AEROSPACE LABORATORY

GENERAL INFORMATION MANUAL

1. Introduction
2. Laboratory Format
3. Recommended Guideline !or E"#eriment Re#ort
$. Laboratory Noteboo%
&. Re#ort Mar%in' (rocedure
). *oure Mar% +rea%do,n
-. Re!erence Te"t A.ailable
/. *ollection and Treatment o! E"#erimental 0ata
1. 0imenional Analyi
1
1 Introduction
E"#erimental ,or%2 in mot ituation you ,ill encounter2 i 3uic% and dirty com#ared to t4e ytem
you ,ill %nd in t4e Under'raduate Laboratory. Ty#ically2 e"#erimental etu# are aembled !rom #art
o! ot4er to com#lete a #eci%c ta% 5uually a 'raduate de'ree6 and really only !unction !or about &7
o! t4e total time a reearc4er #end creatin' it and debu''in' it. *onnection are nearly al,ay made
in a tem#orary manner !rom borro,ed cable and alli'ator lead. A ,ee% a!ter t4e #ro8ect i com#lete
and all t4e lender 4a.e reclaimed t4eir #iece2 t4e a##aratu it a a 'iant #ile o! e3ui#ment2 not a
co4erent ytem. T4e ne"t reearc4er alon' in.ariably moan t4at not4in' e.er ,or% and t4ey can9t
belie.e t4e reult t4e lat reearc4er 'ot.
*om#uter data ac3uiition i ued only ,4ere t4e .olume o! data e"ceed a 4uman9 ability to record
it. 0ata ac3uiition ytem ,ill in.ariably ,rite t4e data to a #ro#rietary %le !ormat on an iolated
com#uter ytem re3uirin' e"teni.e e!!ort to 'et data to an analyi #ro'ram on a ,or%tation or
central com#uter. O! coure2 t4e analyi #ro'ram2 i! one e"it2 ne.er doe ,4at i re3uired !or t4i
e"#eriment and ,a ,ritten 3 reearc4er a'o. Mont42 ometime year are #ent doin' an e"#eriment
t4at actual ta%e le t4an 2$ 4our to #er!orm.
E"#erimental ,or% i 4ard. It i mana'in' many mall .ariable to #roduce acce#table reult. E":
#erimentation i a %ill t4at a reearc4er mut de.elo#. A lar'e #art o! t4e e"#erimentation i learnin'
#atience and learnin' to do t4in' correctly t4e %rt time. E.ery ta% mut be done in a care!ul2 me:
t4odical manner and t4en2 no matter 4o, im#le t4e ta%2 it mut be rec4ec%ed at leat once to 'uard
a'aint error. A 'ood e"#erimentalit %no, t4e limitation o! bud'et and circumtance. Gi.en t4ee
contraint2 t4ey ,ill aemble t4e ytem ,it4 t4e 'reatet accuracy and #reciion #oible.
2 Laboratory Format
T4e laboratory incor#orate $ e"#eriment; 1 !or Mec4anic o! <olid and <tructure2 AER3-3F; 2 !or
Aerodynamic2 AER3=-F2 and 1 !or Gadynamic2 AER31=<. (re#aration mut be 4anded in on t4e
4our at t4e tart o! t4e laboratory. Formal re#ort mut be 4anded in one ,ee% a!ter t4e e"#eriment
i #er!ormed. T4e laboratory noteboo% entry !or eac4 laboratory e"#eriment ,ill be mar%ed a!ter t4e
re#ort i 4anded in and be!ore t4e end o! t4e term.
T4e ,ebite aociated ,it4 t4e laboratorie i> ,,,.coure.ece.utoronto.ca?aer3==y?. Any re3uired
%le may be !ound 4ere.
2
2.1 (re#aration
@our re#ort #re#aration an,er mut be ubmitted at t4e be'innin' o! t4e cla be!ore tartin' t4e
e"#eriment. (re#are your an,er on looe lea! #a#er2 t4ee ,ill not be returned. A mar% o! Aero ,ill
be ai'ned i! a #re#aration i not ubmitted #rom#tly at t4e be'innin' o! t4e lab #eriod.
2.2 Re#ort
Re#ort mut be 4anded in to t4e intructor in a blue Faculty re#ort co.er 5a.ailable !rom t4e En'ineer:
in' <tore6 no later t4an one ,ee% a!ter com#letin' t4e e"#eriment. Re#ort ,ill not be returned.
(enalty mar% ,ill be ai'ned to late re#ort at t4e rate o! &7 #er buine day. T4e Under'raduate
Lab dro# bo" i a.ailable !or a!ter 4our and ,ee%end dro#. <tudent are a%ed to ,rite t4e date and
time t4at t4e re#ort ,a dro##ed o!! on t4e re#ort be!ore de#oitin' it B i! it i abent2 t4e day and time
it i remo.ed !rom t4e dro# bo" ,ill be ta%en. T4e end o! one ubmiion day and t4e be'innin' o!
t4e ne"t ,ill be ta%en a until t4e intructor lea.e on lab day and &#m on non:lab day. T4i 4onour
ytem ,ill continue until t4ere i caue to belie.e it i bein' abued.
3 Recommended Guideline !or E"#eriment Re#ort
T4e te"t #ortion o! a re#ort 5!rom Introduction to *oncluion6 mut not e"ceed 1= double #aced ty#ed
#a'e but a 'ood re#ort ,ill be 4orter. Mar% ,ill be deducted !or o.eriAed te"t. T4ere i no
retriction on t4e number o! Fi'ure2 Table2 *om#uter #rintout and (ro'ram. Mar% ,ill NOT be
deducted !or a 4and,ritten re#ort. I! uin' a ,ord #roceor2 you may ue it to !ormat e3uation and
ymbol only i! it doe t4em #ro#erly2 ot4er,ie it i #re!erable and more e"#edient to ,rite t4em in
neatly by 4and.
A!ter year o! mar%in' re#ort2 it 4a become clear t4e #eo#le ,4o #roduce t4e lon'et te"t ection in
t4eir re#ort uually 4a.e le o! an idea o! ,4at t4ey ,i4 to con.ey and in.ariably end u# con.eyin'
le. In #roducin' monter re#ort tudent do not increae t4eir mar%2 t4ey ,ate tremendou amount
o! time2 uually in !ront o! a com#uter2 and t4en com#lain t4e re#ort re3uire an undue amount o! ,or%.
<ince t4e re#ort are 'eneral ,ort4 more t4an #roblem et in ot4er coure2 tudent are tem#ted to
#end e.ery 4our bet,een doin' t4e e"#eriment and 4andin' in t4e re#ort ,or%in' on t4e re#ort to t4e
detriment o! t4eir ot4er coure. It i tron'ly recommended t4at you do not #end more t4an / to 1=
4our #re#arin' any o! t4ee lab re#ort.
T4e u''etion #ro.ided 4ere er.e merely a #ointer !or t4e #roduction o! a 'ood re#ort. T4ere i
