Hardness

Hardness refers to various properties of matter in the solid phase that give it high
resistance to various kinds of shape change when force is applied. Hard matter is
contrasted with soft matter.
Macroscopic hardness is generally characterized by strong intermolecular bonds.
However, the behavior of solid materials under force is complex, resulting in several
different scientific definitions of what might be called "hardness" in everyday usage.
In materials science, there are three principal operational definitions of hardness
Scratch hardness !esistance to fracture or plastic "permanent# deformation
due to friction from a sharp ob$ect
Indentation hardness !esistance to plastic "permanent# deformation due to a
constant load from a sharp ob$ect
Rebound hardness Height of the bounce of an ob$ect dropped on the
material, related to elasticity.
In physics, hardness encompasses
%lasticity , plasticity, viscosity, and viscoelasticity
&trength and strain
'rittleness (ductility and toughness
)he e*uation based definition of hardness is the pressure applied over the pro$ected
contact area between the indenter and the material being tested. +s a result hardness
values are typically reported in units of pressure, although this is only a "true"
pressure if the indenter and surface interface is perfectly flat.
Hardness tests
Brinell scale
,orce diagram
)he Brinell scale characterizes the indentation hardness of materials through the scale
of penetration of an indenter, loaded on a material test-piece. It is one of several
definitions of hardness in materials science.
.roposed by &wedish engineer /ohan +ugust 'rinell in 0122, it was the first widely
used and standardised hardness test in engineering and metallurgy. )he large size of
indentation and possible damage to test-piece limits its usefulness.
)he typical test uses a 02 mm diameter steel ball as an indenter with a 3,222 kgf "41
k5# force. ,or softer materials, a smaller force is used6 for harder materials, a
tungsten carbide ball is substituted for the steel ball. )he indentation is measured and
hardness calculated as
where
P 7 applied force "kgf#
D 7 diameter of indenter "mm#
d 7 diameter of indentation "mm#
)he 'H5 can be converted into the ultimate tensile strength "8)&#, although the
relationship is dependent on the material, and therefore determined empirically. )he
relationship is based on Meyer9s index "n# from Meyer9s law. If Meyer9s index is less
than 4.4 then the ratio of 8)& to 'H5 is 2.3:. If Meyer9s index is greater then the
ratio increases.
BHN is designated by the most commonly used test standards "+&)M %02-2; and
I&< :=2:-0422=# as HBW "H from hardness, B from brinell and W from the material
of the indenter, tungsten "wolfram# carbide. In former standards H' or H'& were
used to refer to measurements made with steel indenters.
H'> is calculated in both standards using the &I units as
where
F 7 applied force "5#
D 7 diameter of indenter "mm#
d 7 diameter of indentation "mm#
Common values
>hen *uoting a 'rinell hardness number "'H5 or more commonly H'#, the
conditions of the test used to obtain the number must be specified. )he standard
format for specifying tests can be seen in the example "H'> 02(3222". "H'>"
means that a tungsten carbide "from the chemical symbol for tungsten# ball indenter
was used, as opposed to "H'&", which means a hardened steel ball. )he "02" is the
ball diameter in millimeters. )he "3222" is the force in kilograms force.
Brinell hardness numbers
Material Hardness
&oftwood "e.g., pine# 0.: H'& 02(022
Hardwood 4.:?@.2 H'& 0.: 02(022
+luminium 0= H'
Aopper 3= H'
Mild steel 042 H'
0;-; "32B# stainless steel annealed 422 H'
CBD
Elass 0==2 H'
Hardened tool steel 0=22?0122 H'
!henium diboride B:22 H'
5ote &tandard test conditions unless otherwise stated
Rockwell scale
)he Rockwell scale is a hardness scale based on the indentation hardness of a
material. )he !ockwell test determines the hardness by measuring the depth of
penetration of an indenter under a large load compared to the penetration made by a
preload. )here are different scales, which are denoted by a single letter, that use
different loads or indenters. )he result, which is a dimensionless number, is noted by
H!F where F is the scale letter.
