FINAL DRAFT REPORT. AUGUST 2000. 14 August 2000/EGC 1 CONTENTS. Introduction. 1 FACTS Technology. 2 FACTS Applications. 3 Planning Methods and Simulation Tools. 4 FACTS and Open Access Networks Case Studies. 5 Open Access and Large Systems. 6 Economic Evaluation of FACTS Devices. 7 Conclusions. Appendices. Bibliography. 2 INTRODUCTION. A number of CIGRE and IEEE Reports (See the Bibliography which is not intended to be an exhaustive list of FACTS publications) have been published on FACTS devices, their technology, systems applications and modelling. In this context, FACTS has been defined by the IEEE as alternating current transmission systems incorporating power electronic based and other static controllers to enhance controllability and increase power transfer capability The CIGRE Committees, which have been active in this area over the past few years, are Study Committees 14,37 and 38. Two CIGRE Symposia, one in Tokyo in 1995 and the other in Tours in 1997 also addressed FACTS technology developments and their potential applications in the emerging open access transmission networks. From this wealth of publications one aspect seemed worthy of preparing, namely a planning guide which summarised the key technological developments in the FACTS area and addressed, in particular, the open access aspects of networks and the scope for the application of FACTS devices therein. The present Joint Working Group was established in 1997, sponsored by four Study Committees i.e. SCs 14,37,38 and 39 with its membership nominated from all these Study Committees. The Joint Working Group held its first meeting in France in March 1998 and this Report presents its findings. The interim Report phase has been omitted. The approved Terms of Reference and Membership List are given in Appendix 0. At its first meeting the definition of FACTS was confirmed by the JWG to include conventional devices such as phase shifting transformers, and HVDC Links. 3 CHAPTER 1. FACTS TECHNOLOGY. 1.1 Introduction Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS) controllers originally included only recently developed devices, mainly using semiconductor components. However, in order to provide a complete list of devices for controlling power flows, increasing stability, increasing transfer capability and providing access between different areas in the power system, the definition of FACTS has been broadened in this Report to include traditional devices, some of them without semiconductor control. 1.2 FACTS Devices Summary Terminology SVC Static Var Compensator STATCOM Static Synchronous Compenator MSC Mechanically-switched Capacitor* TCBR Thyristor Controlled Braking Resistor TCPST Thyristor Controlled Phase Shifting Transformer PST Phase Shifting Transformer* IPC Interphase Power Controller SC Series Capacitor* MSSC, TSSC Mechanically/Thyristor Switched Series Capacitor TCSC Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor SSSC Static Synchronous Series Compensator. UPFC Unified Power Flow Controller HVDC High Voltage Direct Current CSC Convertible Static Compensator. * Not strictly a FACTS device. Figure 1 tabulates the various FACTS and conventional devices, the system conditions or issues that the devices can be used to address and their key features. Most of the devices are discussed in more detail in the later sections of this Chapter. 4 FACTS devices Issue Device Comment See Section Steady-state voltage control MSC Stepwise, infrequent control Steady-state voltage control SVC, Statcom Continuous control 1.4, 1.5 Steady-state voltage control SC Continuous control Dynamic and post- contingency voltage control SVC, Statcom Fast acting control 1.4, 1.5 Improvement of steady- state load sharing PST Environmental impact 1.9 Improvement of steady- state load sharing SC Low losses Post-contingency load sharing PST 1.9 Post-contingency load sharing TCSC Fast control action 1.3 Transient stability improvement SC Self regulating Transient stability improvement SVC, Statcom High dynamic 1.4, 1.5 Power Oscillation Damping TCSC Insensitive to localisation 1.3 Power Oscillation Damping SVC, Statcom Needs robust control algorithms 1.4, 1.5 Power Quality Improvement SVC Voltage fluctuations 1.4 Power Quality Improvement Statcom Voltage fluctuations, very fast control 1.5 Figure 1. FACTS controllers and their applications 5 1.3 Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitors, TCSC TCSC is used for Power Oscillation Damping (POD), and/or Sub Synchronous Resonance (SSR) mitigation. The series capacitor is provided with a parallel branch using a reactor and a thyristor valve, see Figure 2. This arrangement provides a continuously controllable reactance since the parallel thyristor reactor branch produces a current that adds up to the line current through the capacitor thereby increasing its capacitive size beyond its physical reactance obtained by the line current only. ITh IL Figure 2. TCSC Further development, of the present design, is focusing on cost reduction and increased current handling capability. 1.4 Static Var Compensator, SVC A typical shunt - connected static var compensator, composed of thyristor - switched capacitors (TSCs) and thyristor - controlled reactors (TCRs) is shown in Figure 3. U N I Figure 3. SVC 6 The compensator is normally operated to regulate the voltage of the transmission system at a selected terminal. The V - I characteristic of the SVC indicates the regulation with a given slope around the nominal voltage can be achieved in the normal operating range defined by the maximum capacitive and inductive currents of the SVC. The voltage support capability of the conventional thyristor controlled static var compensator rapidly deteriorates with decreasing system voltage. In addition to voltage support, SVCs are also employed for transient (first swing) and dynamic stability (damping) improvements. The future trends of the SVC development are focusing on reducing cost and increasing performance, as an example increasing the short time overload capacity. The SVC equipment needs to be re-locatable and the filters (if needed) designed in such a way so resonance with the power system is avoided. The SVC plays an important role in providing dynamic Mvars, especially in heavily loaded meshed networks since the generators will be controlled off and on depending on despatch.or plant economics. The installation of new generating plant or high voltage overlays may greatly strengthen weak points and render some SVCs redundant after only a few years service. In order to simplify relocatability, SVC installations need to be compact, avoiding permanent buildings; outdoor equipment needs to be arranged in-groups of components that are capable of being carried, by road or rail, with a minimum of dismantling. Packaged substations have been used for many years and the use of transportable cabins to provide a weatherproof housing for sensitive components is a similar concept. Thus the thyristor valves, controls, protection, auxiliary power sources etc. need to be inside a cabin, whereas reactors, capacitors, switchgear, auxiliary/earthing transformers, etc, can be mounted outdoors on easily transportable skids or frames, complete with many of their interconnecting busbars. 