no abolutely correct met4odolo'y !or re#ort #re#aration : a critical re.ie,er can al,ay %nd a !e, i9
to dot or t9 to cro. <tyle manual ,4ic4 et t4e tandard !or cienti%c 8ournal c4an'e ,it4 time2
3
and t4i i 'ood; not4in' 4ould be cat in tone2 unle it really i t4e lat ,ord. Mot tudent ,ill
be ubmittin' #a#er !or #ublication in t4e near !uture and re#ort are an e"cellent .e4icle !or 4onin'
!ormattin' and literary %ill.
5a6 +e lo'ical2 conitent2 clear and concie in your ,or%. Guide t4e reader t4rou'4 t4e te# you 4a.e
co.ered durin' t4e e"#eriment. Crite only to con.ey in!ormation. T4in% o! eac4 entence a a tool2
eac4 #ara'ra#4 a a com#onent o! t4e lar'er ,or%. 0o not meander; t4i ma%e mar%in' .ery di!%cult.
Ue table and %'ure liberally2 ue ,ord only ,4ere neceary.
5b6 Try to be neat2 em#loy 'ood En'li4 5c4ec% your 'rammar and #ellin'62 don9t in.ent ,ord. In
%ee#in' ,it4 !aculty #olicy to increae t4e communication %ill o! En'ineerin' tudent2 mar% ,ill
be deducted and u''etion ,ill be #ro.ided.
5c6 0o not re,rite AN@ te"t !rom t4e lab manual into your re#ort. @ou may ue e3uation !rom t4e
manual and #4otoco#y %'ure !or incluion in your re#ort.
Table o! *ontent
(leae include a table o! content B it #ro.ide a ue!ul 'uide2 and only t4e #a'e number c4an'e !rom
re#ort to re#ort. Dere i an e"am#le table o! content ,it4 etimated #a'e len't4 !or eac4 ection.
Re#ort ,ill not be mar%ed on 4o, ,ell t4eir ection con!orm to t4ee etimation.
(a'e
1 Introduction
<
1?2
2 Notation 1
3 E"#erimental (rocedure 1 line
and Reult 1 #a'e
$ Error analyi 2
& 0icuion 2 : $
) <u''etion
<
1?2
- *oncluion
<
1?2
/ Re!erence and +iblio'ra#4y
Table T4ee are your reult
Fi'ure T4ee are your reult
A##endice
3.1 Introduction
Gi.e t4e reader a concie o.er.ie, o! t4e e"#eriment and it i'ni%cance in t4e aerodynamic %eld.
$
3.2 Notation
(4otoco#y2 cut and #ate t4i #a'e !rom t4e laboratory manual and add additional entrie to t4e bottom
o! t4e lit.
3.3 E"#erimental (rocedure and Reult
0o not re,rite t4e E"#eriment (rocedure !rom t4e lab manual in your re#ort; it i u!%cient to record>
ET4e #rocedure !rom t4e laboratory manual F1G ,a !ollo,ed.H B one line and one re!erence. <tate
any i'ni%cant de.iation !rom t4e #rocedure decribed. To a.e time2 a.e a model ,ord #roceor
%le ,it4 t4e re#ort ection 4eadin' and t4i ,ritten under (rocedure. Da.e t4e laboratory manual a
Re!erence F1G under Re!erence. 0u#licate t4i %le to tart eac4 ne, re#ort.
Re!er to all t4e reult you 4a.e ummariAed in t4e table and %'ure. Guide t4e reader2 e"#lain ,4at
you did2 re!er to am#le calculation2 com#uter #ro'ram and am#le out#ut in t4e a##endice I
or'aniAe and #reent your reult in a concie co4erent !a4ion. Ma%e im#le ober.ation baed on
t4e reult> ET4e relation4i# i linear.H Re!er to e3uation ,4ere needed I re,rite t4em !rom t4e lab
manual i! re3uired to clari!y your decri#tion. Include #4otoco#ie o! im#ortant %'ure i! neceary.
Al,ay #ro.ide am#le calculation in an a##endi". I! you 4a.e ome analyi o! your o,n2 include it
in t4i ection. T4i ection i t4e 'lue t4at ma%e all o! t4e table and %'ure in t4e bac% o! t4e re#ort
ma%e ene I ue only a muc4 'lue a i neceary to 'et t4e reader to t4e ne"t ection.
3.$ Error Analyi
T4i ection i .ery im#ortant not only !or t4e numerical reliability you can attac4 to your reult2 it alo
er.e a a meaure !or e.aluatin' t4e ource o! error aociated ,it4 t4e e3ui#ment and t4e met4od
ued. Re.ie, your data critically. Re!er to am#le error calculation in t4e a##endice. Readin' error
4ould o! coure a##ear in t4e table t4at ummariAe your ra, data. 0o not ay anyt4in' more about
readin' error aociated ,it4 readin' a tatic cale. Gi.e etimate !or t4e error bound on your %nal
reult 5t4ee mut be accom#anied by u!%cient calculation2 etc.2 to 'i.e t4em credence6. *omment
on t4e ource o! error in t4e e"#eriment2 3uanti!yin' ,4ic4 are lar'e error and ,4ic4 are mall error.
Aein' t4e error in an e"#erimental meaurement re3uire %ill and e"#erience and eac4 lab e"#eri:
ment 4ould be ued a an o##ortunity to de.elo# t4oe %ill. Read t4e ection on ET4e *ollection and
Treatment o! E"#erimental 0ataH in t4i manual2 and ad4ere to t4oe #rece#t.
&
3.& 0icuion
It i di!%cult to de%ne ,4at mut be in a dicuion. *ertainly2 tudent 4ould dicu error2 not
4o, t4ey numerically a!!ected t4e reult I t4at i t4e Error Analyi ection I but #er4a# 4o, t4e
met4od or #rinci#le o! meaurement #roduce t4em. <uc4 analye could eaily lead to u''etion
o! #oible modi%cation to t4e met4od or a##aratu but actual u''etion 4ould be made in t4e
<u''etion ection.
*ertainly omet4in' 4ould be aid about t4e reult2 but don9t re4a4 t4e Reult ection I ay t4in'
t4at are not im#le ober.ation2 t4in' t4at illuminate t4e i'ni%cance o! t4e reult. C4at did t4e
e"#eriment #ro.eJ
*ertainly t4ere 4ould be ome e.idence o! e"ternal readin' in t4i ection. 0o not cite boo% merely
to brin' in irrele.ant !act or to u##ort material already in t4e laboratory manual. Ue e"ternal readin'
to ay omet4in' ne,.
An,erin' ome o! t4ee 3uetion could be #art o! t4e dicuion> *ould analyi alone 4a.e #ro.ided
