Ariosuko, Pemilihan Bahan & Proses, terjemahan versi 1.0.

04/13/06
Modul 3
Pemilihan Bahan & Proses
Disarikan dari buku :
Ashby, M.F. : Material Selection in Mechanical Desin!, Peramon Press, "##$.
%leh:
&. Ariosuko Dh.
' $(()
*eknik Mesin
Fakultas *eknik +ni,ersitas Mercu Buana
*anal re,isi
"#-"(-$(()
Ariosuko, Pemilihan Bahan & Proses, terjemahan versi 1.0. 04/13/06
BAB 3
&ekayasa Material & Pro.ertinya
3." /ntro & Sino.sis
3.$ 0elas &ancan banun Material
3.3 De1inisi Pro.erti Material
3.2 &ankuman & 0esim.ulan
3.3 Bacaan lan4ut
3.5 6,aluasi
3.1 Intro & Sinopsis
Material, bisa dikatakan, adalah makanan utk disain. Sebuah .roduk y sukses 7
adalah y .er1ormanya baus, yaitu bernilai baik utk uan & memberi ke.uasan
utk .emakai 8 memerlukan material terbaik utk tuasnya, & memaksimalkan
semua .otensi & karakteristiknya: boleh dikatakan, menerbitkan bumbu mereka.
Bab ini menya4ikan menu: da1tar belan4a material y lenka.. 0elas7kelas material9
loam, .olimer, keramik, dsb., dikenalkan di sesi 3.$. *eta.i ini bukanlah akhir dari
suatu material y kita cari9 itu adalah meru.akan .ro1il tertentu tt .ro.erti.
Pro.erti :si1at7si1at; y .entin utk disain thermomekanik dide1inisikan di sesi 3.3.
Pembaca y sdh tahu de1inisi moduli, kekuatan, ka.asitas redaman, kondukti,itas
thermal dsb, bisa melom.ati sesi ini, & menunakannya sb re1erensi, bila .erlu,
utk arti .ersisnya & satuan data .d diaram seleksi y akan dibahas kemudian.
Bab ini diakhiri d, s.t biasa, sebuah rankuman & e,aluasi.
3.2 Kelas-kelas Material rekayasa
<ara kon,ensional untuk menolonkan bahan7bahan rekayasa ke dalam enam
kelas y ditun4ukkan di b. 3.": loam, .olimer, elastomer, keramik, kaca dan
kom.osit. Anota suatu kelas mem.unyai 1itur utama: .ro.erti y seru.a, rute
.enolahan y seru.a, dan, serinkali, a.likasi y seru.a.
=oam memiliki moduli relati1 tini. Mereka da.at dibuat kuat d .aduan atau
cam.uran loam dan oleh .erlakuan .anas dan mekanik, teta.i mereka teta. ulet
sh da.at dibentuk, memunkinkan mereka utk dibentuk d .roses de1ormasi.
Ariosuko, Pemilihan Bahan & Proses, terjemahan versi 1.0. 04/13/06
Paduan loam kekuatan tini tertentu :ba4a .eas, sebaai contoh; memiliki
keuletan serendah $>, teta.i meski.un ini cuku. utk memastikan bah?a yield
material sebelum .atah dan retak itu, manakala itu ter4adi .d suatu material 4enis
tanuh. Sebaian oleh karena keuletan mereka, loam adalah mansa utk
kelelahan9 dan dari semua kelas material, mereka adalah .alin sedikit bersi1at
tahan karatan-korosi.
0eramik & kaca, 4ua, mem.unyai moduli tini, teta.i, tidak sama d loam,
mereka ra.uh. 0ekuatan! mereka dalam teanan tarik artinya kekuatan retak y
ra.uh9 dalam teanan tekan, kekuatan hancur y ra.uh, y mana adalah sekitar
limabelas kali lebih besar. Dan sebab keramik tidak .unya keuletan-duktilitas,
mereka mem.unyai suatu toleransi rendah utk konsentrasi teanan :se.erti
luban atau retakan; atau utk teanan kontak y tini :.d titik7titik .enekleman,
sebaai contoh;. Material ulet menakomodasi konsentrasi teanan d de1ormasi
:.erubahan bentuk; d cara y mana membai7bai lai beban lebih merata9 dan
oleh karena ini, mereka da.at diunakan di ba?ah beban statis d suatu
batas-marin y kecil thd kekuatan luluh mereka. 0eramik & kaca tidak bisa.
