PRE READING II

Writting Skills
By Thatiana Dwi Arifah, 1206244346

English writing can be taught at a pace consistent with your current writting ability.
One method of learning English is to study subjects that you enjoy learning about and
writting in the style of your favorite authors of those subjects. By writting and rewritting
particular passages, words and sentences that make up the work, you will gradually notice
and understand particular themes that are often used in English writing.
A. Principles of Paragraph
1. Topic Sentence: Gives the main and controlling idea of the paragraph. When writing a
topic sentence, try to state the main point of the paragraph as clearly and as accurately
as possible. Do not make the topic sentence too general or too specific. A topic
sentence contains a topic and a controlling idea. The topic is best placed at or near the
start of the sentence. The topic should not bw a pronoun (he , she, his, this, it) as
starting with a pronoun often makes the focus of the paragraph unclear. The
controlling idea controls everything else in paragraph; it indicates what you want to
say about the topic. Example: Studying overseas was deemed to be very difficult.
2. Supporting Sentence: support the topic sentence (main idea)
3. Concluding Sentence: optional but can sometimes help by summarising the main
point of the paragraph. You may begin a concluding sentence with signals as: in short,
in summary, indeed, therefore, it is clear that etc.

B. Principles of Essay Writting
It is difficult to develop good essay writing technique, essay writing is hard work. It is
more than just writing; it also involves researching, reading, analysing, judging and
editing. A successful essay is a well-thought out, well-plannes and well-written piece of
work.
1. Selecting a Topic:
Topic Has Been Assigned
You may have no choice as to your topic. If this is the case, you still may not be ready
to jump to the next step. Think about the type of paper you are expected to produce.
Should it be a general overview, or a specific analysis of the topic? If it should be an
overview, then you are probably ready to move to the next step. If it should be a
specific
analysis, make sure your topic is fairly specific. If it is too general, you must choose a
narrower subtopic to discuss. For example, the topic "KENYA" is a general one. If
your objective is to write an overview, this topic is suitable. If your objective is to
write a specific analysis, this topic is too general. You must narrow it to something like
"Politics
in Kenya" or "Kenya's Culture."
Topic Has Not Been Assigned
If you have not been assigned a topic, then the whole world lies before you.
Sometimes that seems to make the task of starting even more intimidating. Actually,
this means that you are free to choose a topic of interest to you, which will often make
your essay a stronger one.
Define Your Purpose
The first thing you must do is think about the purpose of the essay you must write.
Is your purpose to persuade people to believe as you do, to explain to people how
to complete a particular task, to educate people about some person, place, thing or
idea, or something else entirely? Whatever topic you choose must fit that purpose.
Brainstorm Subjects of Interest
Once you have determined the purpose of your essay, write down some subjects
that interest you. No matter what the purpose of your essay is, an endless number
of topics will be suitable. If you have trouble thinking of subjects, start by looking
around you. Is there anything in your surroundings that interests you? Think about
your life. What occupies most of your time? That might make for a good topic.
Don't evaluate the subjects yet; just write down anything that springs to mind.
Evaluate Each Potential Topic
If you can think of at least a few topics that would be appropriate, you must simply
consider each one individually. Think about how you feel about that topic. If you
must educate, be sure it is a subject about which you are particularly well-
informed. If you must persuade, be sure it is a subject about which you are at least
moderately passionate. Of course, the most important factor in choosing a topic is
the number of ideas you have about that topic. Even if none of the subjects you
thought of seem particularly appealing, try just choosing one to work with. It may
turn out to be a better topic than you at first thought. Before you are ready to move
on in the essay-writing process, look one more time at the topic you have selected.
Think about the type of paper you are expected to produce. Should it be a general
overview, or a specific analysis of the topic? If it should be an overview, then you
are probably ready to move to the next step. If it should be a specific analysis,
make sure your topic is fairly specific. If it is too general, you must choose a
narrower subtopic to discuss. For example, the topic "KENYA" is a general one. If
your objective is to write an overview, this topic is suitable. If your objective is to
write a specific analysis, this topic is too general. You must narrow it to something
like "Politics in Kenya" or "Kenya's Culture."
2. Title of the Essay: The tittle of an essay precedes the beginning and should clarify the
subject and arouse interest. The title, however, does not take the place of a beginning
paragraph. In fact it is good practice to make an essay self-sufficient so that subject,
purpose, plan (if needed) are all perfectly clear without reference to a title. As to titles
themselves, they should ideally be both informative and eye-cathing. It is difficult in
practice to balance these qualities, and most titles come down on side or the other; they
are informative but not eye-catching, or unusual and attrachtive but not especially
informative. In either case a title ought to be concise. If you start your essay with a title
in mind, be sure it fits the theme as it actually evolves. In the process of composition,
essays have a way of taking unexpected twists and turns. For this reason it may be
well not be decide on final title until you see what you have actually written.
3. The Thesis Statement
In order to develop an argument, you will need to carefully write your thesis statement
(i.e. the subject you are going to discuss, or answer to a question). The thesis statement
is vital. It is the point from which you develop your supporting arguments and
evidence. As such, make sure that the thesis statement contains points that you are able
to develop rather than broad statements that lead to generalisations which are not
possible to substantiate.
Guidelines for writing a thesis statement
Try to state the outcome of your analysis, rather than announcing your intention to
investigate, as in the case of this essay will, this essay intends to, or I will
statements.
Make sure you are very specic.
Make sure you are very clear.