t4e an,er ,it4out t4e e3ui#mentJ Da t4e e"#eriment been ,ell dei'ned !or tutorial #ur#oeJ Ca
t4e e3ui#ment ade3uate !or t4e ta%J *ould t4e a##aratu be em#loyed to meaure ome ot4er ue!ul
#arameter ,4ic4 ,ould en4ance t4e e"#eriment 5maybe ,it4 a mall modi%cation6J 0o your reult
a'ree ,it4 t4e t4eoryJ I! not2 o!!er e"#lanation. *an you e"tra#olate your data to reac4 to,ard !urt4er
concluionJ *omment on trend and de.iation2 etc.
+e critical2 4o,e.er2 a diatribe o! com#laint i incone3uential unle accom#anied by u''etion !or
.iable im#ro.ement. For e"am#le2 a tic%y meter or a lea%y .al.e i not a ma8or #roblem and deer.e
at mot one line o! comment B #articularly ,4en !ollo,in' common ene #rocedure com#letely
alle.iate t4e #roblem.
3.) <u''etion
<u''et im#ro.ement or c4an'e to t4e met4od or a##aratu.
3.- *oncluion
T4i ection 4ould be concie2 ummariAin' t4e alient !eature o! your ,or%; it 4ould be no more
t4an one #a'e in len't4. C4at did you dico.er !rom your ,or%J Ca a'reement ,it4 t4eory 'oodJ
0id your dicuion lead to any concluionJ
)
3./ Re!erence and +iblio'ra#4y
Re!erence are t4e litin' o! t4e biblio'ra#4ic data !or boo% actually re!erenced in t4e re#ort. Re!er:
ence F1G ,ill li%ely be t4e laboratory manual a cited in t4e E"#erimental (rocedure ection. Entrie
mut be lited in t4e order t4ey are re!erenced.
T4e biblio'ra#4y contain a litin' o! all ot4er boo% read t4at contributed to t4e re#ort but ,ere not
e"#licitly re!erenced any,4ere in t4e te"t. T4e biblio'ra#4y entrie mut be lited in t4e al#4abetical
order by t4e %rt aut4or9 lat name. Re!erence al,ay #recede biblio'ra#4y entrie.
3.1 Table
E.ery #iece o! ra, data you collected 4ould a##ear in a table ,it4 a readin' error 3uoted. All interme:
diate an,er 5i! any6 4ould alo be ummariAed in table. All %nal an,er !rom a erie o! run o!
t4e ame ty#e 4ould be ummariAed in one table. T4i ummary i ue!ul !or com#arin' t4e di!!erent
am#le or 4o,in' t4e a!!ect o! a .aryin' #arameter. Table need not be ele'ant table #roduced by
,ord #roceor. A !ormatted out#ut !rom a com#uter #ro'ram2 ,it4 #ro#er 4eadin' and notation
neatly added2 could ma%e a %ne table. Table al,ay #roceed t4e %'ure.
3.1= Fi'ure
In ome contract re#ort2 en'ineer are #aid by t4e %'ure or 'ra#4 becaue t4i i ,4ere t4e real tec4ni:
cal in!ormation i communicated. A lar'e #art o! t4e te"t i only to bind t4e re#ort to'et4er and e"#lain
t4e data in t4e table and %'ure.
Gra#4 4ould #reent e.ery et o! data ,4ere t4ere are trend not ade3uately een in a table I li%e a
linear relation or ome ot4er cur.e. E"#erimental data 4ould al,ay be #lotted a'aint a t4eoretical
cur.e i! one e"it. Gra#4 4ould al,ay include error bar2 a title> ETable 1> 0i#lacement . Time
!or a &m 0iameter Rollin' C4eelH2 a"i label> E0i#lacement 5
x
6 in meterH2 a 'rid and2 i! 4and dra,n
on 'ra#4 #a#er2 a lo'ical acendance o! a"i cale ,it4 'rid line. For intance2 do not mar% unit o!
&m !or e.ery - 3uare o! 'ra#4 #a#er2 ue & or 1= 3uare.
0O NOT ue a com#uter #lottin' #ac%a'e to #roduce microco#ic2 in!erior #lot. Matlab doe an
acce#table 8ob 5ub#lotI66 and 4a t4e ability to #lot ,it4 error bar and a uable 'rid. (leae dra, a
moot4 line on t4e #a#er uin' Frenc4 cur.e i! your 'ra#4in' #ac%a'e doe not do a 'ood 8ob. Gra#4
t4at are mall or lac% a ue!ul 'rid or error bar may be ued to com#are data !rom t,o or more ource
or ued to 4o, trend. Cit4 t4e #ro#er #reentation o! e"#erimental data2 a reader can eaily and
accurately e"tract tec4nical data !rom your 'ra#4 I t4e #ur#oe o! a 'ra#4 in a e"#erimental !ormal
re#ort. Kournal #a#er ue microco#ic 'ra#4 ,it4 no 'rid becaue no one i e"#ected to read data !rom
t4em. A re#ort ,it4 4and ,ritten e3uation and !ull #a'e2 4and dra,n #lot on #ro#er 'ra#4 #a#er2 ,it4
-
error bar ,4ere a##ro#riate2 i u#erior to mot com#uter 'enerated material. Dand #roduced material
in t4ee area i acce#table to any contractor ,4o i intereted in t4e reult o! t4e e"#eriment.
0ia'ram 4ould be inerted2 #4otoco#ied !rom t4e lab manual or any ot4er ource 5#ro#erly re!er:
enced6 ,4ere neceary to 'uide t4e reader. I! you are tryin' to e"#lain an idea o! your o,n2 intead o!
#endin' t,o #a'e o! te"t e"#lainin' it2 %etc4 t,o dia'ram and #end le t4at 4al! o! a #a'e on t4e
idea.
0o not inter#ere /.&9"119 %'ure ,it4 your te"t. From time to time2 #4oto reducin' a dia'ram and
inertin' it into t4e te"t i deirable. 0o not #4oto reduce a 'ra#4 unle it i only to 4o, trend a in
cienti%c 8ournal.
3.11 A##endice
T4i i t4e ection !or all t4e data2 #rintout2 com#uter #ro'ram2 Matlab cri#t and am#le calculation
Cit4out t4i material2 t4e re#ort ,ould be incom#lete but it i too detailed and bul%y to #lace in any
ot4er ection.
$ Laboratory Noteboo%
Eac4 e"#eriment 4a ome in!ormation or data ,4ic4 ,ill need to be recorded. T4i 4ould be done
in a 4ard:co.er laboratory noteboo%. T4ee are t4e #ermanent record o! your e"#erimental ,or%.
Remember t4at in t4e indutrial milieu a lab record may #ro.ide tem#oral con%rmation !or #atent
ai'nation2 o be ure to date all entrie. All lab boo% ,ill be mar%ed be!ore t4e concluion o! t4e
term.
<ome noteboo% 'uideline are lited belo,>