>hen testing metals, indentation hardness correlates linearly with tensile strength.
)his important relation permits economically important nondestructive testing of bulk
metal deliveries with lightweight, even portable e*uipment, such as hand-held
!ockwell hardness testers.
History
)he differential depth hardness measurement was conceived in 012; by a Giennese
professor named Hudwig in his book Die Kegelprobe "crudely, "the cone trial"#. )he
differential-depth method subtracted out the errors associated with the mechanical
imperfections of the system, such as backlash and surface imperfections. )he
!ockwell hardness tester, a differential-depth machine, was co-invented by
Aonnecticut natives Hugh M. !ockwell "0;12-01=@# and &tanley .. !ockwell "0;;:-
01B2#. + patent was applied for on /uly 0=, 010B. )he re*uirement for this tester was
to *uickly determine the effects of heat treatment on steel bearing races. )he 'rinell
hardness test, invented in 0122 in &weden, was slow, not useful on fully hardened
steel, and left too large an impression to be considered nondestructive. )he
application was subse*uently approved on ,eb. 00, 0101, and holds patent number
I0,41B,0@0. +t the time of invention, both Hugh and &tanley !ockwell "not direct
relations# worked for the 5ew Jeparture Manufacturing Ao. of 'ristol, A). 5ew
Jeparture was a ma$or ball bearing manufacturer, that in 010: became part of 8nited
Motors and shortly later, Eeneral Motors Aorp. +fter leaving the Aonnecticut
company, &tanley !ockwell, then in &yracuse, 5K, applied for an improvement to the
original invention on &ept. 00, 0101, which was approved on 5ov. 0;, 014B. )he new
tester holds patent I0,=0:,42@. !ockwell moved to >est Hartford, A), and made an
additional improvement in 0140. &tanley collaborated with instrument manufacturer
Aharles H. >ilson of the >ilson-Mauelen Aompany in 0142 to commercialize his
invention and develop standardized testing machines. &tanley started a heat-treating
firm circa 0143, the &tanley .. !ockwell Aompany, which still exists in Hartford, A).
)he later-named >ilson Mechanical Instrument Aompany has changed ownership
over the years, and was most recently ac*uired by Instron Aorp. in 0113.
Operation
)he determination of the !ockwell hardness of a material involves the application of
a minor load followed by a ma$or load, and then noting the depth of penetration, vis a
vis, hardness value directly from a dial, in which a harder material gives a higher
number. )he chief advantage of !ockwell hardness is its ability to display hardness
values directly, thus obviating tedious calculations involved in other hardness
measurement techni*ues.
It is typically used in engineering and metallurgy. Its commercial popularity arises
from its speed, reliability, robustness, resolution and small area of indentation.
In order to get a reliable reading the thickness of the test-piece should be at least 02
times the depth of the indentation. +lso, readings should be taken from a flat
perpendicular surface, because round surfaces give lower readings. + correction
factor can be used if the hardness must be measured on a round surface.
Scales and values
)here are several alternative scales, the most commonly used being the "'" and "A"
scales. 'oth express hardness as an arbitrary dimensionless number.
Various Rockwell scales
Scale Abbreviation Load Indenter se
+ H!+ :2 kgf 042L diamond cone
M
)ungsten carbide
' H!' 022 kgf
0(0: in diameter steel
sphere
+luminium, brass, and soft
steels
A H!A 0=2 kgf 042L diamond cone Harder steels
J H!J 022 kgf 042L diamond cone
% H!% 022 kgf
0(; in diameter steel
sphere
, H!, :2 kgf
0(0: in diameter steel
sphere
E H!E 0=2 kgf
0(0: in diameter steel
sphere
M
+lso called a brale indenter
%xcept for one very limited exception,the steel indenter balls have been
replaced by tungsten carbide balls of the varying diameters. &cales using the
ball indenter have a ">" suffix added to the scale name to indicate usage of
the carbide ball, for example "H!32)" is now "H!32)>".