Ariosuko, Pemilihan Bahan & Proses, terjemahan versi 1.0. 04/13/06
Brittle materials al?ays ha,e a ?ide scatter in strenth and the strenth itsel1
de.ends on the ,olume o1 material under load and the time 1or ?hich it is a..lied. So
ceramics are not as easy to desin ?ith as metals. Des.ite this, they ha,e attracti,e
1eatures. *hey are sti11, hard and abrasion7resistant :hence their use 1or bearins and
cuttin tools;9 they retain their strenth to hih tem.erature9 and they are corrosion7
resistant. *hey must be considered as an im.ortant class o1 enineerin material.
Polymers and elastomers are at the other end o1 the s.ectrum. *hey ha,e moduli
?hich are lo?, rouhly 1i1ty times less than those o1 metals, but they are stron 8
nearly as stron as metals. A conse@uence o1 this is that elastic de1lections can be
lare. *hey cree., e,en at room tem.erature, meanin that a .olymer com.onent
under load may, ?ith time, ac@uire a .ermanent set. And their .ro.erties de.end on
tem.erature so that a .olymer ?hich is touh and 1leAible at $(B< may be brittle at
the 2B< o1 a household re1rierator, yet cree. ra.idly at the "((B< o1 boilin ?ater.
Cone ha,e use1ul strenth abo,e $((B<. /1 these as.ects are allo?ed 1or in the
desin, the ad,antaes o1 .olymers can be eA.loited. And there are many. Dhen
combinations o1 .ro.erties, such as strenth .er unit ?eiht, matter, .olymers are as
ood as metals. *hey are easy to sha.e: com.licated .arts .er1ormin se,eral
1unctions can be moulded 1rom a .olymer in a sinle o.eration. *he lare elastic
de1lections allo? the desin o1 .olymer com.onents ?hich sna. toether, makin
assembly 1ast and chea.. And by accurately siEin the mould and .recolourin the
.olymer, no 1inishin o.erations are needed. Polymers are corrosion resistant, and
they ha,e lo? coe11icients o1 1riction. Food desin eA.loits these .ro.erties.
Composites combine the attracti,e .ro.erties o1 the other classes o1 materials ?hile
a,oidin some o1 their dra?backs. *hey are liht, sti11 and stron, and they can be
touh. Most o1 the com.osites at .resent a,ailable to the enineer ha,e a .olymer
matriA 8 e.oAy or .olyester, usually 8 rein1orced by 1ibres o1 lass, carbon or
0e,lar9 ?e restrict oursel,es to these. *hey cannot be used abo,e $3(B< because
the .olymer matriA so1tens, but at room tem.erature, their .er1ormance can be
outstandin. <om.osite com.onents are eA.ensi,e and they are relati,ely di11icult to
1orm and 4oin. So des.ite their attracti,e .ro.erties the desiner ?ill use them only
?hen the added .er1ormance 4usti1ies the added cost.
Ariosuko, Pemilihan Bahan & Proses, terjemahan versi 1.0. 04/13/06
*he classi1ication o1 Fi. 3." has the merit o1 rou.in toether materials ?hich ha,e
some commonality in .ro.erties, .rocessin and use. But it has its daners, notably
those o1 s.ecialiEation :the metallurist ?ho kno?s nothin o1 .olymers; and o1
conser,ati,e thinkin :?e shall use steel because ?e ha,e al?ays used steel!;. /n
the 1ollo?in sections ?e eAamine the enineerin .ro.erties o1 materials 1rom a
di11erent .ers.ecti,e, com.arin .ro.erties across all classes o1 material. /t is the 1irst
ste. in de,elo.in the 1reedom o1 thinkin that the desiner needs.
3.3 De1inisi Pro.erti Material
Setia. material d.t di.ikirkan se.erti mem.unyai satu set atribut: yaitu .ro.ertinya.
Bukanlah material, y di dalam dirinya, bah?a .erancan mencari9 ini meru.akan
suatu kombinasi s.esi1ik dari atribut ini: suatu .ro1il .ro.erti. Cama material adalah
identi1ier untuk .ro.erti .ro1il tertentu.
