e rated o%tp%t at rated terminal "olta#e ad rated fre&%ency. 5ence an operation a-o"e certain limit i.e. G5L and ; 5L of rated fre&%ency is a"oided to protect "ario%s apparat%s in a net or0 and also t!e #enerator and t%r-ine. (peration at lo fre&%ency m%st -e limited> in order to a"oid dama#e to #enerators> #enerator transformers and t%r-ines> .o"er fl%9in# may occ%r if fre&%ency is less t!an rated1. +n practice> prolon#ed #enerator operation at lo !en a mac!ine fre&%ency can only occ%r

it! its local load is separated from t!e rest of t!e

net or0. T!e necessity of %nder fre&%ency protection !as to -e e"al%ated

from 0no led#e of t!e net or0 and c!aracteristics of t!e t%r-ine re#%lator. A time delay of a-o%t 2 seconds is introd%ced in t!e trippin# circ%it to a"oid transient trippin#. 9&13 Ge)erat-r Ther0a+ O3er+-a1 Pr-te*t(-) "91AA91B$ (Fig. 5.13) A #enerator operatin# on a lar#e system %nder contin%o%s s%per"ision is not in m%c! dan#er of accidental o"erloadin#. T!e po er t!at can -e #enerated is limited -y t!e steam prod%ction and !ence can not rise %n< noticed or maintained for any apprecia-le period a-o"e t!e pro#rammed le"el. ("erloads in terms of c%rrent or )8A as distinct from me#a atts are possi-le. 2ependin# on t!e "olta#e re#%lator settin# and type of control relati"e to t!e rest of t!e system> a #i"en #enerator may ta0e a disproportionate s!are of t!e )8AR load on t!e system. ("erloads %pto 1.4 times t!e rated c%rrent are not normally detected -y t!e impedance or o"erc%rrent protection. S%stained o"erloads it!in t!is ran#e are %s%ally s%per"ised -y temperat%re monitors .RT2Aor t!ermoco%ples1. As an additional c!ec0 of t!e stator indin# temperat%re> an acc%rate

t!ermal o"erload relay may -e %sed. Dit! static relay it is possi-le to o-tain t!e s!ort relay time constants re&%ired for ade&%ate t!ermal protection. T!e c%rrent o"erload relay are not e9pected to #i"e e9act meas%rement of t!e indin# temperat%re %nder all conditions. FIG& 9&13 FIG& 9&14 9&14 Ge)erat-r O3er3-+ta4e Pr-te*t(-) "IAII "9?AA9?B$ (Fig. 5.14) 2%rin# t!e startin# %p of a #enerator> prior to sync!roni@ation> !e 4enerator terminal "olta#e is o-tained -y t!e proper operation of t!e a%tomatic "olta#e re#%lator .A8R1. After sync!roni@ation> t!e terminal "olta#e of t!e mac!ine ill -e dictated -y its o n A8R and also -y t!e "olta#e le"el of t!e system and t!e A8RS of near-y mac!ines. +t is not possi-le for one mac!ine to ca%se any apprecia-le rise in t!e terminal "olta#e as lon# as it is connected to t!e system. +ncreasin# t!e field e9citation> o in# to a fa%lt in t!e A8R> merely increases t!e reacti"e )8AR o%tp%t> !ic! ay %ltimately lead to trippin# o t!e impedance relay or t!e 8A5@. Relay. )a9im%m e9citation limit pre"ents t!e rotor field c%rrent and !e reacti"e o%tp%t po er from e9ceedin# t!e desi#n limits. T!is protection is %sed for t!e ins%lation le"el of t!e #enerator stator indin#s. Se"ere o"er "olta#e ill occ%r> if t!e #enerator circ%it -rea0er is

tripped

!ile t!e mac!ine is r%nnin# at f% load and rated po er factor> t!e ill normally -e limited -y a &%ic0 ill occ%r. T!is "olta#e rise ill -e

s%-se&%ent increase in terminal "olta#e o"er to man%al control> o"er "olta#e slo actin# t%r-ine #o"ernor.

actin# A8R. 5o e"er> if t!e A8R fa%lty or at t!is partic%lar time s itc!ed f%rt!er increased if sim%ltaneo%s o"er speedin# s!o%ld occ%r> o in# to a

)odern %nit transformers s!arp and

it! !i#! ma#netic &%alities !a"e a relati"ely it! a 0nee point "olta#e -et een it! a

ell defined sat%ration le"el>

1.2 and 1.25 times t!e rated "olta#e .,n1. A s%ita-le settin# of t!e o"er "olta#e relay is> t!erefore> -et een 1.15 and 1.2 times ,n and definite delay of 1 to 3 sec. An instantaneo%s !i#! set "olta#e relay can -e incl%ded to trip t!e #enerator &%ic0ly in case of e9cessi"e o"er "olta#e follo in# a s%dden loss of load and #enerator o"er speedin#.

GENERATOR PROTECTIONS AT A GLANCE

Protection
Stator *art! $a%lt core 6

Cause
S!ort circ%it in slots -et een indin#. +ntert%rn s!ort circ%it )ec!. or t!ermal dama#e to corona pre"enti"e paint A-normal mec!. or t!ermal stresses d%e to "i-rations> ("erc%rrent> o"er!eatin#. +ntert%rn S!ort 'irc%it ,n-alance loadin#

$ffect
+ns%lation dama#e

Relay
8olta#e Relay

"etting
2<5L of normal ne%tral "olta#e t.d. 0.3 ; 0.5 sec.

Rotor *art! $a%lt +ntert%rn fa%lt :e#ati"e P!ase Se&%ence 4en. /oss of *9en.

< do <

< do <

1<5L of "olta#e inCected.

<do < *9cessi"e rotor !eatin#

2o%-le Primary 'T 6(A' relay (A' Relay .+2 -ased1 +mpedance RelayA(ffset )5( Relay

0.5 to 1.5A 200 ms. to 1 sec. 5<10L of f%ll load c%rrent or as recommended -y man%fact%rer. 2im I 0.59Md p% t.d. 2 sec. (ffsetI0.75 MdEp%

1. ,nintentional (penin# of field -rea0er. 2. An oAc or sAc in field. Dindin#

+nd%ction 4enerator Async!rono%s (peration

3. $a%lt in A8R 4en. )in. impedance P!ase to p!ase s!ort circ%it in stator indin# on 4en. 7%s /8 side for 4TR 58 side of ,AT and %ncleared 4enerator 2ifferential Protection Re"erse Po er Protection /o $or ard Po er ("er $re&%ency ,nder $re&%ency ("er fl%9in# $ail%re of prime mo"er ,pon an electrical trippin# prime mo"er fails to trip S%dden loss of load. '.7. (pens it! t%r-ine (: +ncrease in load )alf%nctionin# of A8R. /oad t!ro <off it! *9citation. (n man%al> %nder fre&%ency ("er /oadin# Protection ("er 8olta#e Protection operation ("erloadin# in<terms of c%rrent or )8A> $ail%re of coolant flo or temp. S%dden loss of load at f%ll load and rated p.f. and A8R fails or c!an#eo"er to man%al and /ocal 7rea0er 7ac0%p #enerator ("erspeed 4'7 fails to trip fa%lts on t!e e"ac%ation lines. +nternal fa%lt

("er!eatin# of rotor and stator end @one )5( Relay 70L of rated 4en. /oad imp. 1A0.7I1.4 times rated c%rrent at rated "olta#e 2ifferential Relay 1<1.5 msec. 1<5L of rated 4en.'%rrent 10<15 msec. )otorin# dama#e to t%r-ine -lades ("er speedin# ("erspeed .)ec!. 2e"ice1 ("er fl%9in# .8Af1 A%9. Speed falls ("er!eatin# of stator iron and transformer iron parts Temp. rise in stator indin# +ns%lation dama#e 2irectional po er relay < do < $re&%ency Relay < do < $re&%ency 2ependent 8olta#e relay Static t!ermal o"er load relay 8olta#e Relay G5L t.d. 2 sec. <5L t.d. 2 sec. ' I 1 to 1.3 F T I 3<5 sec. SetIAm-. Temp. G Temp. rise #i"en on name plate 110L<2 sec. t.d. 115L < 120L +nstt. 0.5L of rated po er. t.d. 2 sec. < do <

*9ternal so%rces feedin# fa%lt

/77 Protection in conC%nction 7%s 7ar protection it!

5<8L. +n Set at 5L t.d. ; 0<20 sec.

C#APTER % : BUS ZONE % PROTECTION AN BREA!ER BAC!UP PROTECTION

:&1 I)tr-15*t(-) Dit! e"er increasin# s!ort circ%it le"els and #ro in# comple9ities of t!e s%pply system> 7%s-ar protection is -ecomin# increasin#ly rele"ant e"en at medi%m "olta#e le"el in +nd%strial 2istri-%tion system. 7esides> maCor +nd%strial installations a-o"e it! !i#! contract demand and #ro t! potential> often #et %tility s%pply at *9tra 5i#! 8olta#e .*581 le"el i.e. 132 N8 and !ere !i#! speed -%s -ar protection is considered essential from of system sta-ility. t!e point of "ie

LOCAL

/ocal -rea0er -ac0%p protection .a#ainst st%c0 -rea0er condition1 t!o%#! more pre"alent in %tility systems can -e applied in ind%strial distri-%tion system at an ad"anta#e. T!is protection #ets as it can s!are common trippin# lo#ic :&2 B5, Bar Pr-te*t(-) - Re65(re0e)t, +t s!o%ld -e sta-le %nder ma9im%m t!ro%#! fa%lt condition approac!in# s itc!#ear -rea0in# capacity. 2.,., <igh "peed 7peration Typical operatin# time ran#e -et een 10<30 msecs. $ast clearance ena-les maintainin# system sta-ility> -esides limitin# e&%ipment dama#e and also ena-les localised isolation of t!e fa%lted 7%s-ar a"oidin# spread disr%ption in t!e system. 2.,.- "electi ity +t s!o%ld -e selecti"e in isolatin# t!e fa%lted -%s-ar> partic%larly in case of m%lti<-%s installations. 6.2.4 T!e protection s!o%ld operate positi"ely for internal fa%lt> despite lon# inter"enin# &%iescent periods> t!e -%s fa%lts -ein# fe er and far apart. 2.,.. "ensiti ity ide it! fa%lt le"el ell it! 7%s 7ar protection it! -%s -ar protection.

2.,.' "ta#ility

T!e protection s!o%ld -e ade&%ately sensiti"e to clear lo partic%larly d%rin# minim%m #eneratin# conditions. 2.,.2 "uita#le for use 6ith moderate C.T. ratings

in feed fa%lts>

T!is is necessary since t!e 'Ts !a"e to !andle !i#! fa%lt c%rrents> case -ein# fa%lts approac!in# s itc!#ear -rea0in# capacity. 2.,.2 Configura#le to different Bus#ar arrangements

orst

T!e -%s-ar arran#ement may %nder#o c!an#es s%c! as sectionalisation and additional circ%its may -e connected in f%t%re. T!e protection s!o%ld -e e9tenda-le to s%c! confi#%ration c!an#es. :&3 T/pe, -. B5, Bar Pr-te*t(-) T!e most commonly %sed -%s -ar protection system areB 11 System Protection co"erin# 7%s-ar 21 2ifferential protection 2.-.' "ystem Protections Co ering Bus#ar T!ese are primarily local or remote -ac0%p protection s%c! as o"er c%rrentAeart! fa%lt relay on feedersAtransformers or distance protection pro"ided on lines. T!e distance protection for e9ample> pro"ides -ac0%p protection to remote -%s-ars in time delayed @one 2 or -ac0%p to local -%s-ars in time delayed @one 3 it! a small re"erse reac!. T!e +2)T o"erc%rrent. *art! fa%lt relays also pro"ide similar -ac0%p protection to t!e connected circ%its a#ainst -%s fa%lts. 5o e"er> t!ese cannot -e considered as primary protection for -%s-ar> -ein# time delayed and non<selecti"e. 2.-., )ifferential Protection T!e differential protection is t!e primary protection for -%s -ar a#ainst -ot! p!ase and eart! fa%lts. Practical -%s differential sc!emes !a"e all t!e in#redient as spelled o%t %nder 6.2 a-o"e. 2.-.,.' 7perating Principle of )ifferential Protection it! 'Ts of

T!e protection %ses a circ%latin# c%rrent arran#ement>

identical ratio and ratin#s on all incomin# and o%t#oin# circ%its !a"in# !eir secondaries connected in parallel .p!ase -y p!ase1 to form a replica of t!e primary -%s -ar arran#ement. T!e differential relay is connected across t!e 'T secondary -%s ires.

