Technology For Air Pollution Control

View Slides on Technology for Air Pollution Control Part 1 & Part 2



Introduction
Before the introduction of air quality regulations the use of air
pollution control technology was to satisfy the requirements of good
engineering practice. At present the purpose of applying and/or
developing a control technology is to meet ambient air quality
standards and other source related regulations. A control
technology can only be applied to a controllable source. Therefore,
it will be difficult to think of controlling emissions from a volcano.
The cost of removing a pollutant from a source generally increases
exponentially with the percentage of control. However, this
relationship will change if it is possible to recover the pollutant for
some economic purposes. For example, the removal of sulfur from
gas processing plants was economically feasible in 1960s because
of the high price of sulfur in world market.
Application of control technology requires knowledge of source,
effluents from the source, air pollution regulations and waste
generated from the technology. Some times it is possible to
develop a successful air pollution control technology which leads to
the problem of disposing the waste.
The techniques for controlling air pollution can be either without an
air pollution control device or with air pollution control equipment.
The general methods for techniques without an air pollution control
device include process change, change in fuel, improve dispersion,
good operating practices, and plant shutdown/relocation. Control
equipment remove the pollutant, convert to less harmful
contaminant or recover a valuable material for further use.

Techniques without Emission Control Devices
Process Change: This technique involves a modification of an
existing process or the introduction of a new process. Since 90s
the process change has been known as pollution
prevention. Consider the example of painting operations in
automobile industry. Large quantities of volatile organic compounds
and hazardous air pollutants were released as a result of these
operations. After the passage of 1990 CAAA many operations have
substituted water based, low HAP paints for oil based paints for
reducing emissions. Some operations have implemented processes
such as electro-deposition, dip tank and powder coating.
Process modification is a popular technique to control air pollution.
Major efforts are underway in all industries to modify processes to
reduce pollution. For example, new oxy furnaces are being
developed by Libbey Owens Ford in Toledo to reduce ozone
emissions during glass manufacturing.
Changes in industrial processes to reduce raw materials and fuels
also lead to reduction in air emissions. The promotions to use
fluorescent lights and to conduct energy audits by electric utilities
are examples of less electricity demand. This results in less fuel use
at the power plant and hence less air pollutants are emitted.
The use of wind energy, geothermal energy, hydroelectric power
and solar energy is increasing and is helping in reducing air
pollution.
The US EPA has initiated a major effort in the area of pollution
prevention. The purpose is to prevent pollution rather than control
it at the point of release. The goal is not to produce solid or
hazardous waste.

Change in Fuel: This technique involves the use of less polluting fuel
to reduce air pollution. Use of low sulfur fuel instead of high sulfur
fuel by electric utilities is an example of this method. Remember
that low sulfur fuel is much more expensive than high sulfur fuel.
The other choice for an electric utility can be the use of natural gas
as a fuel. Fuel switching based on meteorological conditions or air
pollution forecasts have been used to prevent air pollution problem
in many areas.
The following table lists the advantages and disadvantages of a
number of alternative fuels:

Source: US EPA Fact Sheet
http://www.epa.gov/oms/06-clean.htm
Use of oil with low ash content or natural gas for a dryer at an
asphalt plant to reduce particulate matter is another example of this
method. Introduction of compressed natural gas, propane, ethanol
and oxygenated fuels for automobiles have helped in the reduction
of air pollutants in the U.S.
The use of natural gas in North America and Europe for winter
heating brought significant improvement in air quality in most cities.
Nuclear power plants are relatively pollution free when compared to
the coal fired power plants. However, they have been subjects of
controversy in their overall environmental impact.
Improve Dispersion: This approach is based on the concept that
dilution of air contaminants before they reach ground will lower the
concentrations to which the population is exposed. The use of this
approach for industry is discouraged by the US EPA. However, local
and state agencies use the concept to develop air pollution control
strategies for their area.
Before the 1970 CAAA the most widely approach to air problems
was based on the motto Dilution is the solution to pollution. This is
evident from the tall stacks build by Tennessee Valley Authority and
others in 60s and 70s.
Another form of this approach is practiced in the form of
intermittent control or an air quality prediction system. This
approach attempts to control source emission rate during the
periods of high ground level concentrations. Production
curtailments, a plant shutdown, fuel switching, or other strategies
achieve the reduction in source emission rate. The critical periods
are determined from weather related data in the area.
The prediction systems are based on observations, predictive
equations or a combination of observations and predictions.
The first documented predictive intermittent control system was
placed in 1941 at the lead-zinc smelter at Trail, British Columbia
(Canada). The plant is located in a valley near the US-Canada
border. The crop damage to orchards in the US from the nighttime
emissions brought to ground during morning inversion breakup led
to the formation of an international tribunal. The study led to the
development of an intermittent control system to focus on the
period from 3 AM to three hours after sunrise during growing
season.
TVA developed an AQPS for Paradise, Kentucky power
plant. Several hours before the adverse meteorological conditions
are predicted, the power output is reduced to prevent violation of
NAAQS.
Many cities in Canada and US have regulations to curtail industrial
and other activities during times of observed poor air
quality. Alberta Environment asks industry to cut production during
early morning hours of poor air quality in City of Calgary and
Edmonton. Many western mountain communities in US issue a
public notice to shut off wood stoves when PM10 levels exceed
certain value.
The use of oxygenated gasoline in winter months in many cities
across US is an example of a national scale intermittent control for
CO emissions. High CO emissions are observed in many
communities during winter months.
Ozone action days are declared during summer months to avoid
violations of NAAQS based on observations of meteorological
variables (e.g.: temperature) and ground level ozone
concentration. A procedure to identify ozone action days in Toledo
during 1997 is given in Figure 1.
Good Operating Practices: Release of unnecessary air pollutants
could be avoided by maintaining good housekeeping in the plant
and performing proper maintenance. For example, liquid chemicals
spread over the floor evaporates rapidly and will cause an increase
in emission rate for that chemical.
Plant Shutdown/Relocation: This is not a pleasant solution for a
community because of economic impact. Most cities develop land-
use planning and industrial zoning regulations to avoid this
situation. Encouragement to use new technology through tax credits
or grants may help a company to relocate the plant within the
city. In some cases to shutdown the plant is only viable solution.
Use of Control Devices
The emissions from the plant are passed through a control device
before releasing to atmosphere. The pollutants are removed,
destroyed or transformed in the control device before discharging
into ambient air. The devices are discussed in the following sections.
General public thinks of these devices whenever they think about air
pollution control. However, there are other methods available to
reduce air pollution as discussed above. You should consider other
possibilities before deciding to use a control device.
Related Internet Site
http://www.icac.com/ Site includes information on air control
systems, monitoring equipment and other services.
Questions