)he superficial !ockwell scales use lower loads and shallower impressions on brittle
and very thin materials. )he B=5 scale employs a B=-kgf load on a diamond cone-
shaped 'rale indenter, and can be used on dense ceramics. )he 0=) scale employs a
0=-kgf load on a 0(0:-inch diameter hardened steel ball, and can be used on sheet
metal.
!eadings below H!A 42 are generally considered unreliable, as are readings much
above H!' 022.
! "ypical values
Gery hard steel "e.g. a good knife blade# H!A == - H!A :4 "Hardened tool
steels such as J4#
+xes, chisels, etc. H!A B2 - B="about 02B= carbon steel#
&everal other scales, including the extensive +-scale, are used for specialized
applications. )here are special scales for measuring case-hardened specimens
Vickers hardness test
+ Gickers hardness tester
)he Vickers hardness test was developed in 014B by &mith and &andland at Gickers
Htd as an alternative to the 'rinell method to measure the hardness of materials.)he
Gickers test is often easier to use than other hardness tests since the re*uired
calculations are independent of the size of the indenter, and the indenter can be used
for all materials irrespective of hardness. )he basic principle, as with all common
measures of hardness, is to observe the *uestioned material9s ability to resist plastic
deformation from a standard source. )he Gickers test can be used for all metals and
has one of the widest scales among hardness tests. )he unit of hardness given by the
test is known as the Vickers #yramid $umber %HV& or 'iamond #yramid
Hardness %'#H&. )he hardness number can be converted into units of pascals, but
should not be confused with a pressure, which also has units of pascals. )he hardness
number is determined by the load over the surface area of the indentation and not the
area normal to the force, and is therefore not a pressure.
)he hardness number is not really a true property of the material and is an empirical
value that should be seen in con$unction with the experimental methods and hardness
scale used. >hen doing the hardness tests the distance between indentations must be
more than 4.= indentation diameters apart to avoid interaction between the work-
hardened regions.
)he yield strength of the material can be approximated as
.
where c is a constant determined by geometrical factors usually ranging between 4
and B.
Implementation
Gicker9s test scheme
+n indentation left in case-hardened steel after a Gickers hardness test.
It was decided that the indenter shape should be capable of producing geometrically
similar impressions, irrespective of size6 the impression should have well-defined
points of measurement6 and the indenter should have high resistance to self-
deformation. + diamond in the form of a s*uare-based pyramid satisfied these
conditions. It had been established that the ideal size of a 'rinell impression was 3(;
of the ball diameter. +s two tangents to the circle at the ends of a chord 3d(; long
intersect at 03:L, it was decided to use this as the included angle of the indenter. )he
angle was varied experimentally and it was found that the hardness value obtained on
a homogeneous piece of material remained constant, irrespective of load.
+ccordingly, loads of various magnitudes are applied to a flat surface, depending on
the hardness of the material to be measured. )he HG number is then determined by
the ratio F/A where F is the force applied to the diamond in kilograms-force and A is
the surface area of the resulting indentation in s*uare millimetres. A can be
determined by the formula
which can be approximated by evaluating the sine term to give
where d is the average length of the diagonal left by the indenter. Hence,
)he corresponding units of HG are then kilograms-force per s*uare millimetre
"kgf(mmN#. )o calculate Gickers hardness number using &I units one needs to convert
the force applied from kilograms-force to newtons. )o do the calculation directly the
following e*uation can be used
where F is 5ewtons and d is millimetres.
Gickers hardness numbers are reported as (((HVyy, e.g. ))*HV+*, or (((HVyy,--
if duration of force differs from 02s to 0=s, e.g. BB2Hv32(42, where
))* is the hardness number,
HV gives the hardness scale "Gickers#,
+* indicates the load used in kg.
.* indicates the loading time if it deffers from 02s to 0=s
Gickers values are generally independent of the test force they will come out the
same for =22gf and =2kgf, as long as the force is at least 422gf.
/(amples o0 HV values 0or various materials
Material Value
30:H stainless steel 0B2HG32
3B@H stainless steel 0;2HG32
Aarbon steel ==?042HG=
Iron 32?;2HG=