1.5 Static Compensator, STATCOM Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM) employing forced switching type of semiconductors in a converter that functions as a controllable synchronous voltage source, has been introduced for reactive shunt compensation. The basic principle of reactive power generation by the STATCOM is analogous to that of the conventional rotating synchronous compensator. 7 U N I U D I d Figure 4. STATCOM From a DC input voltage source, provided by the charged capacitor, the converter produces a set of controllable three - phase output voltages with the frequency of the AC power system. By varying the amplitude of the output voltages produced, the reactive power exchange between the converter and the AC system can be controlled. If the amplitude of the output voltage (V) is increased above that of the AC system voltage (V T ), then the current flows (I q ) through the tie reactance from the converter to the AC system, and the converter generate reactive (capacitive) power for the AC system. If V is decreased below V T , then the converter absorbs reactive (inductive) power. The STATCOM converter itself can keep the capacitor charged to the required voltage level. The V I characteristic indicates that the STATCOM can provide both capacitive and inductive compensation and is able to control its output current over the rated maximum capacitive or inductive range independently of the AC system voltage. That is, the STATCOM, in contrast of the SVC, can provide full capacitive output current at any system voltage, practically down to zero. The STATCOM may have an increased transient rating in both the inductive and capacitive operating regions. The ability of the STATCOM to produce full capacitive current at low system voltage also makes it more effective that the SVC in improving the transient stability (first swing). The inherent capability of the STATCOM to generate as well as to absorb reactive power makes it eminently suitable for power oscillation damping. STATCOM uses switched components of thyristor type such as Gate Turn-Off Thyristor, GTO Thyristor, Gate Commutated Thyristor, GCT or Transistor type of components such as the Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor, IGBT. The Voltage Source Converter, VSC, might be built using series connection of the devices, multi-pulse configuration or multi-level configuration. Using series connection 2 or 3 level design, pulse width modulation (PWM) can be used. PWM simplifies the main circuit design. GCT is a further developed GTO with gate designed for hard-drive making the component better suited for series connection. One type of the GCT components could also be used for PWM but without series connection. The DC side, the DC capacitor bank, could either be single-phase DC bank if un-symmetrical control is needed and PWM cannot be used. 8 STATCOM using IGBT is interesting since, as an example, a three-level design and series connection, using high frequency (1- 2 kHz) PWM, makes the device filterless and the technology could be, in addition to the traditional generation or absorption of reactive power, used for active filtering of harmonics. This type of converter also can handle large asymmetries in the system. Due to the higher performance, the PWM type of STATCOM could find a broader market than the traditional SVC due to increased performance and possibilities for using the STATCOM for active filtering and easier re- locatability (weight and footprint). 1.6 Unified Power Flow Controller, UPFC. The UPFC is an extremely powerful and versatile concept for power flow control. The UPFC can control, individually or in combination, three effective transmission parameters - voltage, impedance, and angle -, or directly, the active and reactive power flow in the line. The UPFC is a combination of a STATCOM (converter 1) for the shunt part, and a SSSC (converter 2) for the series part, both connected by a common DC link. See Figure 5. Figure 5. UPFC Converter 1 is used primarily to provide the active power demand of converter 2 at the common DC link. Converter 2 itself generates the reactive power demand corresponding to series voltage injection ( V pq ) and, therefore, the transmission system is not burdened by reactive power flow due to the operation of the UPFC. Actually, since converter 1 can also generate or absorb reactive power at its AC terminal, independently of the active power it transfers to (or from) the DC terminal it follows that, 9 with proper controls, it can also fulfil the function of an independent STATCOM. That is it can provide reactive power compensation for the transmission line and thus execute an indirect voltage regulation at the input terminal of the UPFC. In addition, the UPFC can operate as a series impedance compensator when the shunt element (STATCOM) is out of service and a static var source when the series element (SSSC) is out of service. Future development needs to focus on less complexity and reduced cost. 1.7 SSSC. The Static Synchronous Series Compensator, SSSC, offers an alternative to conventional series capacitive line compensation. The SSSC is a synchronous voltage source that internally generates the desired compensating voltage in series with the line independent of the line current. See Figure 6. Figure 6. SSSC The SSSC can be considered functionally as an ideal generator. The SSSC can produce a set of (three) alternating voltages at the desired fundamental frequency with controllable amplitude and phase angle. Further the SSSC can generate or absorb reactive power when tied to an electric power system to function like a synchronous condenser (compensator) and convert the active power it exchanges with the AC system into a DC voltage that is compatible with an electric energy source or storage. The transmitted power becomes a parametric function of the injected voltage. The SSSC can control both reactive and active power with the AC system, simply by controlling the angular position of the injected voltage with respect to the line current. With the appropriate combinations of SVSs unique FACTS controller arrangements able to control independently real and reactive power flow in individual lines, balance real and reactive flows among line, can be devised. From the standpoint of practical applications, steady state flow control or stability improvements, the SSSC clearly has considerably wider control range then the controlled series capacitor of the same MVA rating. 