Pro.erti itu sendiri adalah standar: density, modulus, strenth, touhness, thermal
conducti,ity dll. :*able 3.";. +tk kelenka.an dan .resisi, mereka dide1inisikan, d
batasannya, di bab ini. /ni membuat .embacaan yan membosankan. Gika kamu
ber.ikir kamu menetahui baaimana .ro.erti diambarkan, kamu boleh melom.at
ke sesi 3.2, kembali ke baian ini hanya 4ika kebutuhan muncul.
*he density :usual units: M-m
3
; is the ?eiht .er unit ,olume. De measure it today
as Archimedes did: by ?eihin in air and in a 1luid o1 kno?n density.
*he elastic modulus :usual units: FPa or FC-m
$
; is de1ined as the slo.e o1 the
linear elastic .art o1 the stress 8 strain cur,e! :Fi. 3.$;. HounIs modulus, E,
describes tension or com.ression9 the shear modulus, (, describes shear loadin9
and the bulk modulus, K, describes thee11ect o1 hydrostatic .ressure, PoissonIs
ratio, v, is dimensionless: it is the neati,e o1 the ratio o1 the lateral strain to the
aAial strain J in aAial loadin. /n reality, moduli measured as slo.es o1 stress 8
strain cur,es are inaccurate :o1ten lo? by a 1actor o1 $ or more;, because o1 the
contribution o1 inelasticity and other 1actors. Accurate moduli are measured
dynamically: by eAcitin the natural ,ibrations o1 a beam or ?ire, or by measurin
Ariosuko, Pemilihan Bahan & Proses, terjemahan versi 1.0. 04/13/06
the ,elocity o1 ?a,es in the material. /n an isotro.ic material, the moduli are related
in the 1ollo?in ?ays:
E=
G
G/
;
G=
E
!v
;
K=
E
!v
:3.";
Ariosuko, Pemilihan Bahan & Proses, terjemahan versi 1.0. 04/13/06
Biasanya , l "-3
menhasilkan F l 3/8E :3.$;
dan K l E
Data books and databases like those described in <ha.ter "" list ,alues 1or all 1our
moduli. /n this book ?e eAamine data 1or E; a..roAimate ,alues 1or the others can be
deri,ed 1rom e@uations :3.$; ?hen needed.
*he strenth, sf, o1 a solid :usual units: MPa or MC-m
$
; re@uires care1ul de1inition.
For metals, ?e identi1y sf ?ith the (.$(> o11set yield strenth sy :b. 3.$;9 that is, the
stress at ?hich the stress 8 strain cur,e 1or aAial loadin de,iates by a strain o1
(.$(> 1rom the linear elastic line. /t is the stress at ?hich dislocations mo,e lare
distance throuh the crystals o1 the metal, and is the same in tension and
com.ression. For .olymers, sf is identi1ied as the stress a, at ?hich the stress 8
strain cur,e becomes markedly non7linear: ty.ically, a strain o1 "> :b. 3.3;.
*his may be caused by shear7yieldin!: the irre,ersible sli..in o1 molecular chains9
or it may be caused by craEin!: the 1ormation o1 lo? density, crack7like ,olumes
?hich scatter liht, makin the .olymer look ?hite. Polymers are a little stroner :J
$(>; in com.ression than in tension. Strenth, 1or ceramics and lasses, de.ends
stronly on the mode o1 loadin :b. 3.2;. /n tension, strenth! means the 1racture
Ariosuko, Pemilihan Bahan & Proses, terjemahan versi 1.0. 04/13/06
strenth, of. /n com.ression it means the crushin strenth of ?hich is much larer9
ty.ically
sf
c
l "3 sf
t
:3.3;
De identi1y a,,7 1or a ceramic ?ith the larer com.ressi,e strenth sf
c
. *he strenth
o1 a com.osite is best de1ined by a set de,iation 1rom linear elastic beha,iour: 0.5%
is sometimes taken. <om.osites ?hich contain 1ibres :and this includes natural
com.osites like ?ood; are a little ?eaker :u. to 3(>; in com.ression than tension
because the 1ibres buckle. /n subse@uent cha.ters, sf 1or com.osites means the
tensile strenth.