A thesis statement is brief, 1-2 sentences only.
Make sure your claim is realistic so that your essay does not sound ridiculous, or
fanciful.
Ensure your thesis statement has some signi cance.
A thesis statement generally does two things: it answers the essay question and
provides a reason or explanation for the answer chosen.
Example
Essay topic: Do the advertisements targeting speeding drivers work?
Thesis: Although the number of speeding drivers will never be reduced to zero, the
advertisements targeting them are having a positive effect because people are taking
notice of the gruesome consequences of excessive speed.
4. Paragraph Relationship
Conjunctive Adverbs and Transitional Phrases
Conjunctive adverbs are individual words that can relate complete sentences (also
known as independent clauses) or paragraphs to each other. Transitional phrases, on
the other hand, are sets of words that show the relationship between sentences or
paragraphs. Together, they are called transition expressions. If used between
independent clauses in a single sentence, there will be a semicolon between the clauses
and a comma after the transition expression.
1. Several taxis roared past. Meanwhile, a little boy dropped his ice cream cone.
(conjunctive adverb)
2. Several taxis roared past; however, none of them stopped for me. (conjunctive
adverb)
3. Several taxis roared past; none of them, in spite of my outstretched arm, stopped for
me. (transitional expression)
Repeated Words or Phrases, Use of Synonyms or Pronouns
Another way to show the relationships between sentences or paragraphs is to use
repetition through synonyms and pronouns. If you start writing on the topic of hiding
something, for example, you might use synonyms like conceal, concealing, hidden, or
camouflage to continue that idea in later sentences or paragraphs. Likewise, if you
mention a character, the next related sentences may use pronouns, such as she or he, or
a descriptive phrase to continue to talk about that same person:
The character Dr. Gregory House in the TV show House, M.D. is often described
as antisocial. While he doesnt generally attack or kill people, as the term
indicates, the grouchy doctor does verbally abuse almost everyone he meets.
Paragraph Segues
Smooth paragraph transitions help readers move from the last paragraphs discussion
to a new paragraphs ideas. Making the task harder, teachers sometimes stop student
writers from using conjunctive adverbs such as however, therefore, and thus in essay
assignments. (The reason they do that is to try to get you to be more expressive about
the relationships between your sentences and paragraphs.) To use a mere word like
however between paragraphs gives readers only a fraction of the connection between
the previous paragraphs ideas and the new paragraphs topic. Of course, however tells
readers very directly that the new paragraph is in contrast to the previous paragraphs
statements, but thats all it says. Readers want a new paragraph to build on what was
said before and to do it in a way that both develops new ideas and is hardly noticeable.
To build an effective paragraph transition, a writer has to show the reason that one
paragraph comes after another, just as a sentence can usually make sense only because
of the sentence before it. (Imagine how confused youd be if the following first
sentence werent said):
Eating a tart cherry pie has always made my cheeks salivate. Sometimes I drool
so much that red juice runs down my chin. A waitperson at a restaurant even
remarked to me once that I appeared to be in a pie-eating contest with myself.
The first and second sentences use the synonyms salivate and drool. The characteristic
red color of cherries mentioned in the second sentence connects it to the first. The last
sentence connects to the topic sentence by repeating the word pie, and it connects with
the second sentence with the idea of being messy. These synonyms, repetitions, and
common ideas help to create paragraph cohesion. The paragraph left off with a
stranger making a comment about how sloppy a pie-eater this first-person-singular I
is. In general, a new paragraph is started when a different topic, time, or place is being
discussed, so right away the reader will expect something differentbut relatedto
be discussed when a new paragraph begins:
...A waitperson at a restaurant even remarked to me once that I appeared to be in
a pie-eating contest with myself.
I frequently find myself the recipient of personal comments bestowed by
strangers who may imagine they are being helpful or at least funny. I always try
to have a sense of humor and humility about myself, but self-deprecating humor
is my preferred way to connect with others. Suddenly having a person leap out
and make a joke at my expense only pains my all-too-thin skin.
The second paragraph becomes a broader discussion of the type of behavior the author
has experienced from strangers. The new paragraphs topic sentence refers back to an
unfamiliar persons humorous actions but its purpose is to expand the scope of the
topic to include the effects of this type of situation. Though the second paragraph has a
new focus, it first rewords and builds on the ideas of the previous paragraph in order to
carry the reader toward a new area of thought.
5. Essay Outlining
Creating an outline begins with a reading of your prewriting notes. First, group related
ideas together, looking for major topics (which can be headings) and minor ones
(which can be subheadings, examples, or details). Define your major points, and
rearrange them until they make sense and follow a logical progression. You will be
able to see the relationships between your ideas as you outline them, and determine
their importance (major point, minor point, example, detail). If you need more
supporting details or factssubcategoriesyou can add them now. As you outline
your information, use one-word topics, short phrases, or write out full sentences for
each point on your outline.
1. Begin your outline by writing your topic at the top of the page.
2. Next, write the Roman numerals I, II, and III, spread apart down the left side of the
page.
3. Next to each Roman numeral, write the main ideas that you have about your topic,
or the main points that you want to make.
If you are trying to persuade, you want to write your best arguments.
If you are trying to explain a process, you want to write the steps that should be
followed. You will probably need to group these into categories. If you have
trouble grouping the steps into categories, try using Beginning, Middle, and
End.
If you are trying to inform, you want to write the major categories into which
your information can be divided.
4. Under each Roman numeral, write A, B, and C down the left side of the page.
5. Next to each letter, write the facts or information that support that main idea.