Control of SOx
The control of SO
2
is largely based on chemical means. The sulfur
present in organic compounds can be converted to various forms by
oxidation or reduction. Sulfur oxidizes to Sulfur Dioxide (SO
2
) and
then Sulfur Trioxide (SO
3
). In the atmosphere SO
3
reacts with water
to form sulfuric acid, which then reacts with ammonia or other cat-
ions to form particles of ammonia sulfate or some other sulfate.
These small particles are responsible for urban particulate and
visibility problems. Reduction means the removal of oxygen or the
addition of hydrogen.
The major source of SO
2
in the US are coal burning electric power
plants. The typical SO
2
content of the emissions is about 0.1%
SO
2
or 1000 ppm. Low concentration of SO
2
in gas stream makes it
unprofitable for recovery as H
2
SO
4
. The most widely used method is
scrubbing. The installation and operation of these air pollution
control device is expensive and require large capital expenditure.
The scrubbing or flue gas desulphurization (FGD) processes can be
classified as (i) Throwaway or regenerative processes or (ii) wet or
dry processes.
The major FGD processes are:
Limestone scrubbing
Lime scrubbing
Dual Alkali processes
Lime-spray drying
Wellman-Lord process
The SO
2
is removed by inducing exhaust gases to react with a
chemical absorbent as they pass through a tower.
Limestone Wet Scrubber
This is a widely used device for removing SO
2
. The incurring
exhaust gas after the removal of solid fly ash particles is passed to
a tower. A limestone (CaCO
3
) slurry is sprayed on the incoming
exhaust gas. The SO
2
dissolves in the slurry and reacts with
limestone producing CO
2
and solid CaSO
3
.
SO
2
+ CaCO
3
+ H
2
O

> CaSO
3
+ H
2
O + CO
2
. During the
development phase of this technology during 1970s and early
1980s, the problems of corrosion, solid deposition, scaling and
plugging, mist eliminator plugging, poor reagent utilization and poor
solid-liquid separation were encountered. Most of these problems
have either been eliminated or reduced to manageable size through
proper design and careful operation.
The limestone scrubbers are still expensive and troublesome.
The large amount of solid waste produced remains a disposal
problem.
Lime Scrubber
The process is similar to limestone wet throwaway process
described above. Lime (CaO) is used instead of limestone. Lime
hydrates to Ca(OH)
2
in the hold tank and is sprayed on the exhaust
gases. Ca(OH)
2
is more chemically reactive than limestone. During
the process CaSO
3
is produced.
SO
2
+ CaO+ H
2
O


> CaSO
3
+ H
2
O
Dual Alkali Scrubber
This is a wet regenerative system. Two reagents are used to
remove SO
2
. The scrubbing is done by sodium sulfite or sodium
hydroxide.
Lime-spray Drying
The exhaust gases react with a fine slurry mist of lime. The
heat of the exhaust gases is used to dry the reacted slurry into
calcium sulfite particles.
SO
2
+ CaO


> CaSO
3

The particles are captured in a particle collection device along
with other particles in the plant. The removal efficiency of SO
2
in a
dry scrubbing system is typically 70%. The system is 15 to 30
percent cheaper to install and operate as compared to a
conventional wet scrubbing system. The waste products are easier
to handle.



Control and Treatment of VOC and Hydrocarbons
Control and treatment of VOC and organic hazardous air pollutant
emissions are generally accomplished by adsorption, incineration,
condensation and gas absorption. The methodology is usually
chosen depending upon the temperature, composition and
volumetric flow rate of the emission stream, space constraints and
allowable installation and operational costs. A brief description of
each method is given below:
Adsorption:
This is one of the most commonly used methods, especially for
controlling emissions from small sources. It can be physical
adsorption or chemisorptions. The later is rarely used for the VOC
emission control because, it involves a less-reversible chemical
bonding of the adsorbate (pollutant) and the adsorbing solid (
packing) and is relatively expensive. Physical adsorption uses the
Van der Waals force, giving the advantage of reversibility and
regeneration due to the weaker bonding of the gas and adsorbent
material. The adsorbed material can be either recovered or
incinerated. Regeneration is usually accomplished by heating or
extraction/displacement.
Activated carbon is a commonly used adsorbent because of its high
surface area and material hardness. It has between 800 and 1200
m
2
/g of surface area. In general, activated carbon and other
adsorbents such as hollow aluminum spheres coated with a catalyst
can be employed in a fixed, moving or fluidized bed system.
Fluidized bed systems, though more expensive to build and
operate, yield high contacting with low pressure loss and
regeneration can be accomplished within the system. The fixed beds
are less expensive and provide longer packing life, but provide less
contacting per unit length and require a larger pressure loss;
because they are regenerated individually.
Moving beds have properties between fixed and fluidized beds. The
useful life of activated carbon can be determined using break
through curves.
Regeneration can be achieved by contact with a hot, inert
gas, contact with a low pressure gas stream and pressure reduction
over the bed.
Steam desorption is the most commonly used process for
regeneration.

Incineration:
Incineration or combustion is another common VOC control
technology. Complete combustion or oxidation of
pure hydrocarbons produces carbon dioxide and water. Sulfur and
nitrogen compounds produce acid gases and limited air supply
results in the formation of carbon monoxide.
Complex organic compounds may not oxidize completely in the
residence time and ash may form. Most VOC oxidation must be
done at high temperature, unless catalysts are involved.
Flares, thermal oxidizers and catalytic converters all use oxidation
chemistry to treat VOC emissions. Flares mostly treat moderate to
high temperature concentrations. All of the heat produced by the
combustion process is lost when the flares are used. Most thermal
oxidizers treat emission streams with maximum VOC concentrations
of 25% of the LEL ( lower explosive limit). Catalyst beds, especially
when used to enhance the oxidation of VOCs (usually noble metals
like platinum and palladium) must be able to withstand high
temperatures and must be designed so that a minimum pressure
drop is created when the gas passes through the bed. For example
by using catalytic converters, thermal oxidation of the by-products
of the incomplete engine combustion can be safely accomplished at
temperatures much lower than would be required without the aid of
catalysis.

Condensation:
Condensation and gas absorption are most commonly used for
highly concentrated VOC streams that are advantageous to recover
and the relatively large expense is warranted. It employs a drop in
temperature and/ or increase in pressure to cause the VOCs in the
emission stream to condense. The cleaned air stream is separated
from the condensate containing target pollutants. In many cases,
very large temperature drops are required to achieve effective
condensation, requiring significant energy investment to accomplish
cooling.

Condensation is used to recover gasoline and fuel vapors at gasoline
loading terminals and in gasoline dispensing facilities. It is also used
in the adsorbent regeneration process to separate solvents from the
stream to separate solvents from the stream used to regenerate the
activated carbon.


Gas Absorption:
Gas absorption involves the absorption of a gas into a liquid. Water
can be used for recovery of water-soluble compounds such
as acetone and low molecular weight alcohols, which can later be
separated from water using distillation. Additives are often used to
increase the effective mass transfer rate of the pollutant from the
gas phase into the liquid phase, affecting the surface tension,
reducing interfacial resistance and increasing the apparent
solubility.
Gas absorption can be expensive, however it is generally used only
to recover VOCs that have a secondary market value. Gas
absorption techniques are used for the recovery of a variety of
chemicals in the coke manufacturing industry. They are often called
scrubbers.



Particulate Control
The control of particulate matter is an important aspect of industrial
air pollution engineering. Particles are collected by a combination of
several mechanisms. The six available mechanisms are gravitational
settling, centrifugal impaction, inertial impaction, direct
interception, diffusion and the electrostatic attraction. The physical
phenomenon of gravitational settling, centrifugal impaction and
electrostatic attraction are known to engineers. The other three
mechanisms are described below.
Inertial Impaction
The large particles in the gas stream have too much inertia to follow
the gas streamlines around the impactor and are impacted on the
impactor surface, while the small particles and the gas tend to
diverge and pass around the interceptor.