5a6 (ut your name on t4e !ront co.er.
5b6 Reer.e t4e %rt t,o #a'e !or a Table o! *ontent.
5c6 Number eac4 #a'e2 0ate eac4 #a'e
5d6 0on9t tear out #a'e : 8ut cro out any irrele.ant entry.
5e6 Al,ay ue #enL (encil i not #ermanent.
5!6 Eac4 tudent 4ould %ee# 4i?4er o,n com#lete data record !or all e"#eriment. I! your #artner
record t4e data be ure to obtain your o,n co#y. 0ata entered directly into la#to# com#uter 5etc.6
4ould be #rinted out and attac4ed in t4e noteboo%.
5'6 Crite do,n e.eryt4in' you do : you may !or'et omet4in' by re#ort ,ritin' time.
546 Note in #articular any de.iation !rom t4e lab manual #rocedure.
/
& Re#ort Mar%in' (rocedure
T4e mar%in' c4eme em#loyed i 'i.en belo, and t4e a##ro"imate mar% !or eac4 ection i lited
in #arent4ee2 ,it4 t4e !ollo,in' ca.eat> T4e amount o! data reduction2 analyi2 error etimation2
number o! %'ure2 table2 etc.2 .arie !or eac4 e"#eriment and t4e ,ei'4tin' !or eac4 o! t4e element
lited i ad8uted li'4tly to re%ect t4eir relati.e contribution.
5a6 Introduction *6> uitable #roblem ummary and #reamble
5b6 Notation +6> conitency and correct .alue !or contant
5d6 E"#erimental #rocedure and reult M6> am#le calculation and inde#endent analyi2 data #re:
ented in t4e table and %'ure
5e6 Error
tion and conideration and dicuion o! all ource o! error
5!6 0icuion o! reult M6> com#re4eni.e aement and inter#retation o! all a#ect o! t4e e"#er:
iment2 com#arion ,it4 t4eory2 e.idence o! e"ternal readin'2 etc.
5'6 *oncluion E6> concie and #ertinent ummary o! t4e e"#eriment and reult
546 Re!erence2 +iblio'ra#4y E6
5i6 A##endice E6> 4ould be reer.ed !or analyi or au"iliary data 'ermane to t4e re#ort but too len't4
to include in t4e main te"t
586 Table E6> titled 4eadin'2 lo'ical layout2 all neceary #arameter lited2 unit?dimenion2 error
bound T4e #reentation o! t4e table ,ill be mar%ed 4ere. T4e data contained ,a already mar%ed
under 5d6
5%6 Fi'ure E6> titled ca#tion2 #4otoco#ie ,4ere neceary2 'ra#4 4ould 4a.e le'end2 label on
a"e2 cur.e %t ,it4 e3uation ,4ere a##ro#riate; 'i.e e3uation !or your %t and correlation coe!%:
cient2 unit?dimenion T4e #reentation o! t4e %'ure ,ill be mar%ed 4ere. T4e data contained ,a
already mar%ed under 5d6
5l6 En'li4 E6> co4erence2 entence tructure2 'rammar2 #ellin'. I! t4e ue o! lan'ua'e i o con!uin'
t4e tec4nical in!ormation i not communicated2 mar% cannot be 'ranted !or t4e material t4at ,a not
communicated.
5m6 Le'ibility and neatne E6 : uually an iue only in am#le calculation and notation on %'ure.
Dand,ritten re#ort may u!!er in t4i cate'ory i! t4e ,ritin' i .ery di!%cult to read. I! it i not le'ible
at all2 mar% cannot be 'ranted !or t4e material t4at ,a not communicated.
1
5n6 Ori'inal idea and u''etion E6> Ue a e#arate ection !or t4i cate'ory
) *oure Mar% +rea%do,n
*oure mar% are baed on ,ritten !ormal re#ort2 an,er to #re#aration 3uetion2 and t4e laboratory
noteboo% entry !or t4e e"#eriment. Eac4 e"#eriment i ,ort4 -.&7 in AER3=-F and 1=7 in AER3-3F
and AER31=<.
(re#aration 2=
Re#ort 1==
Lab noteboo% &
Total 12&
- Re!erence Te"t A.ailable
T4e !ollo,in' te"t are a.ailable on re3uet. All boo% are re!erence only !or ue in t4e Aero#ace
Laboratory. All te"t re!erenced in your laboratory manual are a.ailable.
Fluid 0ynamic 0ra'2 <. F. Doerner
*atalo' o! Lo, Reynold Number Air!oil 0ata !or Cind Tunnel A##lication2 <. K. Miley
T4eory o! Cin' <ection I. D. Abbott2 A. E. Non 0oen4o!!
A##lied Aerodynamic2 L. +airto,
Air#lane (er!ormance <tability and *ontrol2 *. 0. (er%in2 R. E. Da'e
Aerodynamic o! N?<TOL2 Fli'4t2 +. C. Mc*ormic%
Introduction to Fli'4t2 K. 0. Anderon
Fundamental o! Aerodynamic2 K. 0. Anderon
Foundation o! Aerodynamic + co#ie62 A. M. Oeut4e2 K. 0. <c4etAer
Cind Tunnel Tetin'2 A. (o#e
Lo, <#eed Cind Tunnel Tetin'2 A. (o#e
Di'4 <#eed Cind Tunnel Tetin'2 A. (o#e2 O. L. Goin
A##lied Dydro and Aeromec4anic + co#ie62 L. (randtl2 O. G. Tiet8en
Fundamental o! Dydro and Aeromec4anic2 L. (randtl2 O. G. Tiet8en
+oundary Layer T4eory2 D. <c4lic4tin'
(rinci#le and (ractice o! Laer 0o##ler Anemometry2 F. 0urt2 A. Mellin'
T4e Laer 0o##ler Tec4ni3ue2 L. E. 0rain
Elementary Mec4anic o! Fluid2 Dunter Roue
Fluid 0ynamic2 N. L. <treeter
T4e 0ynamic and T4ermodynamic o! *om#reible Fluid Flo, 5Nol. 1 and 262 A. D. <4a#iro
Element o! T4ermodynamic and Deat Tran!er2 E. F. Obert
1=
Element o! Gadynamic2 D. C. Lie#mann2 A. Ro4%o
Dandboo% o! Table !or A##lied En'ineerin' <cience2 *R* (re
Dandboo% o! *4emitry and (4yic2 *R* (re
Dandboo% o! Mat4ematic2 *R* (re
Introduction to t4e Oinetic T4eory o! Ga Flo,2 G. N. (atteron
/ *ollection and Treatment o! E"#erimental 0ata
<ome im#le 'uideline are 'i.en 4ere to enable you to #er!orm an accurate and uccinct etimate
o! t4e error in calculated #arameter deri.ed !rom your e"#erimental reult. C4ile by no mean
com#re4eni.e t4e in!ormation 'i.en 4ere i ade3uate !or all t4e Aerolab e"#eriment. <ometime t4e
error analye 4anded in are eit4er inade3uate2 !ar too e"teni.e 5and ometime ,ron'6 or irrele.ant.
/.1 *ollection o! 0ata
5a6 Note any idioyncraie aociated ,it4 t4e e3ui#ment. For e"am#le2 i! t4ere i a