6. The Introduction
The introduction should be designed to attract the reader's attention and give her an
idea of the essay's focus.
1. Begin with an attention grabber.
The attention grabber you use is up to you, but here are some ideas:
Startling information
This information must be true and verifiable, and it doesn't need to be totally
new to your readers. It could simply be a pertinent fact that explicitly illustrates
the point you wish to make. If you use a piece of startling information, follow it
with a sentence or two of elaboration.
Anecdote
An anecdote is a story that illustrates a point. Be sure your anecdote is short, to
the point, and relevant to your topic. This can be a very effective opener for
your essay, but use it carefully.
Dialogue
An appropriate dialogue does not have to identify the speakers, but the reader
must understand the point you are trying to convey. Use only two or three
exchanges between speakers to make your point. Follow dialogue with a
sentence or two of elaboration.
Summary Information
A few sentences explaining your topic in general terms can lead the reader
gently to your thesis. Each sentence should become gradually more specific,
until you reach your thesis.
2. If the attention grabber was only a sentence or two, add one or two more sentences
that will lead the reader from your opening to your thesis statement.
3. Finish the paragraph with your thesis statement.
7. The Body
In the body of the essay, all the preparation up to this point comes to fruition. The
topic you have chosen must now be explained, described, or argued. Each main idea
that you wrote down in your diagram or outline will become one of the body
paragraphs. If you had three or four main ideas, you will have three or four body
paragraphs. Each body paragraph will have the same basic structure.
1. Start by writing down one of your main ideas, in sentence form. If your main idea
is "reduces freeway congestion," you might say this: Public transportation reduces
freeway congestion.
2. Next, write down each of your supporting points for that main idea, but leave four
or five lines in between each point.
3. In the space under each point, write down some elaboration for that point.
Elaboration can be further description or explanation or discussion.
Supporting point
Commuters appreciate the cost savings of taking public transportation rather
than driving.
Elaboration
Less driving time means less maintenance expense, such as oil changes. Of course,
less driving time means savings on gasoline as well. In many cases, these savings
amount to more than the cost of riding public transportation.
4. If you wish, include a summary sentence for each paragraph.
This is not generally needed, however, and such sentences have a tendency to
sound stilted, so be cautious about using them.
8. The Conclusion
Connect to the last sentence of the previous paragraph
Use an advanced style. In conclusion, to summarize, at the end are rather boring
and typical although they will work. Try to be more sophisticated by repeating or
connecting ideas in another way
Summarize the findings of your paper
Remind the readers of the papers main ideas and wrap up your argument.
o Restate the thesis in different words/phrases.
o Briefly summarize the main points of your paper. Again, say these in a different
way, so readers are not bored by repetition of the same sentences and phrases.
o Use your own thoughts, not your sources. The place for source support was in
the body paragraphs, not the conclusion.
o Do NOT write any new information, points, or support in the conclusion.
Show the significance of your findings
Explain why your paper is important What does it mean? What does it solve?
What does it say about your topic? What does it show about the future of your
topic? What should the readers take away from your paper?
End with a strong, memorable concluding statement(s)
Also known as the Wow statement, the last sentence(s) of your paper should
make your readers say, Wow! Im glad I read this paper. There are several ways
to do this:
o End with the significance of your paper, as described above.
o Relate your conclusion to the hook sentence(s) from your introduction. This can
be a very effective way of wrapping up your paper.
o End with an idea for the reader to think about a prediction or recommendation
perhaps.
Do NOT ask a question that leaves the reader uncertain. The purpose of academic
writing is not to confuse the reader, but to enlighten the reader.
Do NOT be too general. Stay focused on your specific topic.
Do NOT be too shocking, unbelievable, sweet, or obvious.