$or e9ternal fa%lts> t!e s%mmated inflo -alanced>

from !ealt!y circ%its is e&%al to

t!e o%tflo in# c%rrent from fa%lted circ%it and t!%s t!e c%rrents are it! no differential c%rrent t!ro%#! t!e relay. $or internal fa%lt> of c%rrent into t!e -%s. T!e secondary !o e"er> all 'Ts see inflo

c%rrents> t!erefore> add %p into t!e relay -ranc!. Typical c%rrent distri-%tion for e9ternal and internal fa%lt is s!o n in $i#. 6.3.2.1. T!e a-o"e ill%stration> considers ideal c%rrent transformers it! no errors

!ic! is too simplistic an ass%mption. +n practice> 'Ts !a"e errors and may e9perience %ne&%al sat%ration d%e to remnant fl%9 in t!e core and dissimilarities in t!eir ma#neti@in# c!aracteristics> partic%larly if t!e fa%lt c%rrent is asymmetrical !a"in# a slo ly decayin# d.c. component. T!is may prod%ce transient %n-alance> ca%sin# operation of t!e !i#! speed differential relay. T!e practical differential protection for -%s-ars> circ%m"ent t!is pro-lem eit!er -y ma0in# t!e relay -ranc! !i#! impedance or pro"idin# a t!ro%#! c%rrent -ias> t!ere-y> a%tomatically increasin# !e pic0%p t!res!old of t!e differential relay> a-o"e t!e e9pected %n-alance c%rrent> on t!ro%#! fa%lts. T o types of -%s -ar protection sc!emes are in "o#%eB 1. 5i#! +mpedance 2. /o 2.-.,., 1& +mpedance .7iased1 <igh *mpedance "cheme (Fig. 6.3.2.2) T!e relay -ranc! is made !i#! impedance eit!er -y %sin# a "olta#e operated !i#! impedance relay or -y connectin# an e9ternal series resistor .sta-ili@in# resistor1 in case of c%rrent operated differential relay. FIG& :&3&2&17 CURRENT ISTRIBUTION

FIG& :&3&2&27 TYPICAL C&T& CONNECTION FIG&:&3&2&3 7 C&T& SUPERVISION 2& T!is type of protection re&%ires special class PS 'Ts . it! lo cores are re&%ired for !i#! impedance sc!emes common 'T cores it! ot!er protections. t%rns

ratio errors1 of identical ratio and ratin#s on al circ%its. *9cl%si"e 'T !ic! cannot s!are

3&

5i#! impedance sc!emes are primarily f%ndamental fre&%ency t%rned> o"er c%rrent or o"er "olta#e relays and !ence simple in desi#n and e9ec%tion.

2.-.,.-

"uper ision

T!e differential protection !as a fail safe desi#n. 'onse&%ently> t!e relay -ecomes potentially %nsta-le for any open circ%it or cross connection in t!e 'T secondary of !e associated feeders. T!e maloperation of t!e 7%s-ar protection can -e pre"ented on load %nder t!e a-o"e condition -y settin# t!e pic0 %p t!res!old of t!e differential element o"er and a-o"e t!e ma9im%m loaded circ%it c%rrent. 5o e"er> t!e relay may still maloperate on a t!ro%#! fa%lt> if t!e 'T secondary open circ%it #oes %ndetected. A maloperation of -%s-ar protection co%ld -e catastrop!ic> partic%larly in interconnected system and !ence contin%o%s s%per"ision of 'T secondary is re&%ired as an additional safe#%ard. T!e s%per"ision relay is an A' "olta#e relay> connected across t!e differential relay -ranc!> !a"in# a sensiti"e settin# ran#e .%s%ally 2 ; 14 "olts1 and a fi9ed time delay to pre"ent transient operation on internal fa%lts. T!e relay is connected to so%nd an alarm and s!ort 'T secondary 7%s ires> on operation. Typical circ%it arran#ement for 'T s%per"ision relay is s!o n in $i#. 6.3.2.3. 2.-.,.( Check &eature

Since sta-ility is a "ery critical parameter of -%s-ar protection> additional c!ec0 feat%re is %s%ally pro"ided in !i#! impedance sc!emes to en!ance sec%rity a#ainst possi-le maloperation. T!e c!ec0 feat%re is operated off a separate 'T core on all incomin# and o%t#oin# circ%its connected to t!e -%s and is a "irt%al d%plication of t!e main differential system. T!e contacts of t!e main and c!ec0 FIG& :&3&2&4 "a$7 TEO ZONE C#EC! FEATURE differential relay are connected in series so t!at trippin# is conditioned -y sim%ltaneo%s operation of -ot! for an internal fa%lt t!e c!ec0 @one pro"ides a t o fold ad"anta#e. 1. +t en!ances sec%rity in )%lti<7%s +nstallations -ecomes ine"ita-le for @onal discrimination. !ere 'T s itc!in#

2.

+t ena-les sensiti"e settin# to -e adopted on differential relay t!e ris0 of maloperation condition.

it!o%t

it! 'T open circ%itin# %nder ma9im%m load

A typical 2 @one sc!eme for sectionali@ed -%s-ars ill%strated in $i#. 6.3.2.4.

it! c!ec0 feat%re is

2.-.,..

C.T. "6itching

+n case of m%lti -%s arran#ement .2 7%sA3 7%s arran#ement1> 'T secondaries of incomin#Ao%t#oin# circ%its are re&%ired to -e s itc!ed to form a secondary replica of t!e primary 7%s arran#ement to ac!ie"e @onal discrimination. T!is is done eit!er -y %sin# t!e -%s isolator A%9iliary contacts of indi"id%al circ%its or -y %sin# separate contact m%ltiplication relay of *lectrical reset type as s!o n in t!e $i#. 6.3.2.5. :&4 LOE IMPE ANCE SC#EME "BIASE $ Typical 'T connection for t!e sc!eme is s!o n in $i#. 6.4.0. /o impedance 7%s differential relay is primarily a -iased differential relay !ere t!e t!ro%#! c%rrent -ias .restraint1 increases t!e pic0%p t!res!old of differential relay on e9ternal fa%lt to ens%re sta-ility. T!e lo ot!er protections. Practical lo detectors to en!ance sta-ility. :&9 LOCAL BREA!ER BAC!-UP "LBB$ PROTECTION +n *58 s%-stations> relia-ility of fa%lt detection is en!anced -y pro"idin# d%plicated protections .eit!er )ain 1A)ain 2 or )ain and 7ac0%p Protection1. At t!e %pper end of t!e *58 le"els> t!e 2.'. so%rces for protection are also d%plicated for -etter red%ndancy. FIG& :&3&2&9"a$7 TYPICAL C&T& SEITC#IG ARRANGEMENT FIG& :&4&'7 LOE IMPE ANCE SC#EME "BIASE $ 7esides> t!e control -rea0ers are pro"ided it! d%plicated trip coils. All impedance it! relay is more tolerant to 'T mismatc! and can s!are common 'T core

impedance sc!emes pro"ide 'T sat%ration

2...' *ntroduction

t!ese meas%res> %ndo%-tedly impro"e t!e relia-ility of fa%lt detection and

isolation. 5o e"er> t!e possi-ility of mec!anical fail%res of t!e s itc!#ear or interr%pter flas! o"ers can not -e co"ered -y t!ese means for o-"io%s reasons. A fail%re of t!e -rea0er may t!erefore> res%lt inspite of correct operation of t!e protection and en"er#isation of trip coils. T!is sit%ation can -e corrected -y pro"idin# local -rea0er -ac0%p ./771 or -rea0er fail protection. 2..., 7perating Principle /77 protection comes into operation> only if> t!e -rea0er fails to trip> follo in# ener#isation of its trip coi8l> t!ro%#! t!e circ%it trip relays. T!e main in#redient of /77 protection> is a c%rrent c!ec0 relay initiated -y t!e circ%it trip relays and a follo er timer. T!e c%rrent c!ec0 relay> on initiation> c!ec0 t!e presence of t!e c%rrent in t!e fa%lted circ%it and if it persists -eyond a preset time> proceeds to trip all ot!er circ%its connected to t!e 7%s-ar to !ic! t!e st%c0 -rea0er is connected> t!ere-y> ens%rin# local isolation. Trippin# of remote -rea0er is also initiated t!ro%#! a separate carrier c!annel> in case of line -rea0ers to arrest infeeds from remote end. A typical simplified /77 sc!eme is s!o n in $i#. 6.5.2 to ill%strate its operatin# principle. T!e circ%it protections .)1A)2A7,1 on operation initiate '7 trippin# and sim%ltaneo%sly tri##er /77 c%rrent c!ec0 relay -y e9tendin# 2'. T!e /77 protection> t!erefore> #ets initiated on operation of t!e circ%it protection and !ence does not re&%ire any time co<ordination it! t!e circ%it protections. 7esides a m%c! sensiti"e settin# can -e pro"ided in t!e c%rrent c!ec0 relay> independent of t!e circ%it loadin#s. Typical settin# ran#e for t!e c%rrent c!ec0 relay and follo er timer and recommended settin#s are #i"e -elo . 0pplication Current check relay Range Re"o en( e( 4enerator 'irc%it All ot!er circ%its .T$RsA/inesA7% s 'o%plers etc. 5 ; 80L 20 ; 320L Se##ing 5L 20L 0.1 ; 1 secs. 0.1 ; 1 secs. &ollo6er Timer Range Re"o en( e( Se##ing 0.2 secs 0.2 secs.