1 mm de.iation
o! t4e Aero .alue on a manometer board ,it4 no #reure in#ut2 t4en it i #ointle to record data to
=.=2 mm. <imilarly2 i! %o, %uctuation caue t4e column 4ei'4t to .ary by

2 mm2 ma%e a note; t4i

could be t4e mot i'ni%cant error in your reult. <uc4 .ariation may alo c4an'e ,it4 di!!erent %o,
condition o do not automatically aume a contant error t4rou'4out a erie o! ober.ation.
5b6 0o t4e readin' dri!t ,it4 timeJ
5c6 I! you re#eated a et o! readin' ,ould you obtain t4e ame .alueJ
Do, ,ould t4ey c4an'e i! you re#eated your ober.ation e.eral 4our a!ter t4e e3ui#ment 4ad re:
mained unuedJ
5d6 Remember #reciion i NOT t4e ame a accuracy. It i #oible2 !or e"am#le2 to ue a & di'it
.oltmeter and meaure a #otential o! 3.=2$)N but becaue o! an intrumental de!ect t4e true .alue may
be 3.21=)N2 i.e.2 3.2N ,ould be a more accurate .alue !or t4e #otential but 3.=2$)N i more #recie
5more i'ni%cant %'ure6.
5e6 I! you meaure omet4in' in inc4e2 #ound2 etc.2 in t4e ma8ority o! circumtance you 4ould
con.ert to <I unit !or your analyi and #reentation.
5!6 Note all de.iation !rom Pnormal9 5i.e.2 lab manual6 #rocedure : be a detecti.e and remain alert to
ober.e any inconitency or unuual be4a.ior.
11
/.2 Treatment o! 0ata
5a6 Nery !e, o! t4e 3uantitie meaured in t4e laboratory ,ill 4a.e an accuracy better t4an about 27;
4o,e.er i! you are uin' ome unmeaured contant in your calculation do not round o!! until a!ter
you 4a.e %ni4ed your com#utation2 i.e.2
ATMO<(DERI* (RE<<URE Q 1=1.32& NOT 1=1 %(a 5error Q .376
AIR 0EN<IT@ Q 1.22& NOT 1.2 %'?m 5error Q 276
3
It i eay to carry t4e e"tra di'it t4rou'4 your com#utation and round o!! later : t4e t,o item abo.e
reult in a 2.37 uncertainty and t4i ,ill add unnecearily to your e"#erimental error.
5b6 0o i'nore incone3uential error. @ou 4ould e"amine t4e meaurement you are attem#tin' to
3uanti!y : note ,4ic4 #arameter are mot i'ni%cant and e"#end e"tra e!!ort in im#ro.in' t4eir accu:
racy.
For e"am#le2 i! a 3uantity i 3uared in your analyi it ,ill 4a.e it relati.e error doubled; t4ere!ore
5i! you can62 ma%e a #ecial e!!ort to meaure it a care!ully a #oible.
5c6 For almot all #ractical #ur#oe you can aume a erie o! meaurement on t4e ame #arameter
i normally ditributed 5#urit may 4udder at t4i aum#tion but it i .alid in mot cae6. *alculate
t4e tandard de.iation : t4i re3uire a minimum o! about 1= readin' !or a reliable etimate.
/.3 Error Analyi
5a6 T4ere may be occaion ,4en you 4a.e no recoure but to carry de.iation t4rou'4 your calculation
in order to determine t4e error bound in t4e %nal reult. T4i i a #o,er!ul and #ractical met4od2
4o,e.er !or t4e lab try to em#loy t4e analytical met4od decribed belo, ,4ere #oible; you ,ill 'ain
e"#erience ,it4 t4e tec4ni3ue and in mot cae reduce t4e amount o! ,or% re3uired.
5b6 In 'eneral al,ay 3uote t4e relati.e error 5i.e.2 Re