Direct Interception

In case of direct interception, the particles have less inertia and
barely follow the gas streamlines around the fiber. If the distance
between the center of the fiber and the outside of the fiber is less
than the particle radius, the particle will graze or hit the fiber and be
"intercepted". Inertial impaction and direct interception mechanisms
account for 99% collection of particles greater than 1 micrometer
aerodynamic diameter in fabric filter systems.
Diffusion
In diffusion, small particles are affected by collisions on a molecular
level. Particles less than 0.1 micrometer have individual or random
motion. The particles do not necessarily follow the gas streamlines,
but, move randomly throughout the fluid. This is known as
"Brownian Motion". The particles may have a different velocity than
the fluid and at some point could come in contact with the fiber and
be collected.
Agglomeration also contributes to particle collection.
There are five basic types of dust collectors in use: i) gravity
settling chambers, ii) cyclones, iii) fabric filters, iv) electrostatic
precipitators, and v) scrubbers. The purpose of this section is to
discuss the general working of these devices.
Gravity Settling Chambers
This is a simple particulate collection device using the principle of
gravity to settle the particulate matter in a gas stream passing
through its long chamber. The primary requirement of such a device
would be a chamber in which the carrier gas velocity is reduced so
as to allow the particulate matter to settle out of the moving gas
stream under the action of gravity. This particulate matter is then
collected at the bottom of the chamber. The chamber is cleaned
manually to dispose the waste.
The gas velocities in the settling chamber must be sufficiently low
for the particles to settle due to gravitational force. Literature
indicates that gas velocity less than about 3 m/s is needed to
prevent re-entrainment of the settled particles. The gas velocity of
less than 0.5 m/s will produce good results.
Curtains, rods, baffles and wire mesh screens may be suspended
in the chamber to minimize turbulence and to ensure uniform flow.
The pressure drop through the chamber is usually low and is due to
the entrance and exit losses.
The velocity of the particles in the settling chamber can be
obtained by Stokes law as follows:
Vs = (g(p ) D
2
) /18
Where,

D = Diameter of the particle.
g = acceleration due to gravity
p = density of the particle
= density of the gas
= viscosity of the gas

The advantages of settling chambers are:
i) low initial cost,
ii) simple construction,
iii) low maintenance cost,
iv) low pressure drop,
v) dry and continuous disposal of solid particles,
vi) use of any material for construction, and
vii) temperature and pressure limitations will only depend on the
nature of the construction material.
The disadvantages of this device are
i) large space requirements and
ii) only comparatively large particles (greater than 10 micron) can
be collected.
Because of the above advantages and disadvantages, settling
chambers are mostly used as pre-cleaners. They are sometimes
used in the process industries, particularly in the food and
metallurgical industries as the first step in dust control. Use of
settling chambers as pre-cleaners can also reduce the maintenance
cost of high efficiency control equipment, which is more subject to
abrasive deterioration.

Cyclones:
Settling chambers discussed above are not effective in removing
small particles. Therefore, one needs a device that can exert more
force than gravity force on the particles so that they can be
removed from the gas stream. Cyclones use centrifugal forces for
removing the fine particles. They are also known as centrifugal or
inertial separators.
The cyclone consists of a vertically placed cylinder which has an
inverted cone attached to its base. The particulate laden gas stream
enters tangentially at the inlet point to the cylinder. The velocity of
this inlet gas stream is then transformed into a confined vortex,
from which centrifugal forces tend to drive the suspended particles
to the walls of the cyclone. The vortex turns upward after reaching
at the bottom of the cylinder in a narrower inner spiral. The clean
gas is removed from a central cylindrical opening at the top, while
the dust particles are collected at the bottom in a storage hopper by
gravity.
The efficiency of a cyclone chiefly depends upon the cyclone
diameter. For a given pressure drop, smaller the diameter, greater
is the efficiency, because centrifugal action increases with
decreasing radius of rotation. Centrifugal forces employed in
modern designs vary from 5 to 2500 times gravity depending on the
diameter of the cyclone. Cyclone efficiencies are greater than 90%
for the particles with the diameter of the order of 10 . For particles
with diameter higher than 20 , efficiency is about 95%.
The efficiency of a cyclone can be increased by the use of cyclones
either in parallel or in series. A brief explanation of both
arrangements is given below:

Multiple Cyclones:
A battery of smaller cyclones, operating in parallel, designed for a
constant pressure drop in each chamber. The arrangement is compact,
with convenient inlet and outlet arrangements. They can treat a large gas
flow, capturing smaller particles.
Cyclones in series:
Two cyclones are used in series. The second cyclone removes the
particles that were not collected in the first cyclone, because of the
statistical distribution across the inlet, or accidental re-entrainment due to
eddy currents and re-entrainment in the vortex core, thus increasing the
efficiency.
The advantages of cyclones are:
i) low initial cost,
ii) simple in construction and operation,
iii) low pressure drop,
iv) low maintenance requirements,
v) continuous disposal of solid particulate matter, and
vi) use of any material in their construction that can withstand the
temperature and pressure requirements.
The disadvantages of cyclones include:
i) low collection efficiency for particles below 5 10 in diameter,
ii) severe abrasion problems can occur during the striking of
particles on the walls of the cyclone, and
iii) a decrease in efficiency at low particulate concentration.
Typical applications of cyclones are:
i) For the control of gas borne particulate matter in industrial
operations such as cement manufacture, food and beverage,
mineral processing and textile industries.
ii) To separate dust in the disintegration operations, such as rock
crushing, ore handling and sand conditioning in industries.
iii) To recover catalyst dusts in the petroleum industry.
iv) To reduce the fly ash emissions.
The operating problems are:
i) Erosion: Heavy, hard, sharp edged particles, in a high
concentration, moving at a high velocity in the cyclone, continuously
scrape against the wall and can erode the metallic surface.
ii) Corrosion: If the cyclone is operating below the condensation
point, and if reactive gases are present in the gas stream, then
corrosion problems can occur. Thus the product should be kept
above the dew point or a stainless steel alloy should be used.
iii) Build up: A dust cake builds up on the cyclone walls, especially
around the vortex finder, at the ends of any internal vanes, and
especially if the dust is hygroscopic. It can be a severe problem.
Electrostatic Precipitators:
Electrostatic precipitators (ESP) are particulate collection devices
that use electrostatic force to remove the particles less than 5
micron in diameter. It is difficult to use gravity settlers and
cyclones effectively for the said range of particles. Particles as
small as one-tenth of a micrometer can be removed with almost
100% efficiency using electrostatic precipitators.
The principle behind all electrostatic precipitators is to give
electrostatic charge to particles in a given gas stream and then pass
the particles through an electrostatic field that drives them to a
collecting electrode.
The electrostatic precipitators require maintenance of a high
potential difference between the two electrodes, one is a
discharging electrode and the other is a collecting electrode.
Because of the high potential difference between the two electrodes,
a powerful ionizing field is formed. Very high potentials as high as
100 kV are used. The usual range is 40- 60 kV. The ionization
creates an active glow zone (blue electric discharge) called the
corona or corona glow. Gas ionization is the dissociation of gas
molecules into free ions.
As the particulate in the gas pass through the field, they get
charged and migrate to the oppositely charged collecting electrode,
lose their charge and are removed mechanically by rapping,
vibration, or washing to a hopper below.

