2.02.2004 Extras. 8.

Annihilation and creation operators 1

Chapter 8

Annihilation and creation operators

8.1 General properties

We introduce two nonhermitian operators which, by definition, satisfy the canonical commuta-
tion relation:
h i
â, ↠= 1. (8.1)

By | z i we denote a normalized eigenstate of the operator N̂ = ↠â. We assume that such states
are orthogonal, since operator N̂ is hermitian. So we have

N̂ | z i = ↠â| z i = z | z i, h z | z 0 i = δzz 0 . (8.2)

Lemma 8.1 Eigenvalue of the operator N̂ is real and nonnegative: z ∈ R+ .

Proof. Since | z i denotes the normalized eigenvector of N̂ , we have

 
z = z h z | z i = h z | z | z i = h z | ↠â | z i = h z | ↠( â | z i )
= ( â | z i )† ( â | z i ) = || â | z i ||2 . (8.3)

So we see that z is equal to a norm of a certain vector, and as such is real and nonnegative.

Lemma 8.2 The following commutation relations hold

h i
↠â, â = −â, (8.4a)
h i
↠â, ↠= ↠. (8.4b)

Proof. By simple calculation, we get from the canonical relation (8.1):

h i h i
↠â, â = ↠[ â, â ] + ↠, â â = ↠· 0 + (−1)â.
h i h i h i
↠â, ↠= ↠â, ↠+ ↠, ↠â = ↠+ 0 · â, (8.5)

which completes the proof.

Lemma 8.3 The ket â | z i is an eigenstate of the operator N̂ = ↠â, and it belongs to an
eigenvalue (z − 1), that is

N̂ â | z i = (z − 1) â | z i. (8.6)

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Proof. If â | z i 6= 0, then we have

N̂ â | z i = ↠â â | z i. (8.7)

Due to commutation relation (8.4a) we can write â † â â = â ↠â − â, and hence

N̂ â | z i = â (↠â − 1) | z i = â z | z i − â | z i = (z − 1) â | z i. (8.8)

This shows that vector â | z i is an eigenstate of N̂ with an eigenvalue (z − 1).

Lemma 8.4 The ket ↠| z i is an eigenstate of the operator N̂ = ↠â, and it belongs to an
eigenvalue (z + 1), that is

N̂ ↠| z i = (z + 1) â | z i. (8.9)

Proof. The proof is analogous to that of the previous lemma, only we use commutation relation
(8.4b) instead of (8.4a).

Lemma 8.5 Norms of the vectors â | z i and â † | z i are given as

√ √
|| â | z i || = z , || ↠| z i || = z + 1 . (8.10)

Proof. The first norm follows automatically from the proof of the first lemma, see relation
(8.3). The second relation is proved similarly. We have
 †  
||↠| z i||2 = ↠| z i ↠| z i = h z | â ↠| z i. (8.11)

Using the canonical commutation relation we have â â † = ↠â + 1, thus, we get

||↠| z i||2 = h z | ↠â + 1 | z i = h z | ↠â | z i + h z | z i = || â | z i ||2 + 1 = z + 1, (8.12)

since vector | z i is normalized and || â | z i || 2 = z. Second relation (8.10) follows immediately.

Lemma 8.6 If a vector ân | z i 6= 0, then it is an eigenvector of N̂ belonging to the eigenvalue

(z − n):

N̂ ân | z i = (z − n) ân | z i (8.13)

Proof. The proof follows by mathematical induction. The case n = 1 was already shown in
(8.6). In the proof essential role is played by the relation N̂ â = N̂ â − â, which follows from
(8.4a). We easily have

N̂ ân+1 | z i = N̂ â [ân | z i] = (âN̂ − â) [ân | z i] = âN̂ [ân | z i] − ân+1 | z i

 
(8.14)

By induction assumption, we further get

N̂ ân+1 | z i = â(z − n)ân | z i − ân+1 | z i = (z − n − 1)ân+1 | z i.

 
(8.15)

and the lemma follows.

Lemma 8.7 There exists such an integer n, that

ân | z i 6= 0, but ân+1 | z i = 0, (8.16)

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Proof. From the previous lemma it follows that â n | z i is an eigenvector of the operator N̂ and
it belongs to the eigenvalue (z − n). Lemma (8.1) states that eigenvalues of N̂ are nonnegative.
For n sufficiently large we would have (z − n) < 0. This contradicts lemma (8.1). Hence, there
must exist an integer n such that relations (8.16) are satisfied. This completes the proof.