&76; t4i can be a##reciated at a 'lance : t4e

reader %no, t4at an error o! &7 in a meaurement o! t4e Reynold number i reaonable and alt4ou'4
Re Q 22311-

111)= i e3ui.alent it i a little 4arder to dicern t4e e"#erimental accuracy.

Ue t4e 9TOTAL 0IFFERENTIAL9 tec4ni3ue !or t4e com#utation o! error ,4ere #oible. @ou 4a.e
#robably all ued t4i at ome time or ot4er but a !e, e"am#le are 'i.en 4ere to re!re4 your memory.
ERAM(LE 1
I =
E
R
A6
12
dI =
I
E
dE +
I
R
dR =
1
R
dE
E
R
2
dR
+6
dI
I
=
dE
E
dR
R
*6
<o t4e ma"imum relati.e error in I i
I
I
|
E
E
| + |
R
R
|
06
and i!
E
and
R
are eac4 meaured ,it4 a tolerance o! 17 t4en
I
I

27.
ERAM(LE 2
T4e relation
P =
M
1
4
D
can be treated a in E"am#le 1 or>
ln P = ln M +
1
4
ln ln D
E6
dP
P
=
dM
M
+
1
4
d

dD
D
F6
P
P
=
M
M
+
1
4

+
D
D
G6
T4e relati.e error contribution due to

in t4i e"am#le i reduced by a !actor o! $.

ERAM(LE 3
P =
E
2
R

P
P
2
E
E
+
R
R
D6
Notice t4at in t4i e"am#le t4e relati.e error contribution o!
E
i doubled2 alt4ou'4 ome #at re#ort
4a.e analye ,4ic4 are e3ui.alent to>
P
P
=
s
E
E
2
+
R
R
2
I6
,4ic4 i im#ly ,ron'L Or>
13
P
P
=
s
2
E
E
2
+
R
R
2
S6
,4ic4 i cloer but till incorrect unle t4ere i ome a #riori reaon to reduce t4e total error by uin'
t4e RM< mean 5e.'.2 your de.iation are 9mot #robable9 error6 and t4e .ariable are inde#endent.
Note t4at D6 re3uire le com#utation and 'i.e t4e correct error bound !or .ariable t4at may be
non:inde#endent.
It i interetin' to note t4at 4itorically ome o! t4e .ery bet e"#erimentalit 4a.e tended to undere:
timate t4e error in t4eir ober.ation2 ometime 3uotin' relati.e error 2 or more time le t4an t4e
true .alue.
@ou can e"tend t4e met4od 8ut decribed to embrace !airly com#licated e"#reion 3uite eaily and
be ure you are not errin' on t4e ,ron' ide.
/.$ Etimation and *om#utation o! Error
A 8uti%cation !or t4e ue o! t4e error analyi tec4ni3ue ,4ic4 4ould be ued !or all Aero#ace
laboratory re#ort i 'i.en 4ere. <ome tudent #erit in uin' t4e RM< error a##roac42 and unle
t4i i ued ,it4 an undertandin' o! it 4ortcomin' t4en t4e reult mut be conidered 3uetionable
at bet.
*onider t4e !ollo,in' e"am#le ,4ere it i deired to calculate t4e error in
z
2 due to .ariation in t4e
ober.ation made on
x
and
y
2 ,4en
z = xy
.
RM< METDO0>
z
z
=
s
x
x
2
+
y
y
2
AERO<(A*E METDO0>
z
z
=
x
x
+
y
y
T4e latter clearly in.ol.e le com#utation and !or more di!%cult e"#reion i im#ler to a##ly ,4en
obtainin' t4e baic relati.e error e3uation !rom a 'i.en !unctional relation.
1$
T4e #roblem may be e"#reed 'eometrically and illutrated ,it4 ome elected numerical .alue !or
x
and
y
.
+y direct ubtitution i! ma"imum and minimum .alue into
z = xy
,e obtain>
z = 100 , zmn = !1 , zm"x = 121
T4ere!ore>
z = 1#
or
21,
i.e.> $
z = 20
T4i may be contrated ,it4 t4e RM< and Aero#ace #rocedure ,4ic4 'i.e>
RM< METDO0>
z
z
=
s
x
x
2
+
y
y
2
=
%
0&01 + 0&01 z = 14 &1
AERO<(A*E METDO0>
z
z
=
x
x
+
y
y
=
1
10
+
1
10
z = 20
1&
In t4i #eci%c e"am#le t4e Aero#ace a##roac4 i cloer to t4at obtained uin' t4e lo,er or u##er
bound.
/.& <ome (oint O!ten Ne'lected C4en Uin' t4e RM< A##roac4
C4en a tatitical e.aluation o! error i #er!ormed uin' t4e RM< met4od2 t4e .ariable 5
x
and
y
in
our e"am#le6 are aumed to be inde#endent. T4i im#lie t4at ,4en
x
i meaured it doe not in%uence
t4e readin' o!
y
and .ice .era.
I! meaurement are truly inde#endent t4e aociated de.iation 5error6 do not add .ectorially becaue
t4ere i t4e #oibility o! com#enation; i.e.2 i! a 4i'4 readin' i obtained !or
x
it may be accom#anied
by a lo, .alue !or
y
. T4i ad8utment mec4anim can be com#ared to a random ,al% ,4ere
'
random
te# o! len't4
(
,ill reult in a total ditance tra.eled o!
(
%
'
2 intead o!
('
. T4e net e!!ect i to
#roduce a lo,er total error in
z
t4an ,ould be obtained by uin' t4e u##er and lo,er bound.
Un!ortunately inde#endence bet,een .ariable i eldom c4ec%ed by e"#erimenter alt4ou'4 t4e cal:
culation i im#le 5at leat !or our t,o:.ariable e"am#le6.
)xy =
1
'
P
*x $ x+*y $ y+
,x ,y
, ,x =
-
P
*x $ x+
'
T4e correlation coe!%cient
)xy
mut be Aero to ue t4e RM< met4od ,it4 e3uanimity2 alt4ou'4 in many
ituation t4e correlation bet,een .ariable may be le t4an unity. In #ractice
x
and
y
are rarely truly
inde#endent and in ome cae a care!ul e"amination re.eal a de'ree o! correlation bet,een #reumed
inde#endent .ariable t4at i ur#riin'.
T4e +ottom Line
(er4a# t4e mot com#ellin' e.idence !or !ollo,in' t4e #rocedure recommended 4ere i #ro.ided by
t4e !ollo,in' table ,4ic4 lit meaurement on t4e .elocity o! li'4t obtained by 4i'4ly com#etent
e"#erimenter.
T4e im#ortance o! a correct e.aluation o! 9c9 4a ob.iou rami%cation t4rou'4out cience2 ne.ert4ele
4itory 4o, t4i %eld to be re#lete ,it4 e"am#le o! error underetimation.
1)