C. Patterns of Essay Organization
1. Chronological Order
Ideas or events are presented in the order they occur. Sequences are told through
dates, times, or numbers. Processes are explained through steps or stages. Time
Order/Process Transition Words: first, second, later, next, as soon as, after, then,
finally, meanwhile, last, during, when, by the time, over time, until, step, stage,
method, procedure, how to
Example: When Althea first began to drink, she just did not realize the risks she faced.
Over time, her drinking slowly but surely took total control of her life.
The transition words when, first, and over time indicate a sequence in Altheas life
2. Logical Division of Ideas
Break down the parts of a unit and then analyze each part in relation to the function of
the whole. Analytical essays usually (but not always) examine complex ideas and
dissect them into understandable parts. A physical analysis breaks an object into its
components, and a conceptual analysis divides an idea into other ideas. Analysis by
division requires a principle. The principle is the idea around which a writer breaks up
a subject. Each part of the unit must relate to the principle.
Example:

1. Unit Manager
2. Principle of Function Effective as a leader
3. Parts based on the principle Fair, intelligent, stable, competent in the field
4. Discussion Consider each part in relation to the persons
sdsdsdsdsdsdsdsdzdsdsdsdsdsdsdseffectiveness as a manager.
Structure:
Introduction/Topic Sentence/Thesis establishes unit (subject) and the principle
Characteristic 1 (or Part1) how does this part relate back to the principle?
Characteristic 2 (or Part 2) how does this relate back to the principle?
Characteristic 3, 4, 5 (or Parts 3, 4, 5) how do these relate back to the principle?
Conclusion
3. Cause and Effect Order
Describes or discusses an event or action that is caused by another event or action.
Cause-Effect Transition Words: therefore, hence, for this reason, since, leads to,
creates, yields, stems from, produces, for, because, as a result, due to, thus, so
There are four possible relationships:
Single Cause Single Effect If you are caught speeding, then you will get a ticket.
Single Cause - Multiple Effects High fuel costs result in higher food prices, loss of
jobs, and individual hardship.
Multiple Causes Single Effect Survey, question, read, recite, and review lead to good
Comprehension.
Multiple Causes Multiple Effects It was raining and I missed my ride; therefore, I
got soaked and missed my test.
4. Comparison and Contrast Order
This organizational pattern emphasizes the similarities or differences between two or
more items. In comparison, writers show the way two or more ideas are the same; in
contrast, writers show the way two or more ideas are different. The focus can be on
just
similarities or just differences or a combination of both. Comparison Transition
Words: likewise, in comparison, to compare, resembles, is similar, in the same way,
as well as, like, correspondingly, just as. Example: There are similar safety features
on all the cars in the showroom. The transition word similar indicates that all of the
cars have the same safety features, so which ever car the buyer chooses should not be
lacking in safety features. Contrast Transition Words: in contrast, on the contrary,
although, even though, similarly, however, on the other hand, as opposed to, whereas,
instead, in spite of, different, differs from. Example: Mike studied and made a passing
grade. Joe, however, didnt study and failed. The transition word however shows the
contrast between the two students; one passed, and one failed. Combination Example:
Mary, like her sister, has brown hair. However, the two differ when it comes to eye
color. The transition word like shows how Mary and her sister are the same; they both
have brown hair. The transition words however and differ indicate that the sisters do
not have the same color eyes.