Theorem 8.1 The eigenvalues z of the operator N̂ defined in Eq.(8.2) are nonnegative integers.
Moreover, there exists such a normalized eigenvector | 0 i of N̂ that

â | 0 i = 0 (8.17)

which will be called the vacuum state.

Proof. Since a vector ân | z i is an eigenvector of N̂ belonging to the eigenvalue z − n, we can

normalize it and write it as
ân | z i
|z − ni = . (8.18)
||ân | z i||
Let the integer n be such, that Eq.(8.16) is satisfied. This means that

â | z − n i = 0, (8.19)

and the norm of the obtained vector is

|| â | z − n i || = 0. (8.20)

Now, from the first of relations (8.10) it follows that

√
|| â | z − n i || = z − n = 0. (8.21)

This implies that z = n. Hence the eigenvalues z of the operator N̂ = ↠â are nonnegative
integers. We also conclude that there exists a normalized vector | 0 i for which eq.(8.16) is
satisfied for n = 0.

Theorem 8.2 According to the previous theorem, we denote by | n i the normalized eigenstate
of the operator N̂ belonging to the eigenvalue n – nonnegative integer. Then, the vectors
â | n i ↠| n i
|n − 1i = √ , and |n + 1i = √ , (8.22)
n n+1
are the eigenstates of N̂ . These relations enable us to construct all the eigenstates of operator
N̂ , provided one of the states | n i is given.

Proof. In lemma (8.3) we have shown that the vector â | n i is an eigenstate of N̂ belonging
to the eigenvalue (n − 1). This means (according to the introduced notation), that â | n i is
proportional to the vector | n − 1 i. It remains to find the coefficient of proportionality. From
√
lemma (8.5) we have the norm || â | n i || = n . Thus the vector
â | n i â | n i
= √ , (8.23)
|| â | n i || n
is a normalized eigenvector of N̂ with eigenvalue (n − 1). Hence it is equal to | n − 1 i. So the
first part of the theorem is proved. The second part can be shown in the same manner.
Let us note that relations (8.22) can be rewritten as
√
â | n i = n |n − 1i (8.24a)
†
√
â | n i = n + 1 |n + 1i (8.24b)

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Lemma 8.8 The eigenstate | n i of the operator N̂ = ↠â can be constructed as

1  † n
|ni = √ â | 0 i, (8.25)
n!
if the vacuum state | 0 i defined in eq.(8.17) is given.
Proof. The proof follows by induction from relation (8.24b). For n = 1 we have
1 1 √
| 1 i = √ ↠| 0 i = √ 1 | 1 i = | 1 i, (8.26)
1! 1!
as it should be. Now, we have
1 1 1
|n + 1i = p (↠)n+1 | 0 i = √ √ ↠(↠)n | 0 i
(n + 1)! n + 1 n!
↠√ |n + 1i
= √ |ni = n + 1 √ = | n + 1 i. (8.27)
n+1 n+1
Going from the first to the second line we have employed the principle of mathematical induction,
and thus the proof is completed.
This lemma clearly indicates the manner of construction of the eigenstates of the operator
N̂ = ↠â. We must find the ground state – the vacuum one | 0 i which should be unique. If this
is not the case, we must find a complete set of commuting observables and classify the vacuum
states with the aid of additional quantum numbers. Normalizing the vacuum state we apply the
creation operators to construct the eigenstates | n i.
Lemma 8.9 The eigenstates | n i specified in (8.25) are orthonormal, that is
h n | m i = δnm . (8.28)
Orthogonality follows from the fact that | n i are eigenstates of the hermitian operator N̂ = ↠â,
so it is sufficient to prove that the are normalized.
Proof. Without loss of generality we can assume n ≥ m. Then from (8.25) we have
1
hn|mi = √ h 0 | ân (↠)m | 0 i. (8.29)
n! m!
But
h i h i h i
â (↠)m − (↠)m â = â, (↠)m = ↠â, (↠)m−1 + â, ↠(↠)m−1
h i
= ↠â, (↠)m−1 + (↠)m−1 . (8.30)
Continuing such a reasoning we finally obtain
â (↠)m − (↠)m â = m (↠)m−1 , (8.31)
which can easily be verified by mathematical induction. Therefore, we obtain
1 h i
hn|mi = √ h 0 | ân−1 m(↠)m−1 + (↠)m â | 0 i
n! m!
1
= √ m h 0 | ân−1 (↠)m−1 | 0 i, (8.32)
n! m!
because â | 0 i = 0. Repeating such a procedure m times we will arrive at the relation
r
m!
hn|mi = h 0 | ân−m | 0 i. (8.33)
n!
For n > m we have ân−m | 0 i = 0, which follows from the definition of the vacuum state. When
n = m we get h n | m i = h 0 | 0 i = 1. So the states | n i are orthogonal (which is not unexpected)
and normalized, as it should be.