E"am#le> Nelocity o! Li'4t in Nacuo
Aut4or Nelocity 5%m?6 Error +ound OOJ
Mic4elon R6 2112-1)

$ @
(eae T6 2112--$

3 N
+ir'e a6 2112--)

$ N
Anderon b6 2112-1)

1$ @
Ala%on i6 2112-12.3

2.$ @
Douton i6 2112-1&

1 N
+er'trand 46 2112-12.-

=.2& @
Danen and +ol 46 2112-/1.3

=.$ N
+earden and Catt i6 2112-1=.=

=.1 N
0u Mond and *o4en i6 2112-1=.2

=.1 N
+er'trand 86 2112-12

) @
T4e current acce#ted .alue i> 2112-12.$&)2

=.==11
It i interetin' to note t4at Mic4elon9 meaurement bound till encom#a t4e #reently acce#ted
.alue; 4e ,a one o! t4e mot 'i!ted and care!ul e"#erimenter o! t4i century. +ir'e9 .alue ,a a
,ei'4ted etimate o! contem#orary data and er.e to illutrate t4e 4aAard o! uc4 ur.ey.
T4e o.erall ucce 4ere o! .$&$ i %ne !or a ma8or lea'ue baeball 4itter but i ub #ar in t4e cienti%c
arena. T4e added a!ety !actor a!!orded by uin' t4e recommended Aero#ace laboratory #rocedure i
#rotection ,ort4 4a.in'2 e#ecially ince t4e RM< a##roac42 unle ued ,it4 care and undertandin'
,ill ty#ically reult in an underetimation o! t4e error bound.
A common ene a##roac42 ,ell laced ,it4 curioity2 u#icion and %e#ticim2 i needed to enure
t4at an o.er:o#timitic etimate o! t4e error bound doe not occur.
REMEM+ER> More tudent UN0ERetimate t4an ONERetimate t4eir error.
/.) A Fe, More E"am#le
Treatment o! E'oodH linear #lot
I! t4e e"#erimental data %t a relation ,ell t4en 'ra#4in' t4e reult in t4e uual manner 5,it4 error
bar t4at dia##ear in t4e ,idt4 o! t4e dra,n line6 con.ey little e"tra in!ormation o.er t4e tabulated
data.
A more ue!ul #rocedure i to #lot t4e relati.e de.iation. T4i i illutrated belo, by com#arin'
t4e data !rom t,o .elocity meaurin' intrument ued in t4e L0N e"#eriment. In t4i e"#eriment
1-
t4e correlation coe!%cient i calculated by t4e com#uter but remember t4i ONL@ indicate ,4et4er
t4ere i a linear relation4i# bet,een t4e t,o .ariable2 it doe not dicloe ,4et4er or not ytematic
de.iation e"it. T4e #lot belo, 'i.e one ome con%dence t4at t4ere are no ytematic de.iation.
1/
T4e data belo, 4a been c4oen to 4o, t4at alt4ou'4 t,o et o! meaurement can be #er!ectly
correlated t4ere may be a ytematic error bet,een t4em ,4ic4 can be 4i'4li'4ted by a #lot o! t4e
de.iation. T4i ytematic dicre#ancy may be due to 4eatin'2 4yterei2 etc.2 but 4ould alert t4e
ober.er t4at omet4in' may be ami and t4e e"#erimental tec4ni3ue deer.e cloer crutiny.
11
Dyterei
Mot tudent are !amiliar ,it4 t4e claical ma'netic 4yterei dia'ram belo,>
Do,e.er2 many !ail to note t4e !ar more #re.alent occurrence o! t4i #4enomenon in numerou labora:
tory ituation. T4ere are e.en circumtance ,4ere t4i e!!ect i #reent in Aerolab e"#eriment.
Error in a !unctional relation
(roblem> 0etermine t4e error in t4e Mac4 number !or t4e !ollo,in' e"#reion>
.1
.0
=
/&0M
2
0&0+
2&0
2#&00!M
1
ln .1 ln .0 = 2 &0 ln /&0M
2
0&0+ *l n2#&00! + 1 ln M+
0i!!erentiatin'>
d.1
.1
d.0
.0
=
2&0*1M dM+
3&0M
2
0&0
1
dM
M
Gi.en>
.1 = 202
2 and
.1 = 0
2
.0 = 2!1
and
.0 = 0
2
M = 1 &4!!1
<ubtitution t4en 'i.e>
|
.1
.1
| + |
.0
.0
| |
2&0*1MM+
3&0M
2
0&0
1M
M
|
2=
T4ere!ore>
M = 0 &02!!2
Inte'ration error
T4ee include t4oe aociated ,it4 <im#on9 rule2 tra#eAoidal rule2 3uare countin'2 etc. In ome
circumtance t4ee can be treated analytically2 but un!ortunately !or t4e tudent uc4 cae are rare.
More !re3uently t4ere i no recoure ot4er t4an to ue common ene or carry com#utation t4rou'4
,it4 u##er and lo,er bound included in t4e calculation.
Error ,4ic4 occur in a di!!erentiable !unction
3 *x+
inte'rated uin' t4e Tra#eAoidal rule are eay to
treat2 e.'>
I!
|