FIG& :&9&2"a$7 TYPICAL LBB SC#EM ACA C CIRCUITS

FIG& :&9&2"8$7 FIG& :&9&37 COMBAINE BUS BAR PROTECTIONALBB

A more sensiti"e settin# is #enerally adopted for 4enerator application> in "ie of t!e fact t!at a st%c0 -rea0er sit%ation for certain a-normal c%rrent infeeds. conditions li0e motorin#> may in"ol"e "ery lo

2...- Com#ined Tripping 1ogic for 1BBBBus Bar Protection D!ere 7%s-ar protection is contemplated> t!e /77 sc!eme can s!are common trip lo#icAtrippin# relays +nstallation. 2...( "etting Criteria for 1BB Timer T!e /77 time delay is primarily infl%enced -y t!e trippin# time of t!e -rea0er and t!e reset time of t!e c%rrent c!ec0 relay on correct trippin# of t!e -rea0er. 7esides> ade&%ate safety mar#in is also to -e allo ed. T!e timin# criteria is e9plained on a time scale -elo . it! 7%s-ar protection. A typical com-ined 7%s-ar protectionA /77 sc!eme is s!o n in $i#. 6.5.3 of 2 7%s

T))* I T'7 G T2( G T) < TP, D!ere T))* < /77 $ollo er timer settin# T'7 < 7rea0er Trippin# time T2( < 2rop off time of c%rrent c!ec0 relay TP, < Pic0 %p time of c%rrent c!ec0 relay T) < Safety )ar#in ,s%ally a time delay of 200 msecs. +s adopted co<ordination it! remote -ac0 %p protection. !ic! allo s s%fficient time

- -O- -

;&
;&1

ISTRIBUTION FEE ER PROTECTION

I)tr-15*t(-) +nd%strial Po er 2istri-%tion systems ma0e e9tensi"e %se of ca-le feeders for e9ample> -et een capti"e #eneration 7%s or J4rid S%pply 7%sE> to load centersAPo er control centers. T!ese feeders are often radial or some times form part of a rin# main systems. D!ile +2)T o"er c%rrentAeart! fa%lt protection is mostly %sed for radial distri-%tion feeders partic%larly in t!e tail end %nit type protections> s%c! as pilot sometimes %sed on critical feeders. T!e %nit protections are !i#!ly selecti"e> sensiti"e and fast in operation> -%t do not !a"e any -ac0 %p capa-ilities. T!e +2)T protection on t!e contrary> are simple and economical -%t slo er in operation to necessitate time coordination -et een adCacent sections for selecti"e trippin#s. +2)T relays> !o e"er> pro"ide e9cellent -ac0%p protection to t!e do n stream system. ire protection are also

;&2

U)(t Pr-te*t(-) T!e principle of %nit systems as first esta-lis!ed -y )er@ and Price. T!is f%ndamental differential system !a"e formed t!e -ases of may !i#!ly de"eloped protecti"e arran#ements for feeders and many ot!er plant e&%ipments. T o forms of different sc!emes are a"aila-le. a1 'irc%latin# '%rrent System -1 7alanced "olta#e system

4.,.' Circulating Current "ystem +n t!is arran#ement c%rrent transformers of identical ratio and ratin#s are pro"ided at eac! end of t!e protected @one and are interconnected -y secondary pilots as s!o n in $i#. 7.2.1.a1. $or e9ternal fa%lts> t!e t o end 'Ts see e&%al inflo and o%tflo

prod%cin# a circ%latin# c%rrent -et een t!e '.T. secondary and pilots> it! no differential c%rrent t!ro%#! t!e relay. $or an in<@one fa%lt> !o e"er> t!e secondary c%rrents !a"e a additi"e polarity and> !ence t!e s%mmated c%rrent flo s t!ro%#! t!e relay> ca%sin# operation. FIG& ;&2&1"a$7 CIRCULATING CURREN SYSTEM

FIG&;&2&2 "a$7 BALANCE

VOLTAGE SYSTEM

FIG& ;&2&3"a$7 TYPICAL SUMMATION C&T& +n practice> %ne&%al sat%ration of t!e 'Ts can ca%se increased spill c%rrent t!ro%#! t!e relay on e9ternal fa%lts> prod%cin# insta-ility. T!e pro-lem is normally o"ercome -y ma0in# t!e relay -ranc! P!i#! impedanceQ -y addin# series sta-ili@in# resistor. 4.,., Balanced Voltage "ystem +n -alance "olta#e system> t!e 'T secondary o%tp%ts are opposed for t!ro%#! fa%lt so t!at no c%rrent flo s in t!e series connected relay. An in< @one fa%lt !o e"er> prod%ce a circ%latin# c%rrent ca%sin# operation. T!e arran#ement is s!o n in Fig. 7.2.2.(a). +n t!e a-o"e arran#ement> e9ternal fa%lt circ%it condition as no secondary c%rrent o%ld ineffect ca%se a 'T open o%ld flo . To a"oid e9cessi"e it! non<ma#netic #aps to indin# t!erefore

sat%ration of t!e core> t!e core is pro"ided

a-sor- t!e ma9im%m primary m.m.f. T!e secondary T!e in!erent 'T errors and pilot capacitance

o%ld prod%ce an e.m.f. and can -e re#arded a "olta#e so%rce. o%ld prod%ce s%-stantial !ic! spill c%rrent t!ro%#! t!e relay on t!ro%#! fa%lt> ca%sin# insta-ility. T!e pro-lem is o"ercome -y pro"idin# a t!ro%#! c%rrent -ias .restraint1 fa%lt c%rrent> t!ere-y ens%rin# sta-ility. 4.,.- "ummation 0rrangement +n 3 p!ase systems> independent protection can -e pro"ided for eac! p!ase> %sin# p!ase comparison of t!e t o end c%rrents. T!is o%ld !o e"er> re&%ire a minim%m 4 core pilot addin# %p to t!e cost. An alternati"e is to com-ine t!e separate p!ase c%rrents into a sin#le &%antity for comparison o"er a pair of pilots. T!is is ac!ie"ed -y %sin# s%mmation c%rrent transformers. A typical s%mmation '.T. is s!o n in Fig. 7.2.3 (a) T!e interp!ase section of t!e s%mmation #reater n%m-er of t%rns. T!e a-o"e s%mmation arran#ement -alanced as o%ld prod%ce o%tp%t for -ot! indin# .i.e. A<7 6 7<'1 %s%ally indin# .'<:1 !a"in# !a"e e&%al n%m-er of t%rns and t!e ne%tral end increases t!e differential pic0%p appro9imately proportional to t!e t!ro%#!

ell as %n-alanced fa%lts. )oreo"er> t!e relay offers different

sensiti"ities for different types of fa%lts dependin# %pon t!e p!ases in"ol"ed. +n t!e s%mmation arran#ement ill%strated> t!e associated relay ill !a"e !i#!est sensiti"ity for A<' and A<: fa%lts. 4.,.( "uper ision of Pilots T!e pilot circ%its are s%-Cected to "ario%s !a@ards !ic! can ca%se open circ%it or s!ort circ%it of t!e pilot cores. D!ile o"er!ead pilots are "%lnera-le to storms> -%ried pilots may -e dama#ed d%rin# e9ca"ation. T!e pilot fail%re may lead to eit!er mal<operation or non<operation of t!e protection and !ence contin%o%s s%per"ision of t!e !ealt!iness of !e pilots -ecome necessary. T!is is ac!ie"ed -y inCectin# a small d.c. c%rrent t!o%#! t!e pilot from one end and monitorin# its presence at t!e ot!er end -y ener#i@in# an a%9iliary relay. T!e a%9iliary relay resets in t!e e"ent of any discrepancy in t!e pilots and so%nds an alarm. A small time delay is introd%ced to pre"ent transient operation d%e to primary system fa%lts> ca%sin# momentary dip in t!e a%9iliary s%pply. ("erc%rrent c!ec0 feat%re may also -e incorporated to pre"ent trippin# on load in t!e e"ent of a pilot open circ%it condition as it may lead to insta-ility.

;&3

I MT O3er*5rre)t @ Earth Fa5+t Pr-te*t(-) D!ile at t!e lo er end of t!e distri-%tion system .partic%larly at lo 8olta#e /e"els1> f%ses or series connected trip coils operatin# on S itc!in# de"ices> are %sed for s!ort circ%it protection. +2)T o"er c%rrentAeart! fa%lt relay find As ide application at medi%m "olta#e le"els. implies> +2)T relays !a"e an +n"erse timeAc%rrent

t!e name

c!aracteristic .i.e. T!e operatin# time is in"ersely proportional to t!e c%rrent1 and a 2efinite )inim%m Time .2)T1 for !i#! m%ltiples of settin# c%rrent. T!e timeAc%rrent c!aracteristic is %s%ally represented on a lo#arit!mic scale and #i"es t!e operatin# time at different m%ltiples of settin# c%rrent for t!e ma9im%m PTime )%ltiplier Settin#Q .T)S1. T!e T)S is contin%o%sly adC%sta-le #i"in# a ran#e of timeAc%rrent c!aracteristic. 4.-.' *)+T Characteristic Variations and their 0pplications T!ere are different "ariations of +2)T '!aracteristics. T!ese are

i1 Standard +n"erse ii1 8ery in"erse iii1 *9tremely +n"erse i"1 /on# in"erse And

t I 0.14A.10.02<11 t I 13.5A.+<11 t I 80A.+2<11 t I 120A.+<11

D!ere t I Relay operatin# time .seconds1 + I '%rrent .as m%ltiple of Pl%# settin#1

Fig. 7.3.1(a) s!o s t!e a-o"e c!aracteristic at t!e ma9. time m%ltiplier settin# of +.( D!ile standard +n"erse '!aracteristic co"ers maCority of !e applications> "ery in"ese c!aracteristic is partic%larly %sef%l !ere t!ere is a s%-stantial red%ction in t!e fa%lt c%rrent as t!e distance from t!e po er so%rce increases. *9tremely +n"erse c!aracteristic is partic%larly s%ita-le in #radin# it! f%ses .t!e operatin# time -ein# in"ersely proportional to t!e it! t!e f%se s&%are of t!e c%rrent> t!e c!aracteristic eminently matc!es

c!aracteristic1. /on# +n"erse c!aracteristic is primarily %sed for o"erload protection or eart! fa%lt protection in resistance #ro%nded systems. T!e +2)T relays pro"ide -ot! time and c%rrent #radin# to ac!ie"e discrimination -et een s%ccessi"e sta#es in t!e distri-%tion system. 4.-., !rading +argin T!e time inter"al .#radin# mar#in1 -et een adCacent relay for selecti"e operation depends %pon follo in# factors. i1 ii1 iii1 i"1 'irc%it 7rea0er trippin# time ("er s!oot time of t!e relay Relay timin# errors Safety )ar#in #i"es typical allo ance to -e made for t!e a-o"e factors. FIG& ;&3&1"a$&7I MT C#ARACTERISTICS FIG&;&3&3&1 "a$ $+ Relay 7.5 0.05 0.1 "tatic Relay 5.0 0.03 0.05

T!e ta-le -elo

Timin# *rror .L1 ("er S!oot .Sec1 Safety )ar#in .Sec1

A s%ita-le #radin# mar#in can -e calc%lated as follo sB T2 I .2*RA1001 9 t G T'7 G To G TS) D!ere t2 I time inter"al -et een adCacent relays t I Relay nominal operatin# time *R I L Timin# error as #i"en -y man%fact%rer T'7 I 'irc%it 7rea0er trippin# time .seconds1 Te I Relay o"er s!oot .seconds1 TS) I Safety )ar#in .seconds1 Typically a #radin# mar#in of 0.3 o 0.4 second is considered ade&%ate. 4.-.-.' *)+T relays supplemented #y <igh set *nstantaneous o er current elements Partic%larly on transformer feeders or lon# distri-%tion feeders connected to stron# so%rces !ere t!ere is a s%-stantial red%ction in t!e fa%lt infeed for fa%lts -eyond t!e protected section> !i#! set instantaneo%s o"er c%rrent element is often incorporated it! t!e +2)T o"er c%rrent relay. T!e !i#! set element is set o"er and a-o"e t!e infeeds for fa%lt -eyond t!e protected e&%ipmentAsection s%c! t!at it remains sta-le for s%c! fa%lts> fa%lts !ile at t!e same time> offers !i#! speed clearance for close %p it!in t!e section.

A typical e9ample for 5i#! set o"er c%rrent application is #i"en in Fig. 7.3.3.1(a). 5.S. oAc settin# at A I 1.3 9 3000 I 3300 Amp .primary1 I 6.5 Amp .secondary1 T!e relay t!%s remains sta-le for fa%lts -eyond station> P7Q> -%t offer instantaneo%s clearance for close %p fa%lts in section A<7. T!e initial fa%lt c%rrent may -e asymmetrical it! slo ly decayin# d.c. o%ld

offset. To ena-le close settin# a-o"e t!e steady sate t!ro%#! fa%lt c%rrent> t!e !i#!est element s!o%ld imm%ne to t!e d.c offset. S%c! imm%nity is defined in terms of transient o"er reac! !ic! s!o%ld -e lo . Relays it! less t!an 5L transient o"er<reac! are a"aila-le. T!e !i#! set %nit also impro"es o"erall #radin# as t!e +2)T relays are no re&%ired to -e time coordinated %p to !i#!est settin# c%rrent and not %pto t!e ma9im%m s!ort circ%it c%rrent close to relayin# point.