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8.2 Annihilation and creation operators – summary

Annihilation and creation operators (non-hermitian) are specified by the commutation relation
h i
â, ↠= 1. (8.34)

The number states | n i are the eigenstates of the number operator N̂ = ↠â, that is

N̂ | n i = ↠â| n i = n | n i, with n = 0, 1, 2, . . . . . . (8.35)

The state | 0 i is called a vacuum state and it satisfies the condition

â | 0 i = 0. (8.36)

Number states | n i are orthonormal (eigenstates of the Hermitian operator N̂ )

h m | n i = δmn . (8.37)

Annihilation and creation are sometimes called ladder operators. This follows from the properties
of lowering and raising the number of the state
√
â | n i = n | n − 1 i, (8.38a)
†
√
â | n i = n + 1 | n + 1 i. (8.38b)

Let us note that these relations are fully consistent with the previous ones. Relation (8.38a)
agrees with the definition (8.36) of the vacuum state. Moreover, we have
√ √
↠â | n i = ↠n | n − 1 i = n ↠| n − 1 i
√ p
= n (n − 1) + 1 | n i = n | n i, (8.39)

as it should be, when compared to definition (8.35). Matrix elements of the annihilation and
creation operators follow immediately from Eqs.(8.38)and from orthonormality requirement. We
have
√ √
h m | â | n i = n h m | n − 1 i = n δm,n−1 , (8.40a)
†
√ √
h m | â | n i = n + 1 h m | n + 1 i = n + 1 δm,n+1 . (8.40b)

Finally, practical construction goes along the following way

• Construct annihilation and creation operators â and â † , check their commutation relation
(to reproduce the canonical one (8.34)).

• Find (construct) the vacuum state | 0 i.

• Construct the number states by using the relation

(↠)n
|ni = √ | 0 i. (8.41)
n!

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8.3 Application to harmonic oscillator

8.3.1 Annihilation and creation operators for harmonic oscillator
Hamiltonian of the quantum–mechanical harmonic oscillator is of the form

p̂2 1
Ĥ = + mω 2 x̂2 , (8.42)
2m 2
and the momentum and position operators satisfy the canonical commutation relation
h i
x̂, p̂ = i~. (8.43)

It is an easy matter to check that two operators

r
mω p̂
x̂ and √ , (8.44)
~ mω~
are dimensionless.

Theorem 8.3 Two dimensionless, nonhermitian operators â and â † defined as

r 
1 mω ip̂ 1
b̂ = √ x̂ + √ = √ ( mω x̂ + ip̂ ) , (8.45a)
2 ~ mω~ 2mω~
r 
† 1 mω ip̂ 1
b̂ = √ x̂ − √ = √ ( mω x̂ − ip̂ ) , (8.45b)
2 ~ mω~ 2mω~
satisfy the commutation relation
h i
b̂, b̂† = 1. (8.46)

Hence we may identify: b̂ – annihilation, and b̂† – creation operators.

Proof. The facts that these operators are nonhermitian and dimensionless are evident. We
show the commutation relation.
h i 1 h i
b̂, b̂† = mω x̂ + ip̂, mω x̂ − ip̂
2mω~
1 n h i h i h i h io
= m2 ω 2 x̂, x̂ − imω x̂, p̂ + imω p̂, x̂ + p̂, p̂
2mω~
imω n h i h io i
= − x̂, p̂ + p̂, x̂ = { − i~ + (−i~) } = 1. (8.47)
2mω~ 2~
Since operators b̂ and b̂† satisfy commutation relation typical for annihilation and creation
operators, they posses all the necessary properties and the identification made in the theorem
is fully justified and correct.
Relations (8.45) can easily be inverted, and we can express the position and momentum
operators via annihilation and creation ones
r
~  
x̂ = b̂ + b̂† , (8.48a)
2mω
r
mω~  
p̂ = −i b̂ − b̂† , (8.48b)
2