Strenth, then, de.ends on material class and on mode o1 loadin. %ther modes o1
loadin are .ossible: shear, 1or instance. Hield under multiaAial loads are related to
that in sim.le tension by a yield 1unction. For metals, the Kon Mises yield 1unction
?orks ?ell:
:s
1
7 s
2
;
$
L : s
2
7 s
3
;
$
L : s
3
M s
1
"
$
N $s
#
$
:3.2;
For .olymers the yield 1unction is modi1ied to include the e11ect o1 .ressure, .
Ariosuko, Pemilihan Bahan & Proses, terjemahan versi 1.0. 04/13/06
:s
1
7 s
2
;
$
L : s
2
7 s
3
;
$
L : s
3
M s
1
"
$
N $s
#
$
:

1
b
s
;:
p
f
;; :3.3;
?here b is a numerical coe11icient ?hich characterises the .ressure de.endence o1
the 1lo? strenth and
. N 7 2: s
1
Ls
2
Ls
3
;
?here s
1
, s
2
and s
3
are the .rinci.al stresses, .ositi,e ?hen tensile. For ceramics,
a <oulomb 1lo? la? is used:
s
1
7 s
3
! C :3.5;
d dan C adalah konstanta.
Dhen the material is di11icult to ri. :as is a ceramic;, its strenth can be measured
in bendin. *he modulus of rupture or "#$ :usual units MPa or MC-m
$
; is the
maAimum sur1ace stress in a bent beam at the instant o1 1ailure :b. 3.5%. %ne miht
eA.ect this to be eAactly the same as the strenth measured in tension, but 1or
ceramics it is larer :by a 1actor o1 about ".3; because the ,olume sub4ected to this
maAimum stress is small and the .robability o1 a lare 1la? lyin in it is small also9 in
sim.le tension all 1la?s see the maAimum stress.
Ariosuko, Pemilihan Bahan & Proses, terjemahan versi 1.0. 04/13/06
&'e ultimate (tensile% stren)t' s
u
:usual units MPa; is the nominal stress at ?hich a
round bar o1 the material, loaded in tension, se.arates :Fi. 3.$;. For brittle solids 8
ceramics, lasses and brittle .olymers 8 it is the same as the 1ailure strenth in
tension. For metals, ductile .olymers and most com.osites, it is larer than the
strenth s
#
, by a 1actor o1 bet?een "," dan 3 because o1
?ork hardenin or :in the case o1 com.osites; load trans1er to the rein1orcement.
*he 'ardness, *, o1 a material :usual units: MPa; is a crude measure o1 its strenth.
/t is measured by .ressin a .ointed diamond or hardened steel ball into the sur1ace
o1 the material. *he hardness is de1ined as the indenter 1orce di,ided by the
.ro4ected area o1 the indent. /t is related to the @uantity ?e ha,e de1ined as s
#
by
* j 3 s
#
:3.O;
*he tou)'ness, +C :usual units: kG-m
$
;, and the fracture tou)'ness, KC :satuan
biasa: MPa mb
"-$

atau MC-m
3-$
;, measure the resistance o1 the material to the
.ro.aation o1 a crack. *he 1racture touhness is measured by loadin a sam.le
containin a deliberately introduced crack o1 lenth $c :b. 3.5;, recordin the tensile
stress o, at ?hich the crack .ro.aates. *he @uantity K, is then calculated 1romK,
N -o,./i/ :3.);
and the touhness 1rom
K, 7
8 E(1 L ,; :3.#;
?here - is a eometric 1actor, near unity, ?hich de.ends on details o1 the sam.le
eometry, and E is HounIs modulus and v is PoissonIs ratio. Measured in this ?ay K,
and FJ ha,e ?ell7de1ined ,alues 1or brittle materials :ceramic, lasses, and many
.olymers;. /n ductile materials a .lastic Eone de,elo.s at the crack ti., introducin ne?
1eatures into the ?ay in ?hich cracks .ro.aate ?hich necessitate more in,ol,ed
characterisation. Kalues 1or K, and FJ are, nonetheless, cited, and are use1ul as a ?ay
o1 rankin materials.