4.-.-.,

)irectional *)+T Relays in -ot! direction at t!e relay location>

D!en fa%lt c%rrent can flo

directional +2)T o"er c%rrentAeart! fa%lt can -e %sed at an ad"anta#e to ens%re selecti"e trippin#. ,s%ally a separate directional element is pro"ided !ic! controls t!e operation of t!e +2)T o"er c%rrent relay. T!e !ic! t!e relati"e it! reference to t!e directional %nit is -asically a po er meas%rin# de"ice in direction or p!ase of t!e fa%lt c%rrent is c!ec0ed system "olta#e. Typical 'TA8T inp%t connection and 8ector dia#ram for directional o"er c%rrent and eart! fa%lt relay is s!o n in Fig. 7.3.3.2 a+% and Fig. 7.3.3.2 "+(. Referrin# to A p!ase element> t!e "olta#e coil fl%9 la#s t!e inp%t "olts P8acQ -y 45o> !ereas t!e c%rrent coil fl%9 is in p!ase it! c%rrent +A. Since t!e tor&%e is f%nction of S" 9 S1 sin a> ma9im%m tor&%e ill -e prod%ced !ere S" I "olta#e coil fl%9> S1 I !en a I 30o. T!e ma9im%m tor&%e 8A -y 45o .+AE1. T!e operational

c%rrent coil fl%9 and a I An#le -et een t!e t o interactin# fl%9es> ill> t!erefore -e reali@ed "ector dia#ram. !en +A la#s

ran#e of t!e directional element

ill -e 45o lead to 135o la# as s!o n in !e

4.-.-.1$

Typical 0pplications of )irectional *)+T Relay Para++e+ Fee1er,7 2irectional relays are %sed at t!e recei"in# end feeders to ens%re selecti"e trippin# as s!o n in Fig.

$ollo in# are t!e typical application of directional +2)T Relays. of !e parallel 7.3.3.3.1 (a). FIG& ;&3&3&2"a$7 (re*t(-)a+ OAC re+a/ F5a1rat5re C-))e*t(-) IG& FOR 49O LEA MTA FOR

FIG& ;&3&3&2"8$7 VECTOR

FUA RATURE CONNECTION FOR GAH P#ASE RELAY& FIG& ;&3&3&2"*$7 IRECTIONAL EART# FAULT RELAY CONNECTION IG& FOR IRECTIOAL EAF RELAY

FIG& ;&3&3&2"1$7 VECTOR

FIG&;&3&3&3&1 "a$7 PARALLEL FEE ER PROTECTION& FIG&;&3&3&3&2 "a$ Referrin# to t!e fi#%re a-o"e> for a fa%lt on 'NT2> operates> t!e relay on 'NT 1 sees a c%rrent flo !ile t!e relay at

Recei"in# *nd .71 on 'NT2> sees an infeed in its loo0in# direction and inn t!e re"erse direction and restrains. 7y time coordinatin# t!e relays at> A and 7> a selecti"e trippin# can -e o-tained. 7esides t!e directional relays at *nd P7Q are non responsi"e to do nstream fa%lts and !ence do not re&%ire any time coordination clearance. 2$ R()4 Ma() S/,te07 2irectional relays are %sed for Rin# )ains. A of no possi-ility of infeed it! do nstream -ac0%p> t!ere-y ena-lin# a relati"ely faster

typical e9ample is s!o n in Fig. 7.3.3.2 (a). D!ile t!e so%rce end station .A1> can !a"e non<directional relays .in "ie into t!e feeders. T!e time #radin# can -e or0ed o%t -y considerin# t!e rid open at one re"ersal1> t!e intermediate stations s!o%ld !a"e directional relays loo0in#

side of t!e s%pply point> red%cin# it to radial system and #rade from t!e tail end. T!e same proced%re can -e repeated -y openin# t!e #rid on t!e ot!er side> at t!e s%pply point. 2irectional +2)T relays are also %sed on t!e feeders -et een 4rid s%pply and capti"e s%pply 7%s for selecti"e trippin# and impro"ed coordination. --O--

C#APTER % = LINE PROTECTION " ISTANCE SC#EMES$

=&1 I)tr-15*t(-) 2istance Protection is one of t!e most e9tensi"ely %sed form of protection for transmission and s%-<transmission lines. 2istance relay> primarily meas%res t!e impedance of t!e line -et een t!e relayin# point and fa%lt point and compares it fa%lt is it! t!e settin# impedance to ascertain !et!er t!e it!in t!e @one or o%tside. Practical distance relays !a"e normally

3 @ones of operation ; an instantaneo%s first @one and time delayed -ac0%p @one 2 and 3. D!en applied in conC%nction it! a si#nalin# c!annel> it pro"ides selecti"e>

!i#! speed protection for !e line in &%estion> and also a time delayed -ac0%p to t!e adCoinin# lines t!ro%#! its second and t!ird @one> t!ere-y com-inin# t!e ad"anta#es of a %nit as ell as non<%nit protection. !ic! carries o%t t!e !ic! are disc%ssed

T!e !eart of a distance protection is a comparator are a"aila-le co"erin# -ot! s!ort and lon# lines> -elo . =&2 Mea,5r()4 Chara*ter(,t(*,

impedance meas%rement. Se"eral impedance meas%rin# c!aracteristics

T!e "ario%s meas%rin# c!aracteristics and !eir applications are descri-ed -elo B 5.,.' *mpedance Characteristic >&ig. 5.,.'? An impedance c!aracteristic is represented -y a circle it! its center at t!e ori#in on t!e R<M dia#ram> and its radi%s e&%al to its reac! settin#. T!e c!aracteristic is prod%ced -y %sin# an amplit%de comparator and does not ta0e into acco%nt t!e p!ase relations!ip -et een t!e "olta#e and c%rrent. T!e impedance c!aracteristic is non<directional and is !i#!ly s%scepti-le to po er s in#s and load encroac!ment -eca%se of its lar#er co"era#e on FIG& =&2&17 IMPE ANCE C#ARACTERISTIC

FIG& =&2&2&1"a$7 SELF POLARISE

M#O C#ARACTERISTIC

FIG& =&2&2&2"a$7 CROSS POL M#O C#ARACTERISTIC t!e R<M plane. T!is c!aracteristic is normally %sed for fa%lt detection or as a time delayed -ac0%p @one. 5.,.,. +<7 Characteristic >7r )irectional *mpedance Characteristic? T!ere are t!ree principle "ariations of )5( c!aracteristic. a1 Self Polarised )5( -1 'ross Polarised )5( c1 (ffset )5( =&2&2&1 "elf Polarised +<7 (Fig. 8.2.2.1.a) T!e self Polarised )!o c!aracteristic is a circle or Replica +mpedance .=R1 at an an#le . )5( '!aracteristic !as an an#le dependant reac! .-ein# ma9im%m alon# t!e settin# +mpedance an#le1 and is directional. +t is less prone to po er s in#sAload encroac!ment d%e to its restricted co"era#e on t!e R<M plane> partic%larly alon# t!e Resisti"e A9is. 5.,.,., Cross Polarised +<7 >&ig. 5.,.,.,a? "olta#e reference from !ealt!y p!ase.s1. D!ile t!e !ose circ%mference

passes t!ro%#! t!e ori#in and diameter represents t!e settin# impedance

T!e cross polarised )!o c!aracteristic is prod%ced -y deri"in# t!e polari@in# c!aracteristic is directional and !as an an#le dependant reac!> it pro"ides increased tolerance to fa%lt resistance since t!e c!aracteristic e9pands alon# t!e resisti"e a9is for for ard> %n-alanced fa%lts. T!is !appens d%e to t!e !ealt!y p!ase polari@ation. T!is c!aracteristic is eminently s%ita-le for s!ort lines tied %p to so%rces ea0

!ere t!e fa%lt arc resistance may -e compara-le to line

impedance. T!e de#ree of e9pansion depends %pon t!e so%rce to line +mpedance .=SA=/1 ratio> -ein# more at !i#!er =SA=/ ratio. T!e relay> t!%s pro"ides en!anced resisti"e co"era#e !en t!e so%rce is impedance is !i#!. 5.,.,.7ffset +<7 Characteristic ea0 or t!e so%rce

T!e offset )5( c!aracteristic encloses t!e ori#in pro"idin# a small co"era#e for fa%lts -e!ind t!e relayin# point as s!o n in $i#. 8.2.2.2.a1.

T!e relay is t!en said to -e !a"in# a re"erse offset. A for ard offset> on t!e contrary sets t!e c!aracteristic a ay from t!e ori#in. T!e offset )5( c!aracteristic is %sed for @one 3 . !en pro"ided it! re"erse offset1 primarily as a -ac0 %p a#ainst 7%s-ar fa%lts. $or ard offset is %sed for prod%cin# certain specially s!aped c!aracteristics as indicated in Fig. 8 descri-ed later. 5.,.- Reactance Characteristic >&ig. 5.,.-.a? T!e reactance c!aracteristic is represented -y a line parallel to t!e Resisti"e A9is !ile =// represents t!e line impedance> MR represents t!e settin# Reactance. T!e reactance c!aracteristic is ideally s%ita-le for s!ort lines -eca%se of its !i#! resisti"e co"era#e. T!e c!aracteristic is !o e"er> non<directional and re&%ires to -e monitored -y some directional c!aracteristic> as s!o n -y !e dotted )5( circle in $i#.8.2.3a1 !en %sed for distance protection.

7esides t!e a-o"e standard c!aracteristics> t!ere are some s!aped c!aracteristics to co"er special applications. T!ese are descri-ed -elo . 5.,.( 1enticular Characteristic >&ig. 5.,.(a? T!e c!aracteristic is called lentic%lar -eca%se of its lens s!ape. D!ile it pro"ides t!e re&%ired co"era#e alon# t!e line impedance an#le> t!e resisti"e co"era#e is restricted. T!e c!aracteristic is s%ita-le for lon# o"er loaded lines and is often %sed for =one 3 !ere load encroac!ment pro-lem may -e enco%ntered. T!e lentic%lar c!aracteristic in"aria-ly !as a small re"erse co"era#e. 5.,.. &igure 5 Characteristic >&ig. 5.,..a? T!e c!aracteristic is prod%ced -y t o offset )5( circles> t!e lo er one !a"in# a small re"erse offset !ere as t!e %pper circle !a"in# a for ard offset. T!e composite c!aracteristic loo0s li0e t!e fi#%re of 8 and !ence t!e name. 5ere a#ain t!e c!aracteristic limits co"era#e alon# t!e resisti"e a9is. FIG& =&2&2&3"a$7 OFFSET M#O C#ARACTERISTIC FIG& =&2&3"a$7 REACTANCE C#ARACTERISTIC

FIG& =&2&4"a$7 LENTIC C#ARACTERISITC FIG& =&2&9"a$7 FIG&=7 C#ARACTERISTIC FIG& =&2&:"a$7 FUA RILATERAL C#ARACTERISTIC FIG& =&3&'"a$7 TIME 3 ZONE ISTANCE C#ARACTERISTIC OF A ISTANCE SC#EME

T!e c!aracteristic is t!%s less prone to load encroac!ment and !ence applied for lon# lines> e"ac%atin# -%l0 po er. 5.,.2 Fuadrilateral characteristic >&ig. 5.,.2a? T!e c!aracteristic is of t!e s!ape of a &%adrilateral and f%lly directional. 7ot! t!e resisti"e and reacti"e reac!es are independently adC%sta-le. T!e c!aracteristic is> t!erefore> ideally s%ita-le for "ery s!ort lines> re&%irin# !i#! fa%lt resistance co"era#e. =&3 Z-)e, -. Pr-te*t(-) 'on"entional distance relays !a"e normally 3 @ones of protection ; namely an instantaneo%s @one 1 and time delayed @one 2A@one 3. 'orrect coordination -et een distance relays on adCacent lines in a po er system> is ac!ie"ed -y C%dicio%sly selectin# t!e reac! and time settin#s of t!e "ario%s @ones. Typical reac! and time settin#s for a 3 @one sc!eme is s!o n in Fig. 8.3.0(a). Associated time delays =t ; +nst> =2<t2> =3<t3. T!e settin#s criteria for "ario%s @ones is #i"en -elo B =one 1 =one 2 < 80 ; 85L of t!e protected Section < Protected section G 50L of s!ortest adCoinin# Section or 120L of t!e protected section is #reater. =one 3 < Protected section G /on#est adCoinin# section. it! a mar#in of !ic!e"er

T!e @one 1> -ein# instantaneo%s> is set %nder<reac!in#

a-o%t 15 ; 20L to acco%nt for possi-le relayA'TAPT errors and inacc%racies in t!e line impedance parameters. T!e @one 2 is primarily intended to co"er !e last 15<20L of t!e protected section> and !ence is set to o"er<

reac! t!e remote -%s-ars -ars

it! similar mar#in> to acco%nt for possi-le it!