10 1.8 Switched Series Capacitors, MSSC or TSSC. Mechanically Switched Series Capacitors, MSSC, are mainly used for load flow control. The capacitor bank is divided into segments each possible to be bypassed by means of breakers. In this way a stepwise controllability of the inserted capacitive reactance is achieved. In case of a large number of switching are needed the breakers can be replaced by thyristor valves acting as electronic switches thus forming a Thyristor Switched Series Capacitor, TSSC. 1.9 Phase Shifting Transformer, PST, IPC, TCPAR. Phase shifting transformer, PST, using tap-changers or thyristor switches for control. See Figure 7. Figure 7. TCPST In order to reduce cost some units could be equipped with parallel inductor and this solution is also named Interphase Power Controller, IPC. If the PST is provided with a fast acting switching device, i.e. thyristor switches, the PST is renamed in to TCPST, Thyristor Controlled Phase Shifting Transformer, and can be used for Power Oscillation Damping, POD. 1.10 High Voltage Direct Current, HVDC HVDC is mainly used for the coupling of asynchronous AC systems (Back-to-Back HVDC), for sea-cable transmission with distances of more than 50 80 km and for long distance bulk power transmission. Due to the ability to control the converters very fast and almost independent from the AC system conditions, the HVDC technology offers a number of advantages especially for the increased power exchange in a deregulated environment: 11 Coupling of AC systems with different frequencies or different rules concerning security, reliability, frequency control, voltage control, primary- and secondary- control reserve capacity, etc. system interconnection independent from stability requirements transmission over very long distances without stability problems power infeed without increase of short circuit current. feeding power from remote generation centres direct into load centres. load flow control frequency control voltage control substitution of secondary reserve (under certain conditions) stabilizing the AC system by fast DC-power-ramping or modulation economical and ecological advantages at very long distance high power transmission compared to AC Conventional HVDC use line commutated converters (thyristors) which require inertia of the AC systems. Capacitor commutated converters allow also operation in AC systems with lower short circuit capacity. DC transmission (Back-to-Back or long distance) with self commutated converters (GTO, IGCT or IGBT) allows also for feeding into systems without generation. Todays HVDC links at high power level use conventional technology. DC links at the medium and lower power level using self- commutated converters are today available and under further development and test operation, also in medium voltage distribution systems. The near future may see multi-terminal HVDC high power links to exchange large amount of power between remote partners and to integrate the countries along the route. Low power DC- links in the low and medium voltage systems allow the customer to purchase power from different partners according to cost situation without restrictions to electrical parameters like voltage amplitude or phase. 1.11 Thyristor Controlled Braking Resistor (TCBR) Braking resistors have been applied as a means of controlling potentially destabilizing system disturbances. They are designed to provide speed control by dissipating power in a power resistor. Stability limits of synchronous generators can be improved by reducing the imbalance between the machine mechanical power and the generator electrical power due to system faults. Conventional braking resistors are limited in performance due to the dead time of the breaker and due to the limited number of operations possible. TCBR uses electronic switches thus enhancing the above functions. Also,electronic switching enables braking resistors to provide a dynamic response and a variable amount of braking resistance for improved damping control. 12 The improved performance of TCBR has been shown in different system studies. 1.12 Concluding Remarks. A number of FACTS devices have been described in the chapter and are the result of 10 years or more of development. It seems certain that development of FACTS technology will continue, aimed at providing flexible control devices to meet deregulated systems needs whilst continuing to strive for lower costs. 13 CHAPTER 2. FACTS APPLICATIONS. 2.1 Introduction. This Chapter is not intended to be an exhaustive list of FACTS installations, but rather to present details of some major examples of FACTS devices that are presently in service or that are planned to be commissioned in the very near future, and the reasons for their installation. As will be appreciated from the various descriptions the older installations were generally although not always - installed to ensure compliance with security standards whilst the newer installations have rather more commercial rationales, often to facilitate open access. 2.2 TCSC Slatt, USA The TCSC system, commissioned in 1993, is installed on Bonneville Power Administration's transmission system and located at BPA's C.J.Slatt substation on the Slatt-Buckley 500 kV line in Northern Oregon. At the substation, six identical thyristor controlled capacitor modules are applied to each of the three phases. The capacitors, current limiting reactors, thyristor switchers and protective varistors are located on three platforms, which are at the potential of the 500 kV line and insulated for a BIL of 1550 kV. In addition, each phase has line disconnects and a bypass breaker. The advanced digital control and protection system, located in a building at ground potential, consists of a master controller and a controller for each capacitor module. Communication between platform and ground is accomplished by fibre optics. The thyristors are liquid-cooled via a ground-based heat exchanger. A water glycol mixture is used for this outdoor application. The TCSC's high speed switching capability provides a mechanism for controlling line power flow, which permits increased loading of existing transmission lines, and allows for rapid readjustment of line power flow in response to various contingencies. The TCSC also can regulate steady-state power flow within its rating limits. Transmission loading may be limited by system stability or transient stability of generation. The TCSC is a powerful tool to help relieve these constraints. Its controls can be designed to modulate the line reactance and provide damping of system swing modes. The TCSC provides a mechanism for greatly reducing a potential subsynchronous resonance problem at thermal generators electrically close to transmission lines with series compensation. In some cases, the inability to mitigate SSR with conventional series capacitors has limited line compensation to levels between 20 and 40 percent. With even a small percentage of TCSC, the total compensation can be increased significantly. 