In summary, the step by step process of removing particles using
ESPs is:
i) Ionizing the gas.
ii) Charging the gas particles.
iii) Transporting the particles to the collecting surface.
iv) Neutralizing, or removing the charge from the dust particles.
v) Removing the dust from the collecting surface.
The major components of electrostatic precipitators are:
i) A source of high voltage
ii) Discharge and collecting electrodes.
iii) Inlet and outlet for the gas.
iv) A hopper for the disposal of the collected material.
v) An outer casing to form an enclosure around the electrodes.
The ESP is made of a rectangular or cylindrical casing. All casings
provide an inlet and outlet connection for the gases, hoppers to
collect the precipitated particulate and the necessary discharge
electrodes and collecting surfaces. There is a weatherproof, gas
tight enclosure over the precipitator that houses the high voltage
insulators.
Electrostatic precipitators also usually have a number of auxiliary
components, which include access doors, dampers, safety devices
and gas distribution systems. The doors can be closed and bolted
under normal conditions and can be opened when necessary for
inspection and maintenance. Dampers are provided to control the
quantity of gas. It may either be a guillotine, a louver or some such
other device that opens and closes to adjust gas flow.
The safety grounding system is extremely important and must
always be in place during operation and especially during
inspection. This commonly consists of a conductor, one end of which
is grounded to the casing, and the other end is attached to the high
voltage system by an insulated operating lever.
The precipitator hopper is an integral part of the precipitator shell
and is made of the same material as the shell. Since ESPs require a
very high voltage direct current source of energy for operation,
transformers are required to step up normal service voltages to high
voltages. Rectifiers convert the alternating current to unidirectional
current.


Types of electrostatic precipitators:
There are many types of ESPs in use throughout the world. A brief
description of three different types is given below:
A) Single stage or two stage:
In a single stage ESP, gas ionization and particulate collection are
combined in a single step. An example is the Cottrell single-stage
precipitator. Because it operates at ionizing voltages from 40,000 to
70,000 volts, DC, it may also be called a high voltage precipitator.
It is used extensively for heavy duty applications such as utility
boilers, large industrial boilers and cement kilns.
In the two-stage precipitator particles are ionized in the first
chamber and collected in the second chamber. For example,
Penny the two stage precipitator uses DC voltages from 11,000
to 14,000 volts for ionization and is referred to as a low voltage
precipitator. Its use is limited to low inlet concentration, normally
not exceeding 0.025 grains per cubic feet. It is the most practical
collection technique for many hydrocarbon applications, where the
initial clear exhaust stack turns into a visible emission as vapor
condenses.
B) Pipe type or Plate type:
In the pipe type electrostatic precipitators, a nest of parallel pipes
form the collecting electrodes, which may be round, or
square. Generally the pipe is about 30 cm in diameter or less. Most
commonly a wire with a small radius of curvature, suspended along
the axis of each pipe, is used. The wires must be weighted or
supported to retain proper physical tension and location, electrically
insulated from the support grid and strong enough to withstand
rapping or vibration for cleaning purpose. The gas flow is axial from
bottom to top.
The pipe electrodes, may be 2-5 m high. Spacing between the
discharge electrode and collecting electrode ranges from 8-20 cm.
Precipitation of the aerosol particles occurs on the inner pipe walls,
from which the material can be periodically removed by rapping of
pipes or by flushing water. The pipe type precipitator is generally
used for the removal of liquid particles.
In the plate type precipitators the collection electrodes consist of
parallel plates. The discharge electrodes are again wires with a
small curvature. Sometimes square or twisted rods can be used.
The wires are suspended midway between the parallel plates and
usually hang free with a weight suspended at the bottom to keep
them straight. Discharge electrodes are made from non-corrosive
materials like tungsten, and alloys of steel and copper. The gas flow
is parallel to the plates.
The plates may be 1-2 m wide and 3-6 m high. The parallel plates
should be at equally spaced intervals (between 15 and 35 cm). The
collection of the aerosols takes place on the inner side of the parallel
plates. The dust material can be removed by rapping either
continuously or periodically. The dust particles removed fall into the
hopper at the base of the precipitator.
Collection electrodes should have a minimum amount of collection
surface, bulking resistance, resistance to corrosion and a consistent
economic design.
Plate type precipitators are horizontal or vertical, depending on the
direction of the gas flow. Gas velocities are maintained at 0.5-0.6
m/s in these precipitators. Theyre used for collection of solid
particulate.

C) Dry and Wet Precipitators:
If particulate matter is removed from the collecting electrodes, by
rapping only, it is known as a dry precipitator. If, on the other hand,
water or any other fluid is used for removal of the solid particulate
matter, then it is known as a wet precipitator. In general, wet
precipitators are more efficient. However, it is the dry type plate
precipitators that are predominantly used.
Efficiency:
Generally, the collection efficiency of the electrostatic precipitator is
very high, approaching 100%. Many installations operate at 98 and
99% efficiency. Some materials ionize more readily than others and
are thus more adapted to removal by electrostatic precipitation.
Acid mists and catalyst recovery units have efficiencies in excess of
99%. However, for materials like carbon black, which have very low
efficiencies due to very low collection capacity, by proper
combination of an ESP with a cyclone, very high efficiencies can be
achieved. The gas entering the ESP may be pre-treated (i.e.,
removing a portion of particulate) by using certain mechanical
collectors or by adding certain chemicals to the gas to change the
chemical properties of the gas to increase their capacity to collect
on the discharge electrode and thus increase the efficiency.
The factors affecting the efficiency of electrostatic precipitators
are particle resistivity and particle re-entrainment. Both are
explained below:

A) Particle Resistivity :
Dust resistivity is a measure of the resistance of the dust layer to
the passage of a current. For practical operation, the resistivity
should be 10
7
and 10
11
ohm-cm. At higher resistivities, particles are
too difficult to charge. Higher resistivity leads to a decrease in
removal efficiency. At times, particles of high resistivity may be
conditioned with moisture to bring them into an acceptable range.
If the resistivity of the particles is too low,(<10 ohmcm), little can
be done to improve efficiency. This is due to the fact that the
particles accept a charge easily, but they dissipate it so quickly at
the collector electrode, that the particles are re- entrained in the
gas stream. This results in low efficiency.
Particle resistivity depends upon the composition of the dust and the
continuity of the dust layer. Resistivity is also affected by the ESP
operating temperature and by the voltage gradient that exists
across the dust layer.