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Having expressions (8.48) we can now express the Hamiltonian of the oscillator in terms of the
annihilation and creation operators. We obtain
 2  2
" r # "r #
1 mω~  † 1 2 ~  †
Ĥ = −i b̂ − b̂ + mω b̂ + b̂
2m 2 2 2mω
~ω  2 ~ω  2
= − b̂ − b̂† + b̂ + b̂†
4 4
~ω   ~ω  
= − b̂b̂ − b̂b̂ − b̂ b̂ + b̂† b̂†
† †
+ b̂b̂ + b̂b̂† + b̂† b̂ + b̂† b̂†
4 4
~ω  † 
= b̂ b̂ + b̂† b̂ (8.49)
2
Using the commutation relation (8.46) we have b̂ b̂† = 1 + b̂† b̂, thus from the above we finally get
   
~ω  †  1 1
Ĥ = 2 b̂ b̂ + 1 = ~ω b̂† b̂ + = ~ω N̂ + (8.50)
2 2 2

where, as previously, we introduced the number operator N̂ = b̂† b̂.

Theorem 8.4 Energy eigenstates of the quantum-mechanical harmonic oscillator are the num-
ber states | n i – the eigenstates of the number operator N̂ = b̂† b̂. The energy eigenvalues are
 
1
En = ~ω n + . (8.51)
2

Proof. The proof follows immediately from relation (8.50) and from the properties of the
number operator, as discussed in the previous section.

8.3.2 Construction of the vacuum state

Construction of the vacuum state is the first step in building the energy eigenstates of the
harmonic oscillator. We will do this in the position representation, that is we are looking for
the wave function ϕ0 (x) = h x | 0 i. The vacuum state is defined by eq.(8.17), so using the
annihilation operator b̂ as given in (8.45a), we get
1
0 = b̂ | 0 i = √ ( mω x̂ + ip̂ ) | 0 i. (8.52)
2mω~
In position representation, this equation reads
1
0 = hx| √ ( mω x̂ + ip̂ ) | 0 i
2mω~
  
1 d
= √ mω x + i −i~ ϕ0 (x). (8.53)
2mω~ dx
The latter relation is a simple differential equation of the first order
 
d mω
0 = λx + ϕ0 (x), with λ = . (8.54)
dx ~

Solution to this equation is very simple. It is

λx2
 
ϕ0 (x) = Ao exp − , (8.55)
2

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where Ao is a normalization constant. Computation of this constant yields

Z ∞
λx2
  r
2 2 π
1 = | Ao | dx exp − = | Ao | . (8.56)
−∞ 2 λ
Choosing the arbitrary phase of the constant A o to be zero we obtain the wave function of the
ground state of the oscillator, or in other words, the vacuum state in the position representation
 1/4
λx2
 
λ
ϕ0 (x) = exp − , (8.57)
π 2
which is properly normalized.

8.3.3 Construction of the number states | n i

Having constructed the vacuum state in the position representation, we proceed to construct
further states. To do so, we use relation (8.41) in position representation
1
ϕn (x) = h x | n i = √ h x | (b̂† )n | 0 i. (8.58)
n!
In order to deal with this expression let us consider a bra (dual form) h x | b̂† . Using Eq.(8.45b)
we get
r  
† 1 mω i
h x | b̂ = h x | √ ( mω~ x̂ − ip̂ ) = h x | x̂ − p̂
2mω~ 2~ mω
r   † r   †
λ i λ ~ d
= x̂ + p̂ | x i = x + |xi .
2 mω 2 mω dx
Since the differential operator d/dx is antihermitian, we get
r  
† λ 1 d
h x | b̂ = x − h x |. (8.59)
2 λ dx
Using this relation n times in (8.58), we get
 n/2
1 d n
 
λ 1
ϕn (x) = √ x − h x | 0 i. (8.60)
2 n! λ dx
Inserting the wave function (8.57), we obtain the differential relation specifying the n-th eigen-
state of the harmonic oscillator
 1/4 r
1 d n λx2
   
λ 1 n/2
ϕn (x) = λ x − exp − . (8.61)
π 2n n! λ dx 2
This is a functional equation similar to the Rodrigues formula for Hermite polynomials. This is
clarified by the following theorem
Theorem 8.5 Hermite polynomials can be expressed as follows
d n
 2 
y2
  
y
Hn (y) = exp y − exp − . (8.62)
2 dy 2
We accept this theorem without proof (which is not difficult, when
√ one uses the Rodrigues
formula for Hermite polynomials). Changing the variable y = x λ, we can easily show that
eq.(8.61 leads to the expression
 1/4 r
λx2 √
 
λ 1
ϕn (x) = exp − H n (x λ), (8.63)
π 2n n! 2
which, together with notation introduced in (8.54) exactly reproduces the standard wave func-
tions of the n-th energy eigenstate of the quantum-mechanical harmonic oscillator.

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