14 The figure 1,below, shows an elementary one-line diagram of the Slatt-TCSC. It is comprised of six identical TCSC modules connected in series. Each module consists of a capacitor, a bi- directional thyristor valve (with its associated reactor), and a varistor. A bypass breaker (with its associated reactor) is connected across the entire device for use in operational and protective functions. Also, three disconnect switches are used to bypass and isolate the TCSC from the Slatt-Buckley transmission line. Figure 1. One-line diagram of Slatt TCSC. Each module can operate either bypassed or inserted. In addition, when the capacitor is inserted, the thyristor valve can be phase-controlled to vary the effective fundamental- frequency impedance of the capacitor. The basic operating principles are explained below. While bypassed, the thyristors are gated for full conduction, and the net reactance of the module is slightly inductive because of the reactor in series with the thyristor valve. Note that some current also flows through the capacitor during bypassed operation, but most flows through the thyristor valve and reactor because it is a much lower impedance path. 15 Figure 2. TCSC control modes If the capacitor is inserted by turning off the thyristor valve (that is, blocking all gating signals to the thyristors), the effective capacitance of the module is the same as its nominal value. This is illustrated in figure 2. This mode of operation is essentially the same as for a conventional series capacitor. While the capacitor is inserted, the thyristors can be gated near the end of each half cycle in a manner that can circulate controlled amount of inductive current through the capacitor, thereby increasing the effective capacitive reactance of the module. This concept is referred to as vernier control. In this mode, the inserted reactance can be controlled in a continuously-variable (vernier) manner from a minimum value of the capacitor alone (1.33 ohms) to as much as 4.0 ohms. The upper limit for vernier operation is a function of line current magnitude and time spent at the operating point. The Slatt TCSC consists of six modules. The operation of all six modules is automatically co- ordinated from a higher level control system called the common control. All modules receive "ohms" orders from the common level, and these orders establish the operating mode and vernier level for each individual module. 2.3 TCSC - Kayenta, USA The Kayenta TCSC installation, commissioned in 1993, consists of two series capacitor banks, each rated 165 Mvar and 1000 Amps with a single phase 60 Hz impedance of 55 ohms. One bank is operated in a conventional series compensation configuration with the second bank subdivided into a 40-ohm conventional segment and a 15-ohm TCSC segment. Kayenta substation is in the middle of a 320 km 230 kV transmission line. With power transfers on the interconnected network approaching the transmission systems ability to reliably serve increasing loads, and with restrictions in building new transmission lines series compensation became an attractive alternative to increase power transfer capability. Adding of 330 Mvar of series compensation to the line provides 70% series compensation and increased the power scheduling capability by 30 % to 400 MW. 16 The following control modes are used: current control (power flow control) impedance control (current sharing in the meshed system) inductive mode (TSR-mode) The following control modes have been tested successfully but are not in commercial operation: power oscillation damping (POD-mode) phase balancing impedance control mode with inductive impedance 2.4 SVC Harker NGC Two Static Var Compensators with a nominal rating of 75 to +150 Mvar each have been installed at the Harker substation in the north of the UK grid near the Scottish border in 1992. The main task of these SVCs is voltage control, but also a stability controller for damping of system power oscillations is implemented. The National Grid Company (NGC) owns and operates the 400 and 275 kV transmission system in England and Wales. The NGC transmission system is interconnected with the power system in Scotland by means of two double circuit tie lines. 17 Figure 3. UK grid and system response to a 3-phase fault with and without SVC-POD- control The SVCs at Harker were specifically installed for the purpose of increasing the transient and dynamic stability margins to meet the appropriate planning standards when designing for an increase in the power transfer from Scotland to England. The basic control requirement for the Harker SVCs was for constant voltage control with the SVCs to be operated at zero output, so as to have the full capability of the SVCs available for transient stability enhancement. The system damping with only constant voltage control was just adequate as per the planning standards. However it was considered that investing in an additional power oscillation damping (POD) control loop at the same time could be justified economically for the future. The real power flow across the tie-lines between Scotland and England was chosen for the input signal for the POD controller, based on the experience that there are light damped power oscillations with a frequency of about 0.5 Hz, which is the lowest electro-mechanical frequency seen in the system. This mode of oscillation is strongly present in the tie-line power flow. The curves in Figure 3 show the calculated system response following a 3-phase fault east of Harker cleared by line tripping. The power flow in the tie-line as well as the output of one SVC are shown for the case, that no SVC is in operation, that the SVCs operate in voltage control mode only and the POD controller is active additionally. While improving the stability performance also by controlling the voltage a distinctly more rapid damping can be achieved with the POD control activated. 