B) Particle re-entrainment:
This is a problem associated with particle charging. It occurs
primarily in two situations due to either inadequate precipitator
area, or inadequate dust removal from the hopper. Re-entrainment
reduces the precipitator performance, because of the necessity of
recollecting the dust that had been previously removed from the
carrier gas. The problem can be overcome by a proper design of the
ESP and necessary maintenance.
The advantages of using the ESP are:
i) High collection efficiency.
ii) Particles as small as 0.1 micron can be removed.
iii) Low maintenance and operating cost.
iv) Low pressure drop (0.25-1.25 cm of water).
v) Satisfactory handling of a large volume of high temperature gas.
vi) Treatment time is negligible (0.1-10s).
vii) Cleaning is easy by removing the units of precipitator from
operation.
viii) There is no limit to solid, liquid or corrosive chemical usage.
The disadvantages of using the ESP are:
i) High initial cost.
ii) Space requirement is more because of the large size of the
equipment.
iii) Possible explosion hazards during collection of combustible gases
or particulate.
iv) Precautions are necessary to maintain safety during operation.
Proper gas flow distribution, particulate conductivity and corona
spark over rate must be carefully maintained.
v) The negatively charged electrodes during gas ionization produce
the ozone.
The important applications of ESPs in different industries throughout
the world are given as below:
i) Cement factories:
a) Cleaning the flue gas from the cement kiln.
b) Recovery of cement dust from kilns.
ii) Pulp and paper mills:
a) Soda-fume recovery in the Kraft pulp mills.
iii) Steel Plants:
a) Cleaning blast furnace gas to use it as a fuel.
b) Removing tars from coke oven gases.
c) Cleaning open hearth and electric furnace gases.
iv) Non-ferrous metals industry:
a) Recovering valuable material from the flue gases.
b) Collecting acid mist.
v) Chemical Industry:
a) Collection of sulfuric and phosphoric acid mist.
b) Cleaning various types of gas, such as hydrogen, CO
2
, and SO
2
.
c) Removing the dust from elemental phosphorous in the vapor
state.
vi) Petroleum Industry:
a) Recovery of catalytic dust.
vii) Carbon Black industry:
a) Agglomeration and collection of carbon black.
viii) Electric Power Industry:
a) Collecting fly ash form coal-fired boilers.


Scrubbers:
Scrubbers are devices that remove particulate matter by contacting
the dirty gas stream with liquid drops. Generally water is used as
the scrubbing fluid. In a wet collector, the dust is agglomerated with
water and then separated from the gas together with the water.

The mechanism of particulate collection and removal by a scrubber
can be described as a four-step process.
i) Transport : The particle must be transported to the vicinity of
the
water droplets which are usually 10 to 1000
times larger.
ii) Collision : The particle must collide with the droplet.
iii) Adhesion : This is promoted by the surface tension property.
iv) Precipitation: This involves the removal of the droplets,
containing
the dust particles from the gas phase.
The physical principles involved in the operation of the scrubbers
are: i) impingement, ii) interception, iii) diffusion and iv)
condensation. A brief description is given below:
i) Impingement :
When gas containing dust is swept through an area containing
liquid droplets, dust particles will impinge upon the droplets and if
they adhere, they will be collected by them. If the liquid droplet is
approximately 100 to 300 times bigger than the dust particle, the
collection efficiency of the particles is more, because the numbers of
elastic collisions increase.
ii) Interception:
Particles that move with the gas stream may not impinge on
the droplets, but can be captured because they brush against the
droplet and adhere there. This is known as interception.
iii) Diffusion:
Diffusion of the particulate matter on the liquid medium helps
in the removal of the particulate matter.
iv) Condensation:
Condensation of the liquid medium on the particulate matter
increases the size and weight of the particles. This helps in easy
removal of the particles.

The various types of scrubbers are:
i) Spray towers.
ii) Venturi scrubbers.
iii) Cyclone scrubbers.
iv) Packed scrubbers.
v) Mechanical scrubbers.
The simpler types of scrubbers with low energy inputs are effective
in collecting particles above 5 10 in diameter, while the more
efficient, high energy input scrubbers will perform efficiently for
collection of particles as small as 1 2 in diameter.

The advantages of scrubbers are:
i) Low initial cost.
ii) Moderately high collection efficiency for small particles.
iii) Applicable for high temperature installations.
iv) They can simultaneously remove particles and gases.
v) There is no particle re- entrainment.
The disadvantages of scrubbers are:
i) High power consumption for higher efficiency.
ii) Moderate to high maintenance costs owing to corrosion and
abrasion.
iii) Wet disposal of the collected material.
The scrubbers are used in a variety of applications. Some of the
situations are:
i) Theyre particularly useful in the case of a hot gas that must be
cooled for some reason.
ii) If the particulate matter is combustible or if any flammable gas is
present, even in trace amounts, in the bulk gas phase, a scrubber is
preferred to an electrostatic precipitator.
iii) Scrubbers can be used when there are waste water treatment
systems available on the site, with adequate reserve capacity to
handle the liquid effluent.
iv) Scrubbers are also used when gas reaction and absorption are
required simultaneously with particulate control.

Fabric Filters:
Fabric filtration is one of the most common techniques to collect
particulate matter from industrial waste gases. The use of fabric
filters is based on the principle of filtration, which is a reliable,
efficient and economic methods to remove particulate matter from
the gases. The air pollution control equipment using fabric filters are
known as bag houses.
Bag Houses
A bag house or a bag filter consists of numerous vertically hanging,
tubular bags, 4 to 18 inches in diameter and 10 to 40 feet long.
They are suspended with their open ends attached to a manifold.
The number of bags can vary from a few hundreds to a thousand or
more depending upon the size of the bag house. Bag houses are
constructed as single or compartmental units. In both cases, the
bags are housed in a shell made of rigid metal material.
Occasionally, it is necessary to include insulation with the shell
when treating high temperature flue gas. This is done to prevent
moisture or acid mist from condensing in the unit, causing corrosion
and rapid deterioration of the bag house.
Hoppers are used to store the collected dust temporarily before it is
disposed in a landfill or reused in the process. Dust should be
removed as soon as possible to avoid packing which would make
removal very difficult. They are usually designed with a 60 degrees
slope to allow dust to flow freely from the top of the hopper to the
bottom discharge opening. Sometimes devices such as strike plates,
poke holes, vibrators and rappers are added to promote easy and
quick discharge. Access doors or ports are also provided. Access
ports provide for easier cleaning, inspection and maintenance of the
hopper.
A discharge device is necessary for emptying the hopper.
Discharge devices can be manual (slide gates, hinged doors and
drawers) or automatic trickle valves, rotary airlock valves, screw
conveyors or pneumatic conveyors)

Filter Media
Woven and felted materials are used to make bag filters. Woven
filters are used with low energy cleaning methods such as shaking
and reverse air. Felted fabrics are usually used with low energy
cleaning systems such as pulse jet cleaning.
While selecting the filter medium for bag houses, the characteristics
and properties of the carrier gas and dust particles should be
considered. The properties to be noted include:
a) Carrier gas temperature
b) Carrier gas composition
c) Gas flow rate
d) Size and shape of dust particles and its concentration
The abrasion resistance, chemical resistance, tensile strength and
permeability and the cost of the fabric should be considered. The
fibers used for fabric filters can vary depending on the industrial
application. Some filters are made from natural fibers such as
cotton or wool. These fibers are relatively inexpensive, but have
temperature limitations (< 212 F) and only average abrasion
resistance. Cotton is readily available making it very popular for low
temperature simple applications. Wool withstands moisture very
well and can be made into thick felts easily.
Synthetic fibers such as nylon, orlon and polyester have
slightly higher temperature limitations and chemical resistance.
Synthetic fibers are more expensive than natural fibers.
Polypropylene is the most inexpensive synthetic fiber and is used in
industrial applications such as foundries, coal crushers and food
industries. Nylon is the most abrasive resistant synthetic fiber
making it useful for applications filtering abrasive dusts. Different
types of fibers with varying characteristics are available in the
market.