%nder<reac!in# d%e to relayA'TAPT errors. T!e =one 2 co"ers %p to 50L of t!e s!ortest adCoinin# section and ens%res t!at it does not o"erlap t!e @one 2 of adCoinin# section> t!%s a"oidin# coordination pro-lem. 5o e"er> if t!e s!ortest adCoinin# section is too s!ort> compared to t!e protected section> t!e mar#in a#ainst possi-le %nder<reac!in# may not -e ade&%ate. +n s%c! an e"ent%ality> t!e @one 2 can -e set to co"er 120L of t!e protected section. =one 3 protection is intended as a -ac0%p a#ainst %ncleared e9ternal fa%lts and !ence set to co"er t!e lon#est adCoinin# line. T!e @one 3 settin# s!o%ld> !o e"er> -e c!ec0ed a#ainst possi-le load encroac!ment> partic%larly in case of lon# !ea"ily loaded lines. =&4 Pha,e Se65e)*e *-0parat-r .-r M#O *hara*ter(,t(* T!e )5( c!aracteristic as s!o n in $i#. 8.2.2.1.a1 can -e prod%ced -y %sin# a se&%ence comparator it! inp%ts deri"ed from t!e c%rrent and "olta#es from t!e transmission line. T!e inp%t for t!e meas%rin# circ%it for a plain )5( c!aracteristic are 8 .fa%lt "olta#e1 from t!e line 8.T.> and +=> from t!e replica impedance P=Q fed are s!o n in Fig. 8.4.0(a). T!e "olta#e += is a replica of "olta#e !ic! o%ld -e resented to t!e relay it! line c%rrent P+Q t!ro%#! t!e c%rrent transformer. T!e a-o"e inp%ts referred to a sin#le p!ase system

for a fa%lt at a location e&%i"alent to its reac! point. T!e reac! of t!e relay is set -y adC%stin# t!e relati"e ma#nit%des of 8 and +.=. and t!e c!aracteristic an#le is set -y adC%stin# t!e p!ase an#le of t!e Replica +mpedance P=Q. T!e meas%rin# circ%it operated -y deri"in# t!e si#nals 8< += and 8 <30 o and feedin# t!ese to t!e se&%ence comparator. +f inp%ts 8< += la#s 8 <30o> t!e fa%lt lies inside t!e c!aracteristic 30o is 0no n as t!e polari@in# si#nal c!aracteristic !ereas if 8<+= leads 8 <30o t!e comparator restrains since t!e fa%lt is e9ternal. Si#nal 8 < !ic! pro"ides a reference for comparin# t!e la# or lead relations!ip of t!e ot!er inp%t 8<+=. T!e )5( it! t!e inp%t si#nals is ill%strated in Fig.8.4.0 (%).

5.(.' Principle of comparator T!e a-o"e inp%ts 8<+= and 8 <30o are sin%soidal &%antities of po er fre&%ency denomination. Since t!e se&%ence comparator compares only t!e la# or lead relations!ip of t!e inp%t si#nals> only p!ase an#le information and not amplit%de of inp%ts is important. T!e inp%ts are>

FIG& =&4&'"a$ FIG& =&4&'"8$7 SEFUENCE COMPARATOR VOLTAGES FOR M#O C#ARACTERISTIC T!erefore> filtered to remo"e t!e %n anted fre&%ency components and t!en s&%ared> so t!at t!ey retain t!e p!ase an#le information of t!e ori#inal sin%soidal inp%ts. To %nderstand t!e operation of t!e comparator> t!e inp%t s&%are and 7> !ic! !a"e eit!er a !i#! or lo "aria-les. +f t!e !i#! and lo a"e A

"al%e can -e re#arded as lo#ic

state of t!e inp%t si#nals is represented as A

7 and A 7 respecti"ely> t!ere are fo%r possi-le com-inations of t!eir state i.e. A 7> A 7> A 7> and A 7. if -ot! si#nals !a"e %nity mar0 space ratio and e&%al time periods> t!e fo%r com-inations it! only t o possi-le "ariations. +f A leads 7> t!e se&%ence 7> t!e se&%ence o%ld -e A 7> A 7> A A 7 and A 7 and if JAE la#s ill occ%r in a cyclic manner>

o%ld -e A 7> A 7>

7and A 7.

T!e comparator !as a lo#ic circ%it e"ery c!an#e of state to see and determines

!ic! e9amines t!e inp%t si#nals at

!ic! of t!e t o se&%ence are -ein# follo ed

!et!er t!e same is pro#ressin# in a tri or restraint

condition. T!e circ%it can identify a trip or restraint condition from a sin#le c!an#e of state and from any startin# point from t!e cycle. 5o e"er> a sin#le c!an#e of state may -e decepti"e> if t!e inp%t si#nals are laden it! noise> since noise si#nals may alter t!e @ero crossin#s and re"erse t!e se&%ence momentarily. 4reater sec%rity is t!erefore o-tained> if trippin# is conditioned -y a n%m-er of stat%s c!an#es correspondin# to a trip se&%ence. T!e comparator !as a co%nter to determine t!e n%m-er of stat%s c!an#es. *"ery accepta-le c!an#e correspondin# to a tri se&%ence increments t!e co%nter !ile a c!an#e correspondin# to restraint condition decrements t!e co%nter to a minim%m of @ero. T!e criteria for operation is %s%ally a co%nt of 3 or 4. Referrin# to t!e fig,re 8.4.2(a) an( (%)> t!e noise si#nals introd%ces an e9tra pair of @ero crossin# one addin# to t!e total co%nt and t!e ot!er s%-tractin#. After eac! s%c! interference> t!e co%nter is in t!e same FIG& =&4&17 RESTRAI LOGIC SEFUENCES

"a$

FOR COMPARATOR FIG& =&4&17 OPERATE LOGIC "8$ SEFUENCES FOR COMPARATOR FIG& =&4&2"a$7 BASIC NOISE IMMUNITY FIG =&4&2"8$ 7 BASIC NOISE IMMUNITY

Position as -efore. T!e comparator> t!erefore> renders in!erent noise reCection. 5.(., Polarising input to the Comparator T!e polarisin# inp%t pro"ides a reference for comparison for t!e ot!er inp%t. +t is> t!erefore> imperati"e t!at t!e polarisin# "olta#e is al ays a"aila-le irrespecti"e of t!e location of t!e fa%lt .close %p1 and t!e n%m-er of p!ases in"ol"ed. T!is is ac!ie"ed -y s%pplementin# t!e fa%lted p!ase inp%t> it! eit!er t!e

!ealt!y p!ase "olta#e or memory "olta#e. D!ile !ealt!y p!ase "olta#e o%ld maintain polarisin# reference for close %p %n-alanced fa%lts> memory polari@ation caters for symmetrical .3 p!ase1 fa%lts. T!e !ealt!y p!ase or memory polari@ation e"ent%ally prod%ced resisti"e e9pansion of t!e c!aracteristic> t!ere-y en!ancin# fa%lt resistance co"era#e. T!e memory si#nal is %s%ally e9tended for a s%-stantial len#t! of time to ena-le positi"e operation of t!e relay on close % t!ree p!ase fa%lts. =&9&' A11(t(-)a+ Feat5re, -. t!ese areB< i1 ii1 iii1 Po er S in# 7loc0in# 8.T. S%per"ision and S itc! on to fa%lt. (,ta)*e Re+a/, T!e practical distance protection !as se"eral standardAoptional feat%res>

5...' Po6er "6ing Blocking Po er S in# c!aracteri@ed -y cyclic c!an#es in c%rrent> "olta#e and po er> are prod%ced !en t!e ind%ced "olta#e of #enerators at different locations in an interconnected system> slip relati"e to eac! ot!er to adC%st to t!e c!an#es in po er transfers .in ma#nit%de and direction1 follo in# system fa%lts. T!e tandem "ariations in "olta#e and c%rrent d%rin# a

s in#> presents a c!an#in# impedance to a distance relay> c!aracteristic. T!e distance relay> is t!erefore> prone for operation 2%rin# a s in# and is re&%ired to -e -loc0ed> to allo

it! t!e

impedance loc%s mo"in# a ay from t!e load area to ards t!e relay

t!e po er system>

to ret%rn to sta-le conditions> d%rin# reco"era-le s in#s. T!e principle of po er s in# -loc0in# is ill%strated in Fig. 8.5.1(a). 'onsiderin# a 4enerator .represented -y *4> M41 connected to a system .represented -y *S> MS1 t!ro%#! a transmission line .+mpedance =/1> t!e an#le of displacement -et een *4 6 *S !en idens> t!e impedance mo"es !en *4 I *S or

to ards !e relay c!aracteristic. T!e impedance loc%s is a perpendic%lar -isector of t!e total impedance line .i.e. M4 G =/ G =S1 ta0es a c%r"ilinear pat! s!o n in Fig. 8.5.1(%). T!e detection of po er s in# is ac!ie"ed -y monitorin# t!e rate of c!an#e of impedance or con"ersely t!e time re&%ired for t!e impedance loc%s to tra"erse t!e impedance #ap -et een t!e PS7 c!aracteristic and t!e o%termost trippin# @one i.e.> @one 3. if t!e time meas%red is less t!an t!e set time on timer PTQ> it is considered as a po er s in# and -loc0in# is applied to t!e selected @ones (Fig. 8.5.1"). Since po er s in# is a -alanced 3 p!ase p!enomena t!ere is no resid%al c%rrent d%rin# a po er s in#. 5o e"er> if a resid%al c%rrent is detected> as o%ld !appen d%rin# eart! fa%lts> follo in# a po er s in#> po er s in# -loc0in# is in!i-ited> %sin# a ne%tral c%rrent le"el detector .:'21 as s!o n in t!e lo#ic dia#ram> (Fig. 8.5.1(). t!e -loc0in# is effecti"e as lon# as t!e impedance loc%s stays delay> as re&%ired. 5..., Voltage Transformer "uper ision 2istance relays are primarily "olta#e restraint relays and o%ld tend to operate in t!e e"ent of loss of 8.T. s%pply d%e to say a -lo n off secondary f%se. T!e condition is t!erefore> re&%ired to -e #%arded a#ainst> to pre"ent %ndesira-le operation on load. T!e 8.T. s%per"ision lo#ic %sed in practical distance sc!emes is e9plained -elo FIG& =&9&1"a$ (Ref. Fig. 8.5.2). it!in t!e PPS7Q c!aracteristic or %ntil a set time !en *4 is eit!er #reater of less t!an *S and