*he loss0coefficient, iJ :a dimensionless number;, measures the deree to ?hich a
material dissi.ates ,ibrational enery :Fi. 3.O;. /1 a material is loaded elastically to a
Ariosuko, Pemilihan Bahan & Proses, terjemahan versi 1.0. 04/13/06
stress a, it stores an elastic enery
r1ma2 " J$
+N4
per unit volume. 3f it is loaded and t'en unloaded, it dissipates an ener)y 45 ! ,a dr
*he loss coe11icient is
45
8 6n5 :3."%J
*he cycle can be a..lied in many di11erent ?ays 8 some 1ast, some slo?. *he
,alue o1 J usually de.ends on the timescale or 1re@uency o1 cyclin. %ther measures o1
dam.in include
45
the specific dampin) capacity, 7 N the lo) decrement, A :the lo o1 the ratio o1
successi,e am.litudes o1 natural ,ibrations;, the p'ase la), 5, bet?een stress and
strain, and the P! factor or resonance factor, P. Dhen dam.in is small :JQ(.("; these
measures are related by
7 4 "
:3."";
but ?hen dam.in is lare, they are no loner e@ui,alent.
<yclic loadin not only dissi.ates enery9 it can also cause a crack to nucleate and ro?,
culminatin in 1atiue 1ailure. For many materials there eAists a 1atiue limit: a stress
am.litude belo? ?hich 1racture does not occur, or occurs only a1ter a ,ery lare
number :R"(); cycles. *his in1ormation is ca.tured by the fati)ue ratio,f :a
dimensionless @uantity;. /t is the ratio o1 the 1atiue limit to the yield strenth, %J.
*he rate at ?hich heat is conducted throuh a solid at steady state :meanin that the
tem.erature .ro1ile does not chane ?ith time; is measured by the t'ermal
conductivity, 4 :usual units: D-m 0;. Fiure 3.) sho?s ho? it is measured: by
recordin the heat 1luA @ :D-m
$
; 1lo?in 1rom a sur1ace at tem.erature &
8
to one at
"I$ in the material, se.arated by a distance S. *he conducti,ity is calculated 1rom
F.urierIs la?:
Ariosuko, Pemilihan Bahan & Proses, terjemahan versi 1.0. 04/13/06
8 AJ*TA:*/*$;
9: d; ; :3."$;
*he measurement is not, in .ractice, easy :.articularly 1or materials ?ith lo?
conducti,ities;, but reliable data are no? enerally a,ailable.
Dhen heat 1lo? is transient, the 1luA de.ends instead on the t'ermal diffusivity, a :usual
units: m
$
-s;, de1ined by
A
a : (3.83%
?here . is the density and Cp is the specific 'eat at constant pressure :usual units:
kG-k 0;. *he thermal di11usi,ity can be measured directly by measurin the decay o1 a
tem.erature
use ?hen a heat source, a..lied to the material, is s?itched o119 or it can be calculated
1rom ,ia the last e@uation. *his re@uires ,alues 1or C,, :,irtually identical, 1or solids, ?ith
C,, the
c heat at constant ,olume;. *hey are measured by the techni@ue o1 calorimetry, ?hich
the standard ?ay o1 measurin the meltin) temperature, &m, and the )lass temperature,
Jual units 1or both: 0;. *his second tem.erature is a .ro.erty o1 non7crystalline solids,
do not ha,e a shar. meltin .oint9 itcharacterises the transition 1rom true solid to ,ery
li@uid. /t is hel.1ul, in enineerin desin, to de1ine t?o 1urther tem.eratures: the
imE,m service temperature &,,,, and the softenin) temperature, &, :both: 0;. *he
1irst tells
us the l2hest tem.erature at ?hich the material can reasonably be used ?ithout
oAidation, chemicaiUchanJe or eAcessi,e cree. becomin a .roblem9 and the second
i,es the tem.erature needed tJ make the material 1lo? easily 1or 1ormin and sha.in.
Most thaterials eA.and ?hen they are heated :Fi. 3.#;. *he thermal strain .er deree is
measured by the linear t'ermal0e2pansion coefficient, a :units: 0 V;. /1 the material is
thermally isotro.ic, the ,olume eA.ansion, .er deree, is 3a. /1 it is anisotro.ic, t?o or
more coe11icie1lts are re@uired, and the ,olume eA.ansion becomes the sum o1 the
.rinci.al thermal strains.