18 2.5 MSSC - Kanawha River, USA Kanawha River Mechanically Switched Series Capacitor, commissioned in 1991, is used in order to adopt the compensation level of a backbone 345 kV line in order to have sufficient stability margins during an outage of the parallel 765 kV system. Kanawha River is operated manually from a central dispatch. Depending on loading conditions of 765 kV system the compensation level of the Kanawha River 345 kV line is selected from 0 to 60% compensation in 10 % increments. Thereby always having the necessary capacity of the line in case of 765 kV outage but reducing the compensation level to minimum necessary in order to reduce system losses. 2.6 TCSC - Stde, Sweden The Stde TCSC, commissioned in 1998, is implemented in order to obtain the desired level of compensation of a long 400 kV line from the northern part of Sweden down to the central part where the load is located. In its southern part the line is also connected to a large nuclear unit. Without the TCSC there is a risk for SSR which would have limited the compensation level of the line below what is desired with respect to system power transfer capability. The installation has a fixed part and a thyristor controlled part. (See Figure 4). Existing SC Added TCSC Figure 4. One-line diagram Stde TCSC U U U U U U U U U U M U U M M M M 19 Stde TCSC uses a local controller using local measured variables such as line currents and capacitor voltage. The controller calculates the thyristor triggering instants and measures the capacitor voltage and thyristor currents in order to operate the TCSC at a stable boost level of 20 %. (See Figure 5). Figure 5. TCSC control system. The installation is unmanned and operated from a central dispatch some 400-km from the installation. A station control and monitoring system collect and stores all events and the installation uses dial up facilities in order to read all information from remote. Operation of breakers and disconnectors are done in a traditional way using RTUs. 2.7 STATCOM - EAST CLAYDON, England East Claydon 400kV substation is located approximately 40 miles to the north-west of London. This substation was selected as the site for the installation of an SVC to provide additional compensation in the South. It is necessary for the SVC to fulfil the defined system need at its initial location at East Claydon and also to be arranged for possible subsequent relocation to other NGC substations at either 400kV or 275kV. The STATCOM is expected to be commissioned in late 2000/early 2001. A STATCOM-based SVC is required to perform at least as well as an equivalent conventional SVC employing TCR/TSCs. The favourable time-scale associated with this project provided the opportunity for NGC to purchase a STATCOM-based device, which implements its stated intention of encouraging new technologies in order to improve the long term performance of the system. NGC placed an order in January 1997 for a 0 to +225 Mvar SVC utilising GTO technology (a STATCOM-type SVC) at East Claydon 400kV substation. 20 The SVC must have a smoothly variable output range of 0-225 Mvar (capacitive only, no inductive range is needed). In response to system voltage changes, the SVC must be able to change its output over any part of its range within 100ms with a system infeed of 4000MVA. Shunt capacitors, TSCs and filter banks are constant impedance devices whose current will decrease in proportion to any decrease of voltage. In contrast a STATCOM can still generate its rated current, even if the voltage becomes very low, and it therefore acts as a constant current device. A STATCOM is thus able to generate more Mvar at reduced voltage than would an equivalent fixed capacitor bank. In the evaluation of prices for different types of SVC, NGC allowed a premium for the additional Mvar generated by a STATCOM at 0.9pu system voltage compared with a conventional, constant impedance type of SVC. There are stringent constraints on the acceptable magnitudes of harmonic voltage distortion caused by the SVC at its point of connection because NGC regards it as important that the SVC should not significantly increase the levels of distortion pre-existing on the transmission system even when harmonic resonant impedance conditions occur. The SVC must also be able to withstand the maximum background distortion, which could be present at any point on the Grid System. The SVC is expected to be in service for at least forty years. In order to evaluate the lifetime cost of the supplied equipment, SVC losses were capitalised as part of the tender review process. It is expected that the SVC will normally be operated for lengthy periods between 0 and 30 Mvar, i.e. at or near the float condition, thus enabling a large dynamic Mvar reserve to be available to support the voltage following system disturbances. The losses in the range 0 to 30 Mvar accounted for 80% of the loss evaluation. A further 10% was allocated to the average losses from 35 to 60 Mvar and the final 10% for average losses from 75 to 150 Mvar. Basic Configuration of the STATCOM It would be possible to generate the whole 225 Mvar capacitive output of the SVC using only a STATCOM. However, this would have the disadvantage that the STATCOM would have a total dynamic rating of 450 Mvar (i.e. 225 Mvar) and its 225 Mvar inductive range and rating would be completely unused. Following detailed consideration of different designs, it was decided to use a STATCOM with a total dynamic range of 150 Mvar ( 75 Mvar); a small, permanently connected shunt capacitor bank ensures that the STATCOM operates at a low current in the float region of 0 to 30 Mvar, to give less than 0.1% losses (compared to full output) and consequently only a small value of loss capitalisation. A thyristor switched capacitor (TSC) then provides the additional SVC output when more than about 90 Mvar is needed. The TSC rating is less than the dynamic range of the STATCOM so as to avoid any discontinuity in the characteristic or any tendency for the controls to hunt near to the TSC switching point. With the TSC switched off, the SVC has some inductive range; this is not required for continuous duty but the output can be used to contribute to temporary system needs under disturbed conditions. Thus, during dynamic over-voltages, the STATCOM is able to contribute to some reduction of the over-voltage by operating at its rated inductive current with the TSC blocked. 