Fabric Treatment
Fabrics are usually pre-treated, to improve their mechanical and
dimensional stability. They can be treated with silicone to give them
better cake release properties. Natural fibers (wool and cotton) are
usually preshrunk to eliminate bag shrinkage during operation. Both
synthetic and natural fabrics usually undergo processes such as
calendering, napping, singeing, glazing or coating. These processes
increase the fabric life and improve dimensional stability and ease of
bag cleaning.
a) Calendering:
This is the high pressure pressing of the fabric by
rollers to flatten, smooth, or decorate the material. Calendering
pushes the surface fibers down on to the body of the filter medium.
This is done to increase surface life, dimensional stability and to
give a more uniform surface to bag fabric.
b) Napping:
This is the scraping of the filter surface across metal
points or burrs on a revolving cylinder. Napping raises the surface
fibers, that provides a number of sites for particle collection by
interception or diffusion. Fabrics used for collecting sticky or oily
dusts are occasionally napped to provide good collection and bag
cleaning ease.
c) Singeing:
This is done by passing the filter material over an
open flame, removing any straggly surface fibers. This provides a
more uniform surface.
d) Glazing:
This is the high pressure pressing of the fiber at
elevated temperatures. The fibers are fused to the body of the filter
medium. Glazing improves the mechanical stability of the filter and
helps reduce bag shrinkage that occurs from prolonged use.
e) Coating:
Coating or resin treating involves immersing the filter
material in natural or synthetic resin such as polyvinyl chloride,
cellulose acetate or urea - phenol. This is done to lubricate the
woven fibers or to provide high temperature durability or chemical
resistance for various fabric material.
Operation of a bag house:
The gas entering the inlet pipe strikes a baffle plate, which causes
larger particles to fall into a hopper due to gravity. The carrier
gas then flows upward into the tubes and outward through the
fabric leaving the particulate matter as a "cake" on the insides of
the bags.
Efficiency during the pre-coat formation is low, but
increases as the pre-coat (cake) is formed, until a final efficiency of
over 99% is obtained. Once formed, the pre-coat forms part of the
filtering medium, which helps in further removal of the particulate.
Thus the dust becomes the actual filtering medium. The bags in
effect act primarily as a matrix to support the dust cake. The cake is
usually formed within minutes or even seconds.
The accumulation of dust increases the air resistance of the
filter and therefore filter bags have to be periodically cleaned. They
can be cleaned by rapping, shaking or vibration, or by reverse air
flow, causing the filter cake to be loosened and to fall into the
hopper below. The normal velocities at which the gas is passed
through the bags at 0.4-1m/min. There are many types of "filter
bags" depending on the bag shape, type of housing and method of
cleaning the fabric.
Efficiency:
The efficiency of bag filters may decrease on account of the
following factors:
a) Excessive filter ratios - 'Filter ratio' is defined as the ratio of
the carrier gas volume to gross filter area, per minute flow of the
gas. Excessive filter ratios lower particulate removal efficiency and
result in increased bag wear. Therefore, low filter ratios are
recommended. Therefore, low filter ratios are recommended for
high concentration of particulate.
b) Improper selection of filter media - While selecting filter
media, properties such as temperature resistance, resistance to
chemical attack and abrasion resistance should be taken into
consideration.
Operating Problems:
Various problems during the operation of a bag house are:
a) Cleaning -
At intervals the bags get clogged up with a covering of
dust particles that the gas can no longer pass through them. At that
point, the bags have to be cleaned by rapping, shaking or by
reverse air flow by a pulse jet.
b) Rupture of the cloth -
The greatest problem inherent in cloth filters is the
rupture of cloth, which results from shaking. It is often difficult to
locate ruptures and when theyre found the replacement time is
often considerable.
c) Temperature -
Fabric filters will not perform properly if a gross
temperature overload occurs. If the gas temperature is expected to
fluctuate, a fiber material that will sustain the upper temperature
fluctuation must be selected.
Also, whenever the effluent contains a reactive gas like SO
2
which
can form an acid whenever the temperature in the bag house falls
below the dew point it can create problems. Sometimes it may even
be necessary to provide an auxiliary heater to make sure that the
temperature in the bag house does not fall below acid gas dew
point.
d) Bleeding -
This is the penetration of the fabric by fine particles,
which is common in fabric filtration. It can occur if the weave is too
open or the filter ratio is very high. The solution is to use a double
layer material or a thick woven fabric.
e) Humidity -
This is a common and important problem, especially if
the dust is hygroscopic. It would therefore be advisable to maintain
moisture free conditions within the bag house, as a precautionary
measure.
f) Chemical attack -
This is another problem associated with fabric
filters. The possibility of chemical attack due to corrosive chemicals
present in the effluent. A proper choice of fabric filter will avoid this
problem.

Filter cleaning mechanisms:
The following mechanisms are used for cleaning the filters in a bag
house:
i) Rapping
ii) Shaking
iii) Reverse air flow (back wash)
iv) Pulse jet
Multi-Compartment Type Bag House:
If the requirements of the process being controlled are such that
continuous operation is necessary, the bag filter must be of a multi-
compartment type to allow individual units of the bag filter to be
successively off-stream during shaking. This is achieved either
manually in small units or by programming control in large, fully
automatic units. In this case, sufficient cloth area must be provided
to ensure that the filtering efficiency will not be reduced during
shaking off periods, when any one of the units is off-stream.
The advantages of a fabric filter are:
i) High collection efficiencies for all particle sizes, especially for
particles smaller than 10 micron in diameter.
ii) Simple construction and operation.
iii) Nominal power consumption.
iv) Dry disposal of collected material.
The disadvantages of a fabric filter are:
i) Operating limits are imposed by high carrier gas
temperatures, high humidity and other parameters.
ii) High maintenance and fabric replacement costs. Bag houses are
difficult to maintain because of the difficulty in finding and replacing
even a single leaking bag. Also as general rule, about 1/4th of the
bags will need replacement every year.
iii) Large size of equipment.
iv) Problems in handling dusts which may abrade, corrode, or blind
the cloth.
The applications of a fabric filter are:
Fabric filters find extensive application in the following industries
and operations:
i) Metallurgical industry
ii) Foundries
iii) Cement industry
iv) Chalk and lime plants
v) Brick works
vi) Ceramic industry
vii) Flour mills
Cost:
A bag filter is comparatively expensive to install. Its power
consumption is moderate. In most cases, the maintenance cost is
high because the bags have to be repaired or replaced regularly.
The nature of the gas and the dust decide the frequency of such
maintenance work.


