Luhmann -The paradoxy of observing systems

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The Paradoxy of Observing Systems
Author(s): Niklas Luhmann
Source: Cultural Critique, No. 31, The Politics of Systems and Environments, Part II,
(Autumn, 1995), pp. 37-55
Published by: University of Minnesota Press
Stable URL:http://www.jstor.org/stable/1354444
Accessed: 08/07/2008 18:53

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T h eP a r a d o x y o f O bservingSystem s

N ik la s L u h m a n n

I

I n

sp ite of several attem p ts,it is still d ifficu ltt o subm it form al

s c ie n c e s

s u c h

a slo g ic

o r m a th e m a tic s

to as o c io lo g ic a la n a ly -

sis. Such

a na n a ly s is w o u ld

e n ta ild is c o v e r in g

e m p ir ic a lc o r r e la -

tions betw een

s p e c ifics o c ia l c o n d itio n s

a n ds p e c ific form al struc-

tu r e s .B o th th e c o n d itio n s

a n d th es t r u c t u r e sw o u ld

th e n h a v e to

b e

tr e a te d

a sv a r ia b le s w h o s e

" v a lu e s " w o u ld

a p p e a r

a sc o n tin -

g e n t,d e s p i t et h e i rcla im s t ob e " n a tu r a l"(a s s o c i e t y )o rn e c e s s a r y

(a s th ep r in c ip le s ,axiom s, a n dr u le s o flo g ic ). O n e w o u ld

h a v et o

a s s e r t th a t th e n a tu r a l is a r tific ia lb e c a u s e it isp r o d u c e d

by society a n d that then e c e s s a r y is c o n tin g e n t because under different con- d itio n sit m ay h a v e toa c c e p t different form s. These

a r ep a r a d o x i-

c a l statem en ts, but w e n e e d

th em

w hen w e have tod is tin g u is h

d if-

ferent observersf r o m

e a c h other or when

we havet od is tin g u is h

s e lf-o b s e r v a tio n s

fr o m

e x te r n a lo b s e r v a t i o n ,b e c a u s e

fo r the self-

o b s e r v e r

th in g s

m ay

a p p e a r

as naturala n d

n e c e s s a r y ,w h ereas

when seen from

th e o u ts id eth ey m ay appear a r tific ia l a n d c o n tin -

gent( s e eL 6 f g r e n ,"T ow ards System ").T he

w o r ld

th u sv a r io u s ly

?

1 9 9 5b y C u ltu r a lC r itiq u e . F a ll1 9 9 5 . 0 8 8 2 -4 3 7 1 /9 5 /$ 5 .0 0 .

3 7

3 8

N ik la sL uhm ann

o b s e r v e drem ains, nevertheless, the sam e w orld, and therefore we

h a v e ap a r a d o x . A no b s e r v e r ,th e n , iss u p p o s e d

to decide w hether

som ethingisn a t u r a l o ra r tific ia l,n e c e s s a r y o rc o n tin g e n t. B u t w h o can observe the observer(a sn e c e s s a r yfo r th isd e c is io n ) a n dth e d e c is io n(a s c o n tin g e n tfor theo b s e r v e r ) ? T he observer m ayr e f u s e to m ake th isd e c is io n , b u t c a n the observer observew ith o u tm a k in g this decisiono r w ould the observer have tow ith d r a w , when refus- in gth isd e c is io n , to th e p o s itio nof an o n - o b s e r v i n g

o b s e r v e r ?

A llth is d o e s

n o t a ffe c t th e

self-cla im ed

v a lid ityo flo g ic

o r

m athem atics;a n dw e m ay fin dcom fort w ith D r .J o h n s o n :

"W hen

s p e c u la tio n

h a s d o n e its w orst, tw o a n d tw o stillm akef o u r "(1 1 4 ). W em ay,how ever, pursue a less tr iv ia l,a less com m onsensicalin te r - e st a n d c o n tin u e to a sk : W h os a y s it? W h o is th eo b s e r v e r ?

I I

Paradox was invented-that

is , discovered-m ore

th a n

tw o

th o u sa n d

y e a r sa g o ,a t th eb e g in n in g

of serious experim ents

w ith

s e c o n d -o r d e r

o b s e r v in g .'

S in c e

that tim e

w efin d

tw od iffe r e n t, evenc o n t r a d i c t o r yu s e s , the onelo g ic a l, the other rhetorical. T he lo g ic a ltr a d itio n tries tosu p p ress thep a r a d o x . It e x p lo itsth e o n to - lo g ic a ld is tin c tio n

o f b e in g

a n d

n o n -b e in g

t osa yth a to n lyb e in g

e x is tsa c c o r d in g toi t s o w nd istin c tio n s, a b o v e a ll: h y p o k e im e n o n /s y m -

b e b e k o s .

The observer can m ake true and false statem ents and can

c o r r e c th im - o r h e r s e lf(o r b e c o r r e c te d

b yo t h e r s )b e c a u s eb e in g

is w h a t it is(n o t a si tis , a s w ep r o b a b ly w o u ldsa y ). B e in g is fr a m e d

b y su c hs e c o n d a r y d istin c tio n s(o rc a t e g o r i e s ) a n d n o tb y its d is tin c tio n

fr o m n o n -b e in g . B e in g

d o e s not need

to bed is tin g u is h e d

from ,o r

t oe x c lu d e ,

n o n -b e in g

t ob e it s e lf .I t sim p lyis ,b y i t s e l f( n a t u r e )

orb y w ay of creation.D is r e g a r d in g

this structureo fo n to lo g ic a l

m etaphysics,it h a s b e e nc la im e d , w o u ldle a dc o g n itio n

th ew rong

w ay.It w ould end w ithp a r a d o x e sa n dd e s t r o y th e te lo s o f th in k in g .

T he

a p p e a r a n c e

o fu n a c c e p t a b l e

s e lf-c o n tr a d ic tio n s

a tth e o th e r

sid eo f th eo n to lo g ic a l

schem e

i sth en

s a idt op r o v e

o n to lo g y

a s

m etaphysics.T h in k in g

h a s to

s t a yo n

th e

r ig h tp a th

a n d

a v o id

p a r a d o x e s .

T he

r h e to r ic a ltr a d itio n

th a t in v e n te d

th eterm 2 introduced

p a r a d o x ic a l

statem en ts

t o

e n la r g e

th e

fram es of received

o p in -

of 00

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