21 Figure 6. One-line diagram The SVC components of the adopted arrangement, shown in Figure 6, make the following nominal contributions to the rated output of the SVC: STATCOM 75 Mvar Harmonic filter + 23 Mvar TSC + 127 Mvar 2.8 TCSC- North-South Interconnection, Brazil 2.8.1 Planning Stage Until the beginning of 1999, there were two main electric power systems in Brazil which have not been interconnected yet: the South-Southeast (from now on South system) and the North- Northeast (from now on North system) systems. They are essentially hydroelectric systems and concentrate more than 95% of the total national production and consumption. Technical and economical feasibility studies related to the interconnection of these two systems have been performed since 1992 and by January 1997 the decision was made. The North-South Interconnection would have the aim of exploring hydrologic diversity between the systems, achieving energy benefits estimated in about 600 MW-year. Power flows would occur in both directions, depending on the actual hydrologic conditions. This Interconnection should start its operation as soon as possible in order to reduce the risks of energy deficit in the systems. 22 Two transmission alternatives were considered and analysed to establish the North-South Interconnection: a DC bipole (+/- 400 kV) and a single 500 kV AC compact transmission line (4x954 MCM bundle), 1,020 km long. In both cases, this Interconnection should link the 500 kV substation of Imperatriz (North system) to the Serra da Mesa power plant (South system) and should be dimensioned to transmit up to 1,300 MW, with suitable operation being required from no load up to maximum flow, in both directions. The generation installed capacity in South/Southeast and North/Northeast systems will be 48 GW and 14 GW, respectively, by the time of North/South Interconnection implementation. From a purely technical viewpoint, this low capacity interconnection between two large systems having different planning and operating criteria, would have been an ideal textbook application for HVDC transmission technology. From a strategic and political viewpoint, however, the AC transmission alternative could be highly attractive for making cheap hydroelectric energy available to a rapidly growing, newly born, Federal State and to future developments located over a vast geographic area having enormous economic potential. Six hydroelectric plants are expected to be built along the same route in the next two decades and other transmission links (500 kV AC) are planned to cater for this additional generation. When comparing the technical behaviour of these two alternatives, it was verified that the AC solution presented a low frequency (0.2 Hz), poorly damped, inter-area oscillation mode. This oscillation of wide amplitude (+/- 300 MW) represented a serious technical restriction for the AC alternative. On the other hand, this alternative presented significant advantage in terms of costs besides the strategic and political benefits mentioned above. The decision was made in favour of the AC transmission alternative after the solution for the technical problems was found. In short, the adopted solution consists of a series compensation scheme that combines Controlled Series Capacitors (TCSC) with Fixed Series Capacitors (FSC). See Figure 7. The Controlled Series Capacitors Banks (TCSC) are being applied in the interconnection in order to eliminate the restriction related to the poorly damped low frequency oscillations. The Fixed Series Capacitors (FSC) for the North/South Interconnection aims at increasing the power transmission line capability up the value of 1300 MW. Fixed Series Capacitors (FSC) are also being applied in the existing Eletronorte 500 kV system in substations Marab, Imperatriz and Presidente Dutra in order to increase the power transfer capacity of this transmission corridor, which is a need imposed by the implementation of the North/South interconnection. 2.8.2 Commissioning and Operational Stages The Brazilian North-South interconnection, the first link between the South-Southeast and the North-Northeast power systems in the country, was commissioned in the first quarter of 1999. The interconnection is 1020 km long, and consists of a single 500 kV compact line between the substations Imperatriz (north) and Serra da Mesa (south). The line is provided with 54% of fixed series compensation split into six banks, and two Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitors (TCSC) banks, each providing 6% of series compensation in steady state conditions. See Figure 7. 23 Figure 7: One line diagram of the transmission line The nominal capacity of the interconnection is 1300 MW in either direction and the purpose of the TCSCs is to dampen the low frequency (0.2 Hz) inter-area oscillation that may be excited by any kind of disturbance in the system. The final commissioning tests involved verification of the damping performance of the two TCSCs located at Imperatriz and Serra da Mesa. A large number of tests was done, covering small disturbances as well as short-circuit and tripping of lines and generators. The system performance testing showed that the TCSCs were very effective in damping the inter-area oscillations as shown in Figures 8 (with TCSCs) and 9 (without TCSCs). The interconnection has been in reliable operation since March 1999 with the TCSCs providing adequate damping for all scenarios, even for those with low power transfer (below 200 MW). A novel POD (Power Oscillation Damper) structure, the Phasor POD, was successfully implemented in the TCSC at Imperatriz. Its performance is very nonlinear and very effective, suggesting the possibility of using this type of controller in other applications such as SVC, PSS, HVDC, etc. Figure 8: Trip of 300 MW in Tucurui PODs enabled 24 Figure 9: Trip of 300 MW in Tucurui PODs disabled 2.9 Relocatable SVCs (RSVC). It can be very difficult for system planners to forecast future load growth, and the corresponding future development and expansion of their supply network, for more than a few years ahead. The installation of new generating plant or high voltage overlays may greatly strengthen weak points and render some SVCs redundant after only a few years service. Other developments may result in the closure of some generating plant and a consequent weakening of the network at that point. The SVCs may then not be well placed to help the network in its hour of need. In general, SVCs have been installed