FIG& =&9&1"8$ FIG&=&9&1"* $ IMPE ANCE FIG&=&9&17 PSB LOGIC FIG&=&9&27 VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER SUPERVISION IAG

T!e 8Ts lo#ic monitors eit!er =ero Se&%ence of :e#ati"e se&%ence c%rrent and "olta#e at t!e terminal of t!e relay. 2iscrimination -et een a primary system fa%lt and a -lo n off P.T. f%se or secondary o-tained -y -loc0in# t!e distance protection only se&%ence "olta#e is detected c%rrent> as s!o n in t!e lo#ic dia#ram. D!en )'7s are %sed for controllin# t!e 8T s%pply> an a%9iliary contact of t!e same is %sed to -loc0 t!e protection on operation of t!e )'7. T!is is normally done -y c%ttin# off t!e sc!eme d.c. s%pply t!ro%#! a normally open contact of t!e )'7. =&9&3 S2(t*h -) t- .a5+t "SOFT$ Feat5re As e9plained -efore> t!e polari@in# "olta#e si#nal is re&%ired for t!e distance relay %nder all fa%lt conditions for correct meas%rement and directional meas%rement and directional discrimination. 5o e"er> t!e polari@in# "olta#e si#nal may completely "anis! for a close<%p 3 p!ase fa%lt. T!e memory polari@ation "olta#e -efore. 5o e"er> !ere pro"ided> ill certainly !elp to it! its eart!lin# maintain t!e polari@in# si#nal pro"ided !e relay !as seen a prefa%lt !en a dead line is ener#i@ed clamps left inad"ertently in position> after a maintenance s!%tdo n and if t!e associated distance protection is fed from line "olta#e transformers> t!e memory polari@ation also ill not !elp for o-"io%s reasons. To #%ard a#ainst s%c! e"ent%ality> parallel s itc!<on to fa%lt .S($T1 trip lo#ic is pro"ided in all distance relays as standard feat%re> %sin# "olta#e and c%rrent le"el detectors> as ill%strated in $i#.8.5.3 .a1. T!e S($T lo#ic is ena-led only after t!e "olta#e and c%rrent le"el detectors of all t!e 3 p!ases are in a de<ener#i@ed stat%s for a preset time inter"al> si#nifyin# t!at t!e line is initially dead. D!en t!e line is ener#i@ed irin# discrepancy is !en @ero or ne#ati"e

it!o%t t!e appearance of @ero or ne#ati"e

s%-se&%ently

it! a close<%p 3 p!ase fa%lt already e9istin# t!e c%rrent

le"el detectors pic0in# %p sim%ltaneo%sly. T!e S($T trip is t!%s acti"ated after a s!ort time delay of a-o%t 20 msec. T!e time delay is pro"ided to s amp possi-le difference in t!e response time of t!e c%rrent FIG& =&9&3"a$7 SIMPLIFIE FIG& =&:&'"a$7 3 STEP SOTF TRIP LOGIC

ISTANCE C#ARACTERISTIC SOLI STATE LOGIC

"*$ SIMPLIFIE

And "olta#e le"el detector .t!e formal -ein# faster1 to permit !ealt!y s itc!in#. 7esides> c%rrentA"olta#e le"el detector> any @one comparator operation d%rin# t!e initial period of c!ar#in#> acti"ates S($T trip> -ypassin# time delays associated =&: Carr(er A(1e1 S*he0e, T!e distance protection co"ers a-o%t 80<85L of t!e line in its instantaneo%s first @one> t!e fa%lts in t!e last. 15<20L -ein# referred to t!e delayed @one 2. T!%s for end section fa%lts> t!e clearance is delayed from t!e fart!est end. T!is sit%ation cannot -e tolerated in an interconnected system for t o reasons. 1. 2. A delayed clearance from one end may ca%se insta-ility in t!e system. D!en t!e lines are e&%ipped sim%ltaneo%s trippin# it! !i#! speed a%to reclosin#> a non< o%ld defeat a%to reclosin#> since t!ere is no it! t!e @one 2A@one 3 comparators.

effecti"e dead time to ens%re de<ener#isation of t!e fa%lt arc. T!e practical distance relays are t!erefore> interloc0ed it! a si#nali@in#

c!annel transmit information a-o%t t!e system conditions from one end to ot!er end to accelerate trippin#. T!e information transmitted can eit!er -e arran#ed to initiate trippin# .on internal fa%lt1 of t!e remote circ%it -rea0er on -loc0 trippin# on e9ternal fa%lt. T!e former arran#ement is called as Jtransfer tripE sc!eme !ere as latter is termed as J-loc0in#E sc!eme.

A typical transfer trip .%nder<reac!1 sc!eme lo#ic is ill%strated in $i#. 8.6.0 .a 6 -1. Referrin# to $i#.8.6.0> for fa%lt close to end J7E t!e relay at end 7 ill trip in

@one 1 and sim%ltaneo%sly initiate an inter trip si#nal to end JAE. D!en t!e si#nal is recei"ed at end JAE and if t!e o"er<reac!in# @one 2 meas%rin#

element !as also operated> end JAE

ill trip in J'arrier Aided TripE mode>

res%ltin# a near sim%ltaneo%s clearance of t!e fa%lt from -ot! ends. T!e different "ariations of carrier sc!emes areB Permissi"e %nder<reac! transfer trip .P,R1 Permissi"e o"er<reac! transfer trip .P(R1 Acceleration 7loc0in# for t!e -loc0in# si#nal

D!ile inter<trip sc!emes .P,R> P(R> Acceleration1 are fast in operation> -loc0in# sc!eme !as an international delay to allo to -e recei"ed for an e9ternal fa%lt. 5o e"er> -loc0in# sc!eme does not s%ffer from si#nal atten%ation since t!e si#nal is transmitted o"er a !ealt!y line %nli0e in case of a transfer trip sc!eme transmitted on a fa%lty line. -'''C#APTER %? !ere t!e si#nal is

CURRENT AN
?&1 I)tr-15*t(-)

VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER

T!e ma#nit%de of c%rrent and "olta#e in a po er circ%its are %s%ally too !i#! to -e !andled -y t!e secondary e&%ipments li0e meas%rin# instr%ments and relays. T!e instr%ment transformers are t!erefore> %sed as inp%t de"ices !ic! prod%ce a scaled do n it!in t!e re&%ired acc%racy> replica of t!e primary inp%t &%antities

for connectin# t!e secondary e&%ipments. D!ile t!e instr%ment transformers %sed for meas%rement p%rpose !andle steady state &%antities close to t!e rated "al%es> t!ose %sed for protection> !andle fa%lt &%antities !ic! are affected -y d.c. transients> !armonic distortions etc. t!e performance re&%irements of t!e instr%ment transformers are t!erefore at "ariance dependin# %pon t!eir applications. ?&2 C5rre)t Tra),.-r0er, (a4ra0 a$ Rat(- Err-r +t is defined as t!e difference in ma#nit%de of t!e primary and secondary c%rrent e9pressed as percenta#e of t!e primary c%rrent.

?&2&1 E65(3a+e)t C(r*5(t a)1 3e*t-r

T!%s L Ratio *rror I 8$ Pha,e A)4+e

=n;ls / *p

Ip

M 100

T!is is t!e p!ase an#le difference -et een t!e primary c%rrent and t!e re"ersed secondary c%rrent "ector. *$ C-0p-,(te Err-r T!is is defined as t!e R.).S "al%e of t!e difference .Nn +s<+p1 inte#rated o"er one cycle %nder steady state conditions e9pressed as a percenta#e of R)S primary c%rrent. T!%s> FIG& ?&2&1

100 'omposite error *o <I p

B BE

.Nn +s ; +p12 .dt

D!ere T I 2%ration of 1 cycle. +p> +s ; +nstantaneo%s "al%es of primary and sec. '%rrents. Nn ; Rated transformation ratio +p ; Primary c%rrent 3R)S1 ?&2&3 Ma4)et(I()4 Chara*ter(,t(* -. CT T!e ma#neti@in# c!aracteristic of a '.T. is a plot -et een t!e secondary applied "olta#e and t!e correspondin# ma#neti@in# c%rrent ta0en -y t!e '.T. as s!o n in $i#. 3.2.3. T!e e9citation c%r"e can -e di"ided into 4 re#ions. An0le point> /inear re#ion> 0nee point and sat%ration. T!e 0nee point is defined as a point on t!e e9citation c%r"e !ere a 10L increase in secondary *)$ o%ld ca%se 50L increase in t!e e9citin# c%rrent. ?&2&4 E..e*t -. Se*-)1ar/ Ope) C(r*5(t()4 T!e primary c%rrent of a '.T. is independent of its secondary loadin#. Dit! t!e secondary s!orted .directly or t!ro%#! t!e connected -%rden1 t!e co%nter fl%9 prod%ced -y t!e secondary 0eeps t!e core fl%9 -elo sat%ration le"el. 5o e"er> if t!e secondary #ets open circ%ited t!e it! t!e

primary carryin# c%rrent> t!e entire primary m.m.f. .ampere t%rns1 is spent

in ma#neti@in# t!e core> prod%cin# !i#! core fl%9. T!is res%lts in increased secondary *.).$. le"els. ?&2&9 C+a,,(.(*at(-) -. CT, T!ere are t!ree -asic types of 'Ts. 11 21 31 )eas%rin# 'Ts Protection 'Ts Protection 'Ts for special Applications. FIG& ?&2&37 MAGNETISING C#ARACTERISTIC 8.,...' +easuring CTs >!o erned #y *" ,49.A '88, Part **? it! t!e "olta#e s!ootin# %p to "ery !i#! "al%e or0in#Asat%ration fl%9 dependin# %pon t!e primary c%rrent le"el and t!e

)eas%rin# 'Ts are specified in terns of ; Acc%racy class 8A Ratin# +S$ .+nstr%ment Sec%rity $actor1 T/p(*a+ I++5,trat(-) 7 'lass 1.0> 8A<15> +S$<3 Standard *rror 'lass ; 0.1> 0.2> 0.5> 1.0> 3 and 5 T!e errors are specified -et een 5<120L of rated c%rrent and 25<100L of Rated -%rden connected. 5i#!er errors permitted at lo er c%rrents. T/p(*a+ I++5,trat(-)7 'lass 1.0 'T 3L ratio error at 5L of rated c%rrent. 8.,..., Protecti e CTs >!o erned #y *",49.A '88, Part ***? ill !a"e a ratio error of G 1L for 100<

120L of rated c%rrent> G 1.5L ratio error at 20L of rated c%rrent and G

Protection 'T ratin#s are specified in terms of class> acc%racy limit factory .A/$1 and 8A ratin#. T/p(*a+ I++5,trat(-)7 5P10> 15 8A Standard *rror 'lassAAl$A8A ratin#s are as follo sB< *rror 'lass 5P> 10P> 15P A/$ 5> 10> 15> 20> 30 8A ratin# 5> 10> 15> 30 *rrors are specified at rated c%rrent and A/$ times rated c%rrent -%rden connected. it! rated

T/p(*a+ I++5,trat(-)7 5P10A 158A 'T rated connected -%rden of 158A.

ill !a"e a composite *rror of G5L it!

at 10 times rated c%rrent and a ratio error of G 1L at rated c%rrent

$or a #i"en 'T> 8A and A/$ are in"ersely related. $or e9ample> if connected -%rden is less t!an rated> A/$ o%ld increase.