Control of Oxides of Nitrogen
Background
A number of inexpensive methods to reduce NOx emissions released
from various combustion equipment are being developed by the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's Office of Research and
Development (ORD) These methods aim at eliminating operating
problems, increasing the equipment life, and preventing emissions
of other pollutants.
General Methods of Control
NOx control can be achieved by:
Fuel denitrogenation
Combustion modification
Modification of operating conditions
Tail-end control equipment
Selective Catalytic Reduction
Selective Non-Catalytic Reduction
Electron Beam Radiation
Staged Combustion
The most promising methods of reducing NOx emissions currently
are classified into three groups. The methods for each group are:
Before burning:
Fuel denitrogenation
During burning:
Staged combustion
Catalytic combustion
In exhaust Gas:
Flue gas treatment
Catalytic emission control
Fuel Denitrogenation
One approach in reducing nitrogen oxide emission is to remove a
large part of the nitrogen contained in the fuels. Nitrogen is
removed from liquid fuels by mixing the fuels with hydrogen gas,
heating the mixture and using a catalyst to cause nitrogen in the
fuel and gaseous hydrogen to unite. This produces ammonia and
cleaner fuel. This technology can reduce the nitrogen contained in
both naturally occurring and synthetic fuels.
Combustion Modification
Combustion control uses one of the following strategies:
Reduce peak temperatures of the flame zone. the methods are :
Increase the rate of flame cooling
Decrease the adiabatic flame temperature by dilution.
Reduce residence time in the flame zone. For this we, change the
shape of the flame zone
Reduce Oxygen concentration in the flame one. This can be
accomplished by:

decreasing the excess air

controlled mixing of fuel and air

using a fuel rich primary flame zone.

Modification of Operating Conditions
The operating conditions can be modified to achieve significant
reductions in the rate of thermal NOx production. The various
methods are:
Low-excess firing
Off-stoichiometric combustion ( staged combustion )
Flue gas recirculation
Reduced air preheat
Reduced firing rates
Water Injection
The flue gas treatment can be used to control the oxides of nitrogen
in the following manner:
NOx emissions can also be removed by removing them from the
exhaust gases that are released from burners.
In one process, ammonia is added to the flue gas prior to the gas
passing over a catalyst. The catalyst enables the ammonia to react
chemically with the NOx converting it to molecular nitrogen and
water. This system promises as high as 90% removal of nitrogen
oxides from the flue gases.
In a second process, both NOx and SOx are removed. The
combustion gases are moved across a bed of copper oxide, which
reacts, with the sulfur oxide to form copper sulfate. The copper
sulfate acts as a catalyst for reducing NOx to ammonia.
Approximately 90% of the NOx and SOx can be removed from the
flue gases through this process.
Water injection is used for the NOx removal as follows:

One of the methods of reducing NOx emissions from oil-fired
combustion systems is to mix water with the oil before it is sprayed
into the burner. Water decreases the combustion temperature and
can reduce NOx emissions from burning light weight oils by as much
as 15%.
A significant added advantage in using these emulsions is that they
reduce the emission of particulate matter. When water is mixed in
the oil, each oil droplet sprayed into the firebox has several tiny
water droplets inside. The heat existing in the firebox makes these
water droplets flash into steam and explode the oil droplet.
Increasing the surface area of the oil, enables it to burn faster and
more completely. A reduction in particulate emissions can be
achieved regardless of whether light or heavy oils are being burned.
Tail End Control Equipment
Combustion modification and modification of operating conditions
provide significant reductions in NOx, but not enough to meet
regulations. For further reduction in emissions, tail-end control
equipment is required.
Some of the control processes are:
Selective Catalytic Reduction
Selective non catalytic Reduction
Electron Beam Radiation
Staged Combustion
Selective catalytic reduction can be used in NOx control in the
following manner:
Another method of reducing the pollutant emissions is to use a
catalyst to achieve oxidation of fuel rather than high temperature.
Catalytic combustors like natural gas, propane and vaporized
distillate oil, for gas turbines have reduced NOx emissions to well
below 10 ppm. Fuel and air are mixed to the desired ratio and
introduced into a chamber containing the ceramic or metal catalyst.
In this process, the nitrogen oxides in the flue gases are reduced to
nitrogen
During this process, only the NOx species are reduced. NH
3
is used
as a reducing gas.
The catalyst is a combination of titanium and vanadium oxides.
The reactions are given below :
4 NO + 4 NH
3
+ O
2
-----> 4N
2
+ 6H
2
O
2NO
2
+ 4 NH3+ O
2
-----> 3N
2
+ 6H
2
O
Selective catalytic reduction catalyst is best at around 300 too
400
o
C.
Typical efficiencies are around 80 %.
The selective noncatalytic reduction process involves the following:
At Higher temperatures (900-1000
o
C), NH3 will reduce NOx to
nitrogen without a catalyst.
At NH3: NOx molar ratios of 1:1, to 2:1, about 40 - 60% reduction
is obtained.
SNR is cheaper than SCR is terms of operation cost and capital cost.
Tight temperature controls are needed. At lower temperatures, non
reacted ammonia is emitted. At higher
temperatures the ammonia is oxidized to NO.
The electron beam radiation process is as follows:
This treatment process is under development, and is not widely
used. Work is underway to determine the
feasibility of electron beam radiation for neutralizing hazardous
wastes and air toxics.
Irradiation of flue gases containing NOx or SOx produce nitrate and
sulfate ions.
The addition of water and ammonia produces NH4NO3, and
(NH4)2SO4
The solids are removed from the gas, and are sold as fertilizers.
The staged combustion process to control NOx can be explained as
under:

Staged combustion processes significantly reduce NOx emissions. In
the initial stage of combustion, the air supplied to the burners is
less than the amount required to completely burn the fuel. During
this stage, fuel bound nitrogen is released but cannot be oxidized,
so it forms stable molecules of harmless molecular nitrogen (N2).
Other components of the fuel are also released without being fully
oxidized. These include carbon particles and carbon monoxide. By
adding a second stage, in the air-fuel mixture, the carbon and
carbon monoxide can be burned, converting them to carbon dioxide.
Modifying existing coal furnaces to achieve a staged
combustion process has resulted in a 30% to 50% reduction in NOx
emissions. Besides reducing NOx emissions, limiting the air during
the combustion process increases the efficiency of converting fuel to
usable heat.
This is a cheap approach. However, it requires a larger firebox
for the same combustion rate and it is difficult to get complete
burning of the fuel in the second stage, so that the amount of
unburned fuel and/or carbon monoxide in the exhaust gas is
increased.
Some practical examples of the application of this technology
are:
1. Pulverized Coal Burner:
A coal burner design based on staged combustion may reduce NOx
by as much as 85%. The burner produces a fuel-rich primary
combustion zone and controls the fuel-air mixing. These conditions
lead to preferential conversion of the nitrogen in the coal to
molecular nitrogen (N2). In conventional burners, this fuel nitrogen
is the primary source of NOx. Additional air is introduced from the
periphery of the burner to complete combustion in a secondary
zone. The design also results in low levels of carbonaceous
emissions consistent with high energy efficiency.
2. Residential Oil Furnaces:
A primary innovation in the residential oil furnace was used to
remove a controlled amount of heat from the fire box and thus
reduce the formation of thermal NOx by almost 65%. Oil
consumption was also reduced by an average of 15%. Thus fuel
savings have been achieved while simultaneously protecting the
environment.
3. Small-scale industrial boilers:
In boilers used for light industries and for heating large buildings,
reducing the amount of oxygen available during the initial
combustion stage has been demonstrated to be a viable technique
to reduce NOx emissions from these boilers. However, this results in
incomplete combustion so that the amount of carbon particles
emitted in the exhaust increases.
The development of a burner for these boilers will limit the NOx
emissions while maintaining the high efficiency of the boiler and
preventing the formation of the carbon particulate.
4. Catalytic emission control in motor vehicle exhaust:
A special 3-way catalytic converter consists of a catalyst that causes
nitric oxide
to oxidize the carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons. In this process,
molecular nitrogen, carbon dioxide and water vapor are released.
In order to make this reaction work efficiently, the proportions
of NO, CO and HC entering the catalytic converter must be carefully
controlled. This is done by regulating the ratio of air and fuel in the
combustion chamber. Too much fuel results in increased CO and HC
emissions. Too much oxygen results in increased emissions of
nitrogen oxides. An oxygen sensor in the exhaust manifold allows
control, while an active feedback device adjusts the mixture of and
fuel in the carburetor or fuel injection system.