by utilities as fixed substation plant, to meet a perceived long-term need, with a typical anticipated lifetime of 25-30 years or more. Although it is always possible to move SVCs to another site, as has been done in South Africa, their design and layout are usually not arranged so that this relocation is a simple task. In order to simplify relocatability, SVC installations need to be compact, avoiding permanent buildings; outdoor equipment needs to be arranged in-groups of components that are capable of being carried, by road or rail, with a minimum of dismantling. Packaged substations have been used for many years and the use of transportable cabins to provide a weatherproof housing for sensitive components is a similar concept. Thus the thyristor valves, controls, protection, auxiliary power sources etc. need to be inside a cabin, whereas reactors, capacitors, switchgear, auxiliary/earthing transformers, etc, can be mounted outdoors on easily transportable skids or frameworks, complete with many of their interconnecting busbars. NGC developed a specification for standardised RSVCs, which can easily and quickly be moved from one substation to another, as system needs dictate, without requiring dedicated transformers and without requiring any design changes to match the system parameters at their new location. These system parameters can vary over a very wide range. The RSVC specification called for a rated output of up to 60 Mvar capacitive at a tertiary winding voltage of 90% (11.7kV), with the target voltage variable between 95% and 105% of the transformer primary voltage. The slope is adjustable between 2% and 10% voltage change for a change of current from zero to rated current. Unlike the earlier SVCs, no inductive 25 range is required. See Figure 10 for a single line diagram of an RSVC. In some parts of NGCs system, background harmonics have become relatively high and an RSVC must not appreciably increase this distortion, nor must harmonic currents flowing in from the system overload it. Relocation from one site to another, including shutting down, disconnection, dismantling, transport, re-erection, re-testing and re-commissioning must not take longer than 3 months. It is considered that relocation might occur up to eight times in a 40-year service life of an RSVC. More recently NGC has updated its specification for SVCs which are required to be connected at 400kV and 275kV and which include a dedicated compensator transformer. These directly connected SVCs will also be relocatable and, like the tertiary-connected SVCs, will not be required to provide any inductive Mvar. Their dynamic range and rating will be between 150 and 225 Mvar capacitive and relocation must be possible within 6 months. By incorporating features into the design of an SVC which facilitate its future relocation, the risk is removed that these valuable plant items will become redundant, or stranded on the system at a point where they can no longer contribute usefully to its system operation. The flexibility resulting from relocatability can therefore be of great assistance to system planners when they seek to identify the value of SVCs for their systems. Figure 11 illustrates the location of the RSVCs and conventional SVCs on the NGC system. 275kV 13kV 132kV Control System RSVC Range +60/-0Mvar 180MVA 34.3 17.1 8.6Mvar Thyristor - Switched Capacitors (Binary Steps) 60MVA Figure 10. Single Line Diagram of an RSVC 26 Conventional SVCs Relocatable SVCs Figure 11. Location of SVCs 2.10 SVC Light. The Hagfors SVC Light, commissioned in 1993, is a three level converter using the IGBT component. This type of SVC is close to an active filter and uses high switching frequency, 1650 Hz. For the Hagfors installation the SVC will be used for mitigating flicker from Arc Furnaces in order to improve the Power Quality. 2.11 Phase-Shifting Transformers In the German 380 kV bulk power system a 1500 MVA phase shifter is in operation since about 15 years. The main driving force for the installation was the energy exchange of about 1000 MW between the western part of the German grid and mainly the southern part and also the northern part. Load flow calculations lead to the result that measures had to be taken to avoid bottleneck situations. As alternative a HVDC back-to-back station was compared to a phase shifter transformer. The decision for the phase shifter solution was made on the basis of lower costs. Even today in the context of the open market the phase shifter is an important device in the energy transport in the UCTE power system. Especially the FACTS elements can be used to avoid an influence of the load flow between two partners on a third one. Two phase shifters 220 kV, 300 MVA are in operation connecting the power station Obrigheim to the German bulk power system. In the MV-System near Mannheim, Germany, a phase shifter 30 MVA is used. In the context of Open Access this phase shifter will be sold in 2000. Since the restructuring of the Electricity Supply Industry in England and Wales in 1990, there has been no centrally co-ordinated planning of new generation or the removal from service of 27 older plant, and the subsequent future uncertainty has presented a challenge to the network designer. NGCs broad approach to planning the future development of the transmission system has been to try to maximise the utilisation of the existing system. This has been achieved by the strategic deployment of power flow and reactive compensation devices. To improve real power sharing some 15 Quadrature Boosters or phase shifting transformers have been or will have been installed by 2002 at both the 275 kV and the 400 kV voltage levels with ratings ranging from 750 MVA to 2750 MVA. Further such devices may be installed if considered appropriate. Apart from cost advantage, this approach has helped to keep the environmental impact of reinforcement to a minimum. In addition quadrature boosters or phase shifting transformers, even the higher rated units, are relocatable, thus facilitating high utilisation of investment. 