C--re+at(-) 8et2ee) ALFAVAAO5tp5t V-+ta4e a)1 !)ee P-()t V-+ta4e& (%tp%t 8olta#e at A/$ A/$ M 8A 8A/$ I A/$ M +S 8olta#e 2e"eloped -y 'T at A/$ A/$ 9 8A 8 ; .+S M R'T1 M A/$ G +S

!)ee P-()t V-+ta4e 8N I 75 ;80L of 8A/$ D!en +s I 'T secondary Rated '%rrent 8A I Rated 7%rden .8olt Amps1 R'T I 'T secondary Resistance D!ile selectin# 5PA 10P class 'Ts for +2)T o"er c%rrentA*art! fa%lt relays> follo in# s!o%ld -e -orne in mind. i1 T!e 'Ts s!o%ld !a"e optim%m A/$A8A Ratin#> so t!at t!ey do not sat%rate %p to at leas 20 time c%rrent settin#. T!is may -e ac!ie"ed -y selectin# lo !i#! "al%e. ii1 ("errated 'Ts !a"in# !i#! 8A ratin# and A/$> may prod%ce !i#! secondary c%rrents d%rin# se"ere fa%lts and e"ent%al fail%res. 8.,...Protection CTs for "pecial 0pplications .in e9cess of 20 times settin#1 t!at my ca%se t!ermal stressin# of t!e relay c%rrent coils -%rden relays or -y selectin# a ratio of appropriate

5PA 10P class 'Ts are %sed for :on<-alanced protections li0e +2)T o"erc%rrent> *art! fa%lt relays. 5o e"er> for -alanced protection li0e circ%latin# c%rrent differential> !ere -alance is re&%ired -et een t!e

associated 'Ts

it! close tolerance> t!e c!aracteristic re&%irements

cannot -e con"eniently e9pressed in terms of 5PA 10P class 'Ts. $or s%c! applications> c%rrent transformers of class PS are %sed. T!ese are specified in terms of< i1 ii1 iii1 Nnee point "olta#e .8N1 )a#neti@in# c%rrent .+m1 %s%ally at 0nee point "olta#e or a parenta#e t!ereof 'T secondary resistance .R't1 !ic! !elps in

$or class PS> 'Ts> t!e t%rns ratio errors are limited to 0.25L t!ro%#! fa%lt condition. +ncidentally> 5PA 10P class 'Ts are sometimes pro"ided !ence are %ns%ita-le for s%c! special applications. Typical +ll%stration of class PS 'Ts specifications Ratio 100 A 1A 8N T% 100 8olts +m U 30 )illiamps at 8N A 2 R'T U 1.0 o!m 8.,.2 Core Balance CT >CBCT? '7'T are %sed for sensiti"e eart! protections of 'T on ne%tral eart! connection.

maintainin# -alance -et een t!e protection systems d%rin# ma9im%m it! deli-erate

t%rns ratio correction to0 maintain acc%racy specified limits at A/$ and

!ere t!e re&%ired

sensiti"ity cannot -e o-tained %sin# resid%al 'T connections or -y t!e %se

+n case of resid%al connection> t!e p!ase 'Ts primary ratin# is -ased on t!e f%ll load ratin# of t!e circ%it. 7esides> t!e %n-alance prod%ced d%e to %ne&%al errors in t!e p!ase 'Ts pro!i-its t!e %se of "ery sensiti"e settin# n t!e eart! fa%lt relays. T!e '7'T on t!e contrary> are e9cited -y t!e primary resid%al c%rrent since t!e core encloses all t!e 3 p!ases and !ence do not !a"e a !i#! primary ratin#. T!%s sensiti"ities do n to 0.5 Amps primary or -etter can -e o-tained. D!en %sed for 4 ire systems> t!e '7'T core encloses t!e ne%tral> -esides t!e p!ases. T!%s !i#! eart! fa%lt sensiti"ity can -e o-tained irrespecti"e of t!e sin#le p!ase %n-alance.

Typical '7'T arran#ement is s!o n in $i#.3.2.6. FIG& ?&2&:7 CBCT $ollo in# parameters are re&%ired to desi#n a '7'T )inim%m Primary *art! fa%lt c%rrent re&%ired to -e detected .e.#. +A> 2A etc1 )inim%m Pic0%p settin# of t!e sensiti"e eart! fa%lt relay .e.#. 10 m Amps1 (!mic -%rden of t!e relay at minim%m pic0%p c%rrent. To 6 $ro lead resistance -et een '7'T and Relay (%ter 2iameter of t!e 'a-le .to determine '7'T Dindo si@e1.

T/p(*a+ App+(*at(-), Sensiti"e *art! fa%lt protection of motors Sensiti"e eart! fa%lt protection of non<effecti"ely #ro%nded systems Sensiti"e eart! fa%lt protections of %n#ro%nded system .-ased on %n-alanced capaciti"e c%rrent detection1. 8.,.4 Typical CT Re%uirements for Various Protections Some typical 'T re&%irements are #i"en -elo A$ 8N T 2 +$ .R'T G 2R/1 8olts D!ere R'T I 'T secondary 2R/ I T o parallel #ro%p +$ I )a9im%m t!ro%#! c%rrent %p to !ic! relay s!o%ld remain sta-le .referred to 'T secondary1 F-r Tra),.-r0er, +$ I )a9im%m t!ro%#! fa%lt c%rrent limited -y lea0a#e impedance of transformers. F-r B5,8ar +$ I )a9im%m t!ro%#! fa%lt c%rrent limited to s itc!#ear -rea0in# capacity. F-r Ge)erat-r, +$ I )a9im%m t!ro%#! fa%lt c%rrent limited -y s%- transient reactance .MdQ1 of t!e #enerator. indin# resistance ay lead resistance of t!e fart!est 'T in t!e for #eneral #%idelines #(4h (0pe1a)*e *(r*5+at()4 *5rre)t 1(..ere)t ,*he0e,&

F-r M-t-r, +$ I )a9im%m startin# c%rrent .a-o%t 6 M f%ll load c%rrent for 2.(./ )otors1. F-r Sh5)t Rea*t-r, +$ I )a9im%m c!ar#in# c%rrent of t!e reactor. F-r Sh-rt Fee1er, +$ I )a9im%m t!ro%#! fa%lt c%rrent for fa%lt at remote end -%s-ar. B$ B(a,e1 (..ere)t(a+ Re+a/

8N T N + .R'T G 2R/1 D!ere + I Relay Rated c%rrent N I 'onstant specified -y t!e man%fact%rer %s%ally -ased on conC%ncti"e tests. .T!e constant is %s%ally c!osen to ens%re positi"e operation of !i#!est differential %nit on se"ere internal fa%lt e9treme 'T sat%ration1. C$ (,ta)*e pr-te*t(-) 8N T .1 G D!ere it!

" R 1 1 +$ .=r GR'T G nR/1 " R

+$ I Primary system reactanceAresistance ratio .To acco%nt for t!e d.c component of t!e fa%lt c%rrent1 I )a9im%m 'T secondary c%rrent for fa%lt at @one 1 reac!

point. =r I Relay o!mic -%rden R'T I 'T secondary Resistance nRl

I

/ead Resistance .one ay

ay for p!ase fa%lt Since n I 11

.t o

for eart! fa%lt since n I 21

8.,.5 Choice of CT "econdary Rating 9A ,e*-)1ar/ i1 Preferred !ere lead -%rden is insi#nificant .e.#. 'Ts %sed in +ndoor it! closely located relays (R !ere primary s itc!#ear c%-icles ii1 iii1 'omparati"ely lo lo IA Se*-)1ar/

ratin#s are "ery !i#! say 10>000A5A1. pea0 "olta#e !en secondary #ets open. !en primary ratin#s is $ine t%rns ratio adC%stment is not possi-le

partic%larly for 7ar primary 'Ts .e.#. 25A5A1.

i1 ii1 iii1 ?&3

Preferred

!en 'Ts are o%t door and lead -%rdens are !i#!. !en secondary is open.

'omparati"ely !i#! pea0 "olta#e

$ine t%rns ratio adC%stment possi-le. V-+ta4e Tra),.-r0er, T!e e&%i"alent circ%it and "ector dia#ram of a "olta#e transformer are S!o n in $i#. 3.3.1.a1> .-1.

8.-.' $%ui alent circuit and Vector )iagram

8.-., V.T. $rrors Rat(- Err-rB Ratio error is defined as ; L Ratio *rror I

Kn.Vs-Vp Vp

M 100

D!ere Nn I :ominal Ratio of 8.T. Pha,e A)4+e Err-r7 . 1 P!ase an#le error is t!e p!ase difference -et een t!e re"ersed secondary o%tp%t "olta#e .<8s1 and t!e primary applied "olta#e .8p1. 8.-.- Voltage Transformer Classification T!ere are 3 types of 8Ts i1 ii1 iii1 )eterin# 8Ts Protection 8Ts Resid%al 8Ts T!e 8Ts are %s%ally specified in terms of # # # # 8olta#e Ratio Acc%racy 'lass Rated 8A 7%rden Rated 8olta#e factor

T/p(*a+ I++5,trat(-) 11N8 A3 8> 110A 3 8> class 1.0> 8A 50 8$ ; 1.2 contin%o%s A 1.5 for 30 seconds. FIG& ?&3&1 8.-.-.' +etering VTs >!o erned #y *"-'.2 Part **A'88,? Control 0.1 0.2 E Ratio $rror J0.1 J0.2 Phase 0ngle $rror >+inutes? G5 J10 Reference Conditions 8olta#e 80 ; 120L 7%rden 25 ; 100L

0.5 1.0 3.0

J0.5 J1.0 J3.0

J20 J40 :ot Specified

P.$. 0.8 /a# $re&%ency < Rat

8.-.-.,

Protection VTs >!o erned #y *"-'.2 Part **A'88,? Class 3P 6P E Ratio $rror J3L J6L Phase 0ngle $rror>+inutes? J120 J240 Reference Conditions 8olta#e 5L to 8olta#e $actor times rated "olta#e 7%rden 25 ; 100L P.$.0.8 /a# $re&%ency <Rated

8.-.-.-

Protection VTs >!o erned #y *"-'.2 Part ***A'88,? Clas s 5 PR 10 E Ratio $rror J 5L J 10L Phase 0ngle $rror>+inutes ? J 200 -Reference Conditions 8olta#e 5L to 8olta#e $actor times rated "olta#e 7%rden 25 ;100L $re&%ency ;Rated P.$. 0.8 la-.

-.(

Rated "l.N o. 1 2.

oltage &actor >*s-'.2 Part 'A'88,? "ystem $arthling *ffecti"ely *art!ed :on<*ffecti"ely eart!ed system . it! A%tomatic *art! fa%lt trippin#1 +solated :e%tral or Resonant *art!ed system . it!o%t A%tomatic *art! fa%lt trippin#1 Rated Voltage &actor 1.2 1.5 1.2 1.3 1.2 1.3 Rated Time 'ontin%o%s 30 Seconds 'ontin%o%s 30 seconds 'ontin%o%s 8 5o%rs

3.