2
3
x
2
| 4 M
!or all " in Fa2bG
t4en t4e error i
4
M 5
2
*6 "+
12
,4ere t4e inter.al iAe i
5 =
6 "
n
T4ere are imilar !ormula !or ome o! t4e ot4er inte'ration met4od. I! t4e !unctional relation i
intractable t4en a im#le a##roac42 ade3uate !or t4e Aero#ace lab2 i a !ollo,>
Rou'4 #lot t4e cur.e to be inte'rated>
<elect an inter.al ,idt4 4 ,4ic4 i u!%cient to #ermit t4e lo#e o! t4e tra#eAoid to con!orm to t4e
ma"imum cur.ature e"#ected. In t4e %'ure abo.e2 41 i ade3uate at " Q A but i a little too coare at "
Q +2 and 42 ,ould be a better o.erall c4oice.
T4e error in t4e inte'ration can be aeed by etimatin' t4e contribution o! t4e 4aded area ,4ic4
21
are added or ubtracted !rom t4e %nal inte'ral. T4ee area tend to cancel ,4en t4e inte'ration co.er
e3ual conca.e and con.e" re'ion o! t4e !unction.
Furt4er ini'4t can be 'ained !rom an e.aluation o! t4e uni:cur.ed !unction
1
x
>
7
2
1
dx
x
= ln 2 = 0 &2#31411!&&&
Area inte'ration o! t4i !unction ,it4 an inter.al 4 Q =.1 'i.e t4e !ollo,in' reult>
TRA(ETOI0AL Q =.)13--
<IM(<ON9< Q =.)131$)-
A coarer inter.al 4 Q =.& 'i.e>
TRA(ETOI0AL Q =.-=/33
<IM(<ON9< Q =.)1$$$
T4ee reult indicate t4e clear u#eriority o! <im#on9 rule but alo 4o, t4at #ro.idin' t4e elected
inter.al 546 i reaonably %ne; a 'ood a##ro"imation to t4e true inte'ral can be made uin' le o#4i:
ticated met4od.
1 0imenional Analyi
Ce conider t4e tec4nical ytem o! unit ,it4 t4e unit o! !orce
8
2 t4e unit o! len't4
(
2 and t4e unit o!
time
9
. T4e 3uetion o! dimenional analyi i ,4et4er t4ere e"it a combination
:
;
"
<
)

=
>
,4ic4 i a #ure number. T4i re3uire a determination o!
;
2
<
2

2 and
>
uc4 t4at 53uantitie in 3uare
brac%et mean t4e dimenion o! t4at 3uantity6>
:
;
"
<
)

=
>
= 8
0
( 9
0 0
= ?1@
<ince2 4o,e.er2 a dimenionle number raied to an arbitrary #o,er remain a #ure number2 one o! t4e
3uantitie
;
2
<
2

2
>
i arbitrary. (uttin' t4ere!ore
; = 1
,e 'et2 ubtitutin' !or t4e .ariou #4yical
22
3uantitie t4eir dimenion2
: "
<
)

=
>
=
((
<
8

9
2
8
>
9
>
9 (
4
(
2>
= 8
0
( 9
0 0
E3uatin' t4e e"#onent o!
8
2
(
2 and
9
ri'4t and le!t2 e3uation !or
<
2

and
>
are obtained2 namely2
+ > = 0
1 + < 4 2> = 0
2 + > 1 = 0
T4i lead to t4e olution
< = 1 , = 1 , > = 1
i.e.2 t4e only #oible dimenionle combination o!
:
2
;
2
)
2 and
=
i
: "
)
=
= R
I! it 4ad been %no,n in ad.ance t4at
)
and
=
only a##ear in t4e combination
=
?
)
2 i.e.2
> =
t4e
deri.ation ,ould 4a.e been till im#ler. <ince2 t4ere!ore2
=
)
= ? A@ =
(
2
9
and
?: "@ =
(
2
9
it !ollo, t4at
: "BA
i t4e only #oible combination 'i.in' a #ure number.
Alt4ou'4 t4i dimenional analyi #4yically i not o intructi.e a t4e imilarity conideration2 it
4a t4e ad.anta'e o! bein' till a##licable ,4en t4e e"act e3uation o! motion i un%no,n and ,e %no,
only ,4ic4 #4yical 3uantitie are o! im#ortance !or t4e #4enomenon.
23

2