CASE HISTORY

A Study of Odor Control in Livestock Buildings
INTRODUCTION
All over the world, feed cattle markets have expanded dramatically
in recent years. Odor control is one of the major issues with such
livestock markets. The issue is of considerable interest to residents
as well as to owners, if such buildings (which require large initial
investment to develop) are located close to a residential area.
In this study, the problem of annoying odors coming from a
livestock show pavilion is considered. Up to 1,000 head of cattle are
to be housed in the pavilion. The problem is further complicated by
the fact that odor nuisance occurs whenever animal wastes are
allowed to decompose. It must be kept in mind that 1,000 head of
cattle produce 2.6 tons of solid waste and 1.0 tons of liquid waste in
a day [1].
ANALYSIS OF ODORS
The analysis of odors from a livestock show pavilion requires an
understanding of the factors influencing them. In the following
sections we will discuss odors, characteristic of animal wastes, odor
nuisance from animal wastes, physical conditions in the area, etc.
Odors [2,3,4,5]
Odor is that property of a substance which affects the sense of
smell; a human response to the chemical structure of molecules
when those molecules contact the sensory surfaces of the human
body. The ability to perceive an unlimited number of odor stimuli is
unique among human senses and remains a biological mystery. The
response to odor varies from person to person. Humans tend to
relate their odor likes and dislikes to pleasant or unpleasant past
experiences. However, for certain volatile substances there are little
debate---they "stink." The odor is determined by human
odorimetry, since no other measurement method is yet available.
Characteristic of Animal Wastes [6,7,8]
The physical and chemical properties of animal wastes are affected
by the particular characteristics of the animal, the feed ration and
the environment. The size of the animal, as measured by its live
weight, is perhaps the most important parameter. The sex and
breed of the animal affects the manure properties. The digestibility
of the feed ration, the fiber and protein content and the nature of
other feed elements determine the composition of the excreta.
The quality of the feed influences, not only the amount the animal
eats daily, but also the chemical composition of the waste. Proteins,
which contain most of the nitrogen of the feed, vary in digestibility,
depending on the source of the protein. The nitrogen of the
undigested protein is excreted in the solid feces, whereas the
nitrogen of the digested proteins is absorbed and is later excreted in
the urine, except for a portion, which is used to build up the flesh in
the animal. Other components of the feed include potassium,
phosphorus, antibiotics, etc. If large amounts of antibiotics are
given to the animal then a portion will pass through the digestive
tract and could severely inhibit or at times limit the biological
treatment of the manure. Bearing in mind that animal wastes are
unstable, biodegradable materials and that, depending on the way
they are handled and stored, they may undergo rapid changes in
composition, estimated average chemical compositions of different
types of wastes are given in the following table.
Odor Nuisance from Animal Wastes [6,7,9]
If the animal wastes accumulate and are allowed to putrefy
anaerobically in the building, the odor problem will be very serious.
Using a rough estimate similar to that of Curtis [9], the approximate
amount of pollutant gases for 1,000 head of livestock is
Ammonia (NH
3
) 50,000 liters
Carbon Dioxide (CO )
2
90,000 liters (Respiratory CO
2
is not
included)
Hydrogen Sulfide (H
2
S) 20,000 liters
Methane (CH
4
) 125,000 liters
These data are based on the assumption that heat, water vapor and
oxygen are supplied and standard atmospheric pressure and
temperature are maintained. Now one can appreciate the need of
odor control for a livestock show pavilion, located close to a
residential area.

Table: Composition of typical animal wastes [6]

PARAMETERS
AVERAGE CONCENTRATION
(mg/l)
SWINE POULTRY BEEF DAIRY
BOD
5
30,800 45,500 31,300 8,350
Total Solids 34,400 118,500 81,500 24,600
% Volatile 66 63 79 64
COD 70,800 156,000 316,000 50,400
Nitrogen
Free Ammonia (NH
3
)
Nitrite (NO
2
)
Nitrate (NO
3
)
Total

3,130
1.33
1.47
5,700

-
-
-
7,460

856
2.7
3.1
2,650

256
2.1
1.2
585
Phosphorous (PO
4
) 3,780 8,350 3,410 655
Moisture Content (%) 96 88 92 98


The characteristics of various gases are:
Ammonia (NH
3
) is a colorless gas with a very characteristic pungent
odor. It is much lighter than air, and low concentrations are irritating to
the eyes, nose and throat. Generally, in decomposing animal wastes, it is
the first gas to be noticed. Suffocation may follow inhalation of large
quantities.
Carbon Dioxide (CO
2
) is a colorless, odorless gas. It acts as a simple
asphyxiant, and because its density is greater than that of air, it is
particularly dangerous in manure pits.
Hydrogen Sulfide (H
2
S) is a colorless gas which is heavier than air and
possesses the characteristic odor of rotten eggs. It is both an irritant and
an asphyxiant and is very poisonous. Low concentrations of 1 to 2 ppm are
easy to detect by smell, but higher concentrations rapidly destroy the
sense of smell. Prolonged exposure to levels of 500 ppm or higher can
cause death.
Methane (CH
4
) is a colorless, odorless gas lighter than air. If its
concentration is sufficiently high it may form explosive mixtures in air.
There are many other compounds like mercaptans, amines, etc,
which are present in small amounts and may cause odor nuisance.

Physical Conditions
In the prevention and control of odors, it is essential that careful
consideration be given to meteorologic, climatologic and
topographic conditions in the area. This point is discussed, in detail,
at the end of the paper.
Transportation System
Loading and unloading zones for the transportation of animals must
be located inside the building. This step will prevent the odor from
animals, if any.
Ventilation System [10]
The purposes of a good ventilation system are: (a) removal of
surplus heat emitted by the animals, if any, (b) removal of air
pollutant and humidity, (c) must bring sufficient air to meet oxygen.
A ventilation system must be flexible enough to cope with the
seasonal changes, e.g. in winter, one will be more interested in
removing water vapor produced which does not require much air
while in summer, surplus heat must be removed and great amounts
of air are to be drawn through the building to maintain the
temperature.
There are three main parts in a ventilation system:
Inlet System
Outlet System
Regulating System.

Inlet system: This is the most important part of a ventilating
system. This system handles fresh air in proper amounts, with
proper velocity while the outlet system creates the necessary
negative pressure in the building. This requires adjustable air inlets.
The wooden valve furnished with a sloping cover adjusted manually
or automatically is the best type of inlet valve. The sloping cover
gives the proper direction for the air while the adjustment of cover
provides the proper air velocity.
Outlet system: The system consists of electric ventilators, with
adjustable airflow valves, placed in the roof. These ventilators must
have a total capacity equal to 250 m
3
of air per heat producing unit
in summer while 50 m
3
of air heat producing unit in winter.
Regulating system: The adjustmen