8Ts %sed in no<effecti"ely eart!ed systems !a"e "olta#e factor since in t!e e"ent of an eart! fa%lt in one of t!e p!ases> t!e !ealt!y p!ase "olta#e may rise to p!ase to p!ase "al%e .i.e. 3 times p!ase to ne%tral "olta#e1 as s!o n in $i#. 3.3.4. FIG& ?&3&4 FIG& ?&3&9&37 STARAOPEN 8.-.( V.T. Connections ELTA CONNECTION

T!ere are 3 types of connections 1. 2. 3. 8.-...' 8<8 StarAStar StarA (pen delta VAV Connection !ic! do not re&%ire p!ase to ne%tral "olta#e inp%t .2 8.Ts are it! identical 8. connection

T!is connections is #enerally %sed for meas%rement and for t!ose protections %sed1. Primary of t!e 8.Ts is connected in 8. .i.e. one 8.T. primary across R<K p!ases and t!e ot!er across K< 7 p!ases1> prod%ced. 8.-..., "tarA"tar connection it! -ot! star ne%trals for t!e secondary. +n t!is connection @ero se&%ence "olta#e cannot -e

*it!er 3 separate sin#le p!ase 8Ts or a sin#le 3 p!ase> 3 lim- 8T is %sed. 7ot! primary and secondaries are connected in star solidity #ro%nded. *ac! primary p!ase lim- is t!%s connected -et een p!ase to eart! of t!e s%pply circ%it ad replicated similar p!ase to eart! "olta#e on t!e secondary. StarAStar connection ena-les -ot! p!ase to p!ase as ne%tral distri-%tion of t!e connected -%rdens. 8.-..."tarB7pen )elta Connection indin#s> are connected in star it! star ne%tral solidly T!e primary ell as p!ase to

#ro%nded and t!e secondaries are connected in series to form an open delta connection as s!o n in Fig. -.5.3. T!is type of connection is called resid%al connection and re&%ires eit!er 39 sin#le p!ase 8Ts or a s%ita-le 3 p!ase 5 lim- 8T. T!e resid%al connection is %sed for polari@in# directional eart! fa%lt relays or for eart! fa%lt detection + non<effecti"ely #ro%nded or isolated ne%tral system.

-'''-

C#APTER %1' IGITAL RELAYING

1'&'& I)tr-15*t(-) Protection sc!eme -asically consists of protecti"e relay and circ%it -rea0er .i.e. S itc!in# 'irc%it1. (%t of t!ese t o> protection relay plays an important role and t!erefore> it is 0no n as -rain -e!ind t!e a-o"e sc!eme. +t is t!e relay !ic! senses t!e fa%lt> determines t!e location of t!e fa%lt and t!en sends trippin# command to t!e proper 'irc%it 7rea0er -y closin# its trip coil. T!ere !as -een contin%o%s de"elopment and impro"ement in t!e t!eory> desi#n ad operatin# principle of t!e protection sc!eme. $rom electromec!anical relay of ind%ction type in t!e -e#innin# no e !a"e di#ital relayin# sc!eme %sin# on<line microprocessor A mini comp%ter. T!e idea -ein# to de"elop a relay !a"in#. 1& Le,, B5r1e) 7 .+f t!e -%rden of a '.T. is !i#!> its ma#netic core #ets sat%rated> res%lt -ein# secondary (AP is not linearly proportional to primary &%antity and relay may maloperate1. 2& #(4h Spee1 7 .+f t!e fa%lt is cleared &%ic0ly> not only t!e transient sta-ility limit of t!e system is impro"ed -%t also permanent dama#e to t!e e&%ipment is a"oided. Ris0 of fire or ris0 to t!e personnel is a"oided1. 5ence> d%rin# 1360 it! t!e ad"ent of di#ital comp%ter> di#ital relayin#

-ecomes a reality> -y de"elopin# se"eral al#orit!m to reali@e different protection f%nction %sin# di#ital comp%ter. 7%t -eca%se of lar#e si@e and cost of t!e comp%ter only soft are pac0a#e to reali@e different protection sc!eme ere de"eloped. and 2%rin# early 1386> it! t!e %sin# arri"al on of line microprocessor mini<comp%ter> di#ital relayin#

microprocessorAmini comp%ters !a"e se"eral merits li0e /o er 7%rden )%c! faster in operation :o contact pro-lem )%c! less maintenance

ere de"eloped. T!ese relayin# sc!emes

2ata Ac&%isition capa-ilities )%lti<protection f%nctions %sin# standard !ard are

T!ese relays do not operate d%e to e9ternal ca%ses. T!ese sc!emes are !i#!ly fle9i-le .-y simple soft are pro#ramme> relay settin# and c!aracteristic can -e c!an#ed1 Possesses self<c!ec0in# facilities.

2i#ital relayin# sc!eme is -ein# proposed for t!e entire components of electric po er system and apparat%s "i@. sync!rono%s mac!ines> -%s<-ar> transformer> feeder> *58A ,58 transmission lines .$i#. 10.1 .a1. '9.' 0pplication along 6ith #asic circuit a$ (..ere)t(a+ Pr-te*t(-) .-r Ge)erat-r +n !ic! c%rrent enterin# a p!ase indin# is compared it! c%rrent

lea"in# t!e same p!ase in ma#nit%de.

indin# at t!e ot!er end eit!er in p!ase or

$or trippin# +1 ; +21 T S To reali@e differential

I1 + I2 2
%sin# microprocessorAmini !ere a definite

protection

comp%ter> a sample and !old circ%it is %sed microprocessor or mini comp%ter (Ref.Fig.10.1 (%).

n%m-er of si#nal samples are c!osen per cycle and fed to !ic! !as a pro#ramme to detect a-normal condition in t!e memory and iss%e a trip si#nal

$or differential protection> +n t!e memory of microprocessor>

it!

t!e !elp of a soft are pro#ramme second !armonic content of t!e sample c%rrent is o-tained. T!e presence of second !armonic content a-o"e a t!res!old "al%e is an indication of an inr%s! condition. #? "tator $arth &ault Stator *art! $a%lt can -e determined in t!e same ay. Dit! t!e indin# t!e !elp of '%rrent Transformers connected in eac! p!ase

armat%re c%rrent is monitored. +n t!e microprocessor> t!ese c%rrents are transformed to t!e se&%ence c%rrents and -eca%se of t!e different component c%rrent> type of fa%lt can -e determined. FIG& 1'&1"a$7 AN EBAMPLE OF GENERATOR EGITAL RELAYING OF

FIG& 1'&1"8$7 BLOC!

IAGRAM

FIG& 1'&27 FLOE C#ART

e.#.

1 2 3 4

+f +1 I +2 I+0 +f +1 I +2> +0 I 0 +f +1 I +2 G +0 I0

4 fa%lt /./.fa%lt //4 fa%lt

+f only +1 T t!res!old 6 <T +2 I+0 I 0 3 p!ase fa%lt

+n con"entional differential protection of a transformer !a"in# taps on t!e indin#s> -iasin# is pro"ided to ta0e care of 'T mismatc!> 'T errors %nder dynamic conditions and at different tap position. 7eca%se of t!is -iasin# relay remains insensiti"e for lo le"el indin# fa%lt.

+n di#ital differential sc!eme> .$lo

'!art of t!e pro#ramme stored in t!e

memory of 'P,1 .$i#. 10.21> 'T mismatc! errors at eac! tap is pre< calc%lated and a correction factor is calc%lated to -e applied to 'T secondary c%rrents to #et tr%e line c%rrents. T!ese correction factors for all t!e taps are stored in t!e di#ital relay memory and transformer tap position is also monitored so t!at relay sensiti"ity remains same on all tap position. +d1 +t1 +0 7 I I I I Po er fre&%ency component of differential c%rrent Po er fre&%ency component of t!e t!ro%#! c%rrent Pic0 %p c%rrent 7ias

Re+a/ -perate,> if +d1 T +0 and +d1 T 7> +t1 . To restrain relay from operation in case of ma#neti@in# in r%s! . !en primary is c!ar#ed and secondary open circ%it1 restrained. D!ere 5R$ I .++ !armonic component G 8 5armonic component1A 5R$ .5armonic Restraint $actor1 is calc%lated. +f 5R$ is more t!an t!res!old> relay operation is

$%ndamental fre&%ency 'omponent1.

+n case ma#neti@in# inr%s! ++ and 8 5armonic 'ontent is more .16L1. T!%s> di#ital differential relays !as !i#! speed and sensiti"ity for internal fa%lts and sta-ility on !ea"y t!ro%#! fa%lt and ma#neti@in# inr%s!. FIG& 1'&37 SC#EMATIC OF PC BASE '9., RELAY TEST BENC#

PC #ased schemes for testing protecti e relays 2i#ital relays an -e tested 2. Si#nals sim%lation distortions fre&%ency. 3. Transient si#nals can -e sim%lated easily. 4. $le9i-ility and ease of pro#rammin# 5. Acc%rate and realistic testin# of relays T!e sc!eme is as s!o n in $i#. 10.3 A P' AT 386A486 comp%tes> t!e sample correspondin# to t!e instantaneo%s "al%es of t!e test si#nals .2i#ital1 !ic! is s%pplied to 2i#ital to Analo# 'on"erter .2A'1 it! interr%pt occ%rrin# at t!e end of inter sample inter"al. T!e n%m-er of sample per cycle can -e 12> 16> 24> 36> 60. T!e 2A' o%tp%t stepped a"eform it! stepped a"es sample selected per cycle. T!ese a"eform is a it! n%m-er of steps I n%m-er of a"eforms are smoot!ened and a"eforms are amplified -y it! necessary test le"els. it! a personal comp%ter. T!e -enefits areB 1. Respecti"e test se&%ences in less time it! any desired le"el of !armonic and d.c. and of different fre&%encies t!an s%pply acc%rately

%ndesired !armonics are filtered o%t. T!en po er amplifiers to #enerate relay test si#nals P' !as )en% 2ri"en Soft are? 8i@. a1 'ali-ration )en% -1 Relay Selectio0n )en% c1 Type of test selection

Relay test pro#ramme is stored in 'P, of P' and comp%ter monitor t!e relay trip stat%s. After t!e test 'P, #enerate relay c!aracteristic plots. '9.Testing of a )istance Relay a$ Stea1/ State Te,t T!e main o-Cecti"e of t!e test is to o-tain t!e trip c!aracteristic of t!e relay for different reac! settin# as ell as for different types of fa%lts li0e p!ase to #ro%nd fa%lt and p!ase to p!ase fa%lt.

T!e relay reac! is set to desired "al%e. Test starts -y sim%latin# "olta#e and c%rrent si#nals selected p!ases for it! p!ase difference e&%al to @ero -et een 8 6 + of !ic! fa%lt is to -e sim%lated. T!e c%rrent si#nals of

t!e fa%lty p!ases and "olta#e si#nals of t!e !ealt!y p!ases are maintained at rated "al%e. T!en "olta#e si#nals of t!e selected fa%lty p!ases are decreased in steps till relay operates. At t!is point> comp%ter !olds t!e present "al%e of fa%lt "olta#e> $ c%rrent si#nals and p!ase difference -et een t!em and = I is calc%lated and si#nals are a#ain

applied to t!e relay and operatin# time is determined. Testin# is repeated it! different p!ase an#les. All t!e "al%es of R> M 6 are displayed on t!e monitor and also stored in t!e data file. 8$ /)a0(* Te,t

T!e o-Cecti"e is to determine t!e acc%racy of t!e relay %nder transient fa%lt conditions. Transient data sample ."olta#e and c%rrent1 are o-tained from off<line analysis of po er system model and stored in t!e memory .e.#. 16 sampleAcycle1. T!ese transient data si#nals are applied to t!e relay and its acc%racy is c!ec0ed. Transient test data consists of "olta#e and c%rrent of steady state prefa%lt sample> fa%lt transient and fe of post fa%lt steady state sample. T!ese P' -ased pro#ramma-le relay test sc!eme is intended for off<line testin# of "ario%s protection e&%ipments. cycles

-'''-

R*$*R*:'*S
1. 2. 3. )odern Po er Station Practice 8ol.4 )a!aras!tra State *lectricity 7oard> Po er System Protection. Protection System ; :TP' P%-lication

4. 5. 6. 7.

Protecti"e Relay Application 4%ide> 4*' Alst!om 4*' Alst!omA*n#lis! *lectric Relay )an%als +ndian Standard Specification for 'Ts 6 PTs A co%rse in *lectrical Po er> )./ Soni> P.)A 4%pta> ,.S. 7!atna#ar