D. Argumentative Essay
1. Debatable and Non-debatable Statements
An argumentative essay is built around a specific statement (or main premise) that is
debatable within the field in which you are studying. In other words, at the centre of an
argumentative essay is a statement with which your readers may disagree. Your essay
will need to support that statement in a manner that convinces your readers of its truth.
Debatable statements: Statements with which other people might or might not agree.
These are sometimes called "arguments", "assertions", "propositions" or "premises.
Ex: Solar energy is the best way of meeting Australia's energy needs in the 21st
century
Non-debatable statements: Statements with which no-one would normally disagree
or argue. These are sometimes called "facts". Ex: Coal and oil are the main sources of
energy in Australia in the 20th century
2. Writing Introduction to an Argumentative Essays
A simple introduction to an argumentative assignment has four parts. Read the
following
description of the parts. Then circle the sentences in the introduction above which
cover each part and write the number for each part in the margin next to it, e.g. for the
first part draw a circle around the sentence(s) that introduce(s) the topic and write "1"
in the margin next to it.
1. Introduces the topic
2. States why the topic is important
3. States that there is a difference of opinion about this topic
4. Describes how the assignment will be structured and clearly states the writer's main
premise

E. Synthesizing
1. Writing a Synthesis
A synthesis essay should be organized so that others can understand the sources and
evaluate your comprehension of them and their presentation of specific data, themes,
etc.
The following format works well:
The introduction (usually one paragraph)
1. Contains a one-sentence statement that sums up the focus of your synthesis.
2. Also introduces the texts to be synthesized:
Gives the title of each source (following the citation guidelines of whatever
style sheet you are using);
Provides the name of each author;
Sometimes also provides pertinent background information about the authors,
about the texts to be summarized, or about the general topic from which the
texts are drawn.
The body of a synthesis essay: This should be organized by theme, point, similarity,
or aspect of the topic. Your organization will be determined by the assignment or by
the patterns you see in the material you are synthesizing. The organization is the most
important part of a synthesis, so try out more than one format. Be sure that each
paragraph:
1. Begins with a sentence or phrase that informs readers of the topic of the paragraph
2. Includes information from more than one source;
3. Clearly indicates which material comes from which source using lead in phrases
and in-text citations. [Beware of plagiarism: Accidental plagiarism most often
occurs when students are synthesizing sources and do not indicate where the
synthesis ends and their own comments begin or vice verse.]
4. Shows the similarities or differences between the different sources in ways that
make the paper as informative as possible;
5. Represents the texts fairly--even if that seems to weaken the paper! Look upon
yourself as a synthesizing machine; you are simply repeating what the source says,
in fewer words and in your own words. But the fact that you are using your own
words does not mean that you are in anyway changing what the source says.
Conclusion: When you have finished your paper, write a conclusion reminding
readers of the most significant themes you have found and the ways they connect to
the overall topic. You may also want to suggest further research or comment on
things that it was not possible for you to discuss in the paper. If you are writing a
background synthesis, in some cases it may be appropriate for you to offer an
interpretation of the material or take a position (thesis). Check this option with your
instructor before you write the final draft of your paper.
3. Quoting and Paraphrasing








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Writing Arfumentative Essays. (28 May 2014). Retrieved from
http://nbecerra.files.wordpress.com/2011/03/wae.pdf
The Common Paradigms/Rhetorical Modes. (28 May 2014). Retrieved from
http://www.bucks.edu/media/bcccmedialibrary/pdf/TheCommonParadigmsandRhetoricalMo
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Topic Sentence/Paragraph. (28 May 2014). Retrieved from
http://www.stlcc.edu/Student_Resources/Academic_Resources/Writing_Resources/Writing_
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