Ariosuko, Pemilihan Bahan & Proses, terjemahan versi 1.0. 04/13/06
&'e t'ermal s'oc< resistance (units K% is t'e ma2imum temperature difference t'rou)'
='ic' a material can >e 9uenc'ed suddenly, =it'out dama)e. 3t, and t'e creep
resistance, are important in 'i)'0temperature desi)n. Creep is t'e slo=, time0dependent
deformation ='ic' occurs ='en materials are loaded a>ove a>out +Tm or +T~ (?i).
3.80%. 3t is c'aracterised >y a set of creep constants@ a creep e2ponent n
(dimensionless%, an activation ener)y A (usual units@ <B/mole%, a <inetic factor 4 (units@
s, 3%, and a reference stress o, (units@ "Pa or "CD m
6
%. &'e creep strain0rate rat a
temperature &caused >y a stress a is descri>ed >y t'e e9uation
N 4 WJJX CX~ WJX :3."2;
Dear, oAidation and corrosion are harder to @uanti1y, .artly because they are sur1ace, not
bulk, .henomena, and .artly because they in,ol,e interactions bet?een t?o
materials, not 4ust the .ro.erties o1 one. Dhen solids slide :Fi. 3.""; the ,olume o1
material lost 1rom one sur1ace, .er unit distance slid, is called the ?ear rate, E. *he
?ear resistance o1 the sur1ace is characterised by the 4rc'ard =ear constant, K4
:units: m
$
-MC or MPaI; de1ined by the e@uation
=
,K4P (3.85%
?here 4 is the area o1 the sur1ace and P the normal .ressure .ressin them toether. Data
1or K4 are a,ailable, but must be inter.reted as the .ro.erty o1 the slidin cou.le, not
o1 4ust one member o1 it.
Dry corrosion is the chemical reaction o1 a solid sur1ace ?ith dry ases :Fi. 3."$;.
*y.ically, a metal, M, reacts ?ith oAyen, ($, to i,e a sur1ace layer o1 the oAide M%
$
:
ML%
$
7JM%
$
/1 the oAide is .rotecti,e, 1ormin a continuous, uncracked 1ilm :thickness, ;% o,er the
sur1ace, the reaction slo?s do?n ?ith time, t@
Ariosuko, Pemilihan Bahan & Proses, terjemahan versi 1.0. 04/13/06
d;
d& ; (3.8F%
Yere $ is the as constant, & the absolute tem.erature, and the oAidation beha,iour is
characterised by the para>olic rate constant for o2idation 3c,, :units: m
$
-s;. Det corrosion
8 corrosion in ?ater, brine, acids or alkalis, is much more com.licated and cannot be
ca.tured by rate e@uations ?ith sim.le constants. /t is more usual to cataloue corrosion
resistance by a sim.le scale such as A :,ery ood; to 6 :,ery bad;.
3.4 Suary an! Con"lusions
*here are siA im.ortant classes o1 materials 1or mechanical desin: metals, .olymers,
elastomers, ceramics, lasses and 8 1inally 8 com.osites, ?hich combine the
.ro.erties o1 t?o or more o1 the others. Dithin a class there is certain common round:
ceramics are hard and brittle9 metals are ductile and conduct heat ?ell9 .olymers are
liht and ha,e lare eA.ansion coe11icients, and so on 8 that is ?hat makes the
classi1ication use1ul. But, in desin, ?e ?ish to esca.e 1rom the constraints o1 class, and
think, instead, o1 the material name as an identi1ier 1or a certain .ro.erty .ro1ile 8 one
?hich ?ill, in later cha.ters, be com.ared ?ith an ideal! .ro1ile suested by the
desin, uidin our choice. *o that end, the .ro.erties im.ortant in thermomechamcal
desin ?ere de1ined in this cha.ter. /n the neAt ?e de,elo. a ?ay o1 dis.layin
.ro.erties so as to maAimise the 1reedom o1 choice.
3.# Further $ea!in%
De1inisi .ro.erti material da.at ditemukan di se4umlah buku teks tt rekayasa material,
ini 3 4udul di antaranya.
Ashby, M. F. and Gones, D. &. Y. :"#)(, "#)5; En)ineerin) "aterials, Parts " and $.
Peramon Press, %A1ord, +0.
Dieter, F. 6. :"#)); "ec'anical "etallur)y. McFra? Yill, Sina.ore.
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