2.12 HVDC North Sea Cables between Norway and Central Europe The benefits of utilizing energy exchange between the Norwegian hydropower system and the thermal power systems in Europe make it interesting to establish new HVDC sea cable interconnections. As the national authorities issue the required licenses involved, several new HVDC links will be established from the southern part of Norway to the continent each having a cable length of approximately 550-km. A total power of 3000 MW or more can then be exchanged through the HVDC links including the existing Skagerrak interconnection. Figure 12 illustrates the asynchronous interconnections between NORDEL and UCTE/CENTREL. Solid lines are existing interconnections whilst dotted lines are tentatively planned interconnections. UK Norway Germany Sweden Netherlands Poland Denmark Belgium Figure 12. HVDC Cable-Interconnections between Nordel and UCTE 28 Historically, the production system in Norway has been designed to cover the yearly energy consumption also in dry years. As a result, in most years there has been a power export from Norway to the neighboring countries. The main grid has gradually been developed as a result of a growing demand and the need to construct new hydro power even further away from load centers. The grid has also been designed to utilize hydrological variations between regions and to enable occasional power exchange within NORDEL. The transmission voltage level is 300 kV and 420 kV. The main grid in Southern Norway has been developed to meet the predominant transmission need from west to east. The interchange capacity from north to south at the southern coast is fully utilized when the capacity of 1000 MW of the existing Skagerrak HVDC links from Southern Norway to Denmark is fully utilized. A further increase in the power exchange from this part of the country will therefore require grid reinforcement to increase the north-south transmission capacity. Interchange contracts may comprise elements of firm power exchange, occasional power exchange and pumped storage (energy-neutral) exchange. The characteristics of the Norwegian power system indicate that the exchange must primarily be based on pumped storage agreements. As technical, economical and environmental aspects make it unfavorable to regulate thermal plants rapidly to follow the immediate and daily variations of the load, access to hydro power for this purpose may be interesting for utilities on the continent and/or in Great Britain with a thermally dominated generation mix. The development in cable technology provides an economical basis for cross-North Sea links even with the considerable distances involved. The cost of Norwegian peak load capacity over HVDC links may be competitive with thermal alternatives. From the Norwegian viewpoint such agreements will be interesting for several reasons. The utilization of the installed capacity will be improved. Flexible agreements with options to reserve parts of the capacity for occasional power export in wet years and import in dry years are desirable. Increased exchange capacity may stabilize and give a more predictable domestic spot market price level. Long term agreements will also reduce the financial risk to necessary, but capital-intensive, modernization of old plants. On the continent pumped storage agreements may reduce or postpone investments in new generating capacity in thermal capacity-constrained systems. Operation costs will be reduced due to saved fuel costs and an improved degree of efficiency. Fewer starts and stops and a more smooth thermal output may reduce the wear and tear. Emission may also be reduced and severity in emission regulations may therefore make peaking from hydropower attractive. The flexibility for scheduled maintenance will be improved. The HVDC submarine cables will then mainly be used for export of hydropower during peak load periods, with options to return the energy during low load periods depending on inflow conditions and differences of marginal costs in the thermal power and hydropower system. The main conclusion is that a stronger interaction between the Norwegian hydropower system and the thermal power system in Continental Europe may be of benefit for both parties. Power interchange must primarily be based on flexible pumped storage-type agreements. 29 Three new power exchange agreements which include establishing of HVDC links between Norway and the continent have so far been signed by commercial partners and also approved by Norwegian authorities. The new possible HVDC links with an agreed-upon capacity of 600 MW are: NorNed (Norsk Krafteksport, Norway and SEP, Netherlands) Eurokabel (Eurokraft, Norway and Eurostrom, Germany) Viking Cable (Statkraft, Norway and PreussenElektra, Germany) At the time of writing some of these projects are under review due to the changing market in Europe and it is likely, that the program will be modified. 2.13 STATCOM at Sullivan Substation A 100 Mvar static synchronous compensator (STATCOM) at the Sullivan substation in the TVA power system has been in operation in 1995. Transmission System Conditions : The Sullivan substation site is one of the few locations on the TVA power system where the total range of reactive power output (full capacitive to full inductive) of the STATCOM can be utilized. The substation lies on the fringe of TVAs service territory in northeastern Tennessee and is supplied by a 500 kV bulk power network and by four 161 kV lines that are interconnected through a 1,200 MVA transformer bank. Seven distributors and one large industrial customer are served from this substation. A one-line diagram of the Sullivan substation is shown in the figure 13, below. Figure 13: Sullivan Transmission System 30 Installation Technical Characteristics: Installation of the TVA STATCOM consisted of the following major pieces of equipment: A 48-pulse, two-level voltage source inverter that combines eight, six-pulse three-phase inverter bridges, each with a nominal rating of 12.5 MVA A single step-down transformer having a wye and delta secondary to couple the inverter to the 161 kV transmission line A closed-loop liquid cooling system that contains a pumping skid and a fan-cooled, liquid-to- air heat exchanger unit A central control system with operator interface. The STATCOM system is housed in one building that is a standard commercial design with metal walls and roof and measures 90 x 50 (27.4 m x 15.2 m). All of the STATCOM inverters and associated control equipment are located inside the building, while the main transformer that couples the STATCOM to the 161 kV transmission line is located outdoors. The STATCOM central control system is interfaced to the supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) system and is controlled on a routine basis over the SCADA system. Obtained Benefits: The STATCOM regulates the 161 kV bus voltage during daily load increases to minimize the activation of the tap changing mechanism on the transformer bank, which interconnects the two power systems. The use of the STATCOM to regulate the bus voltage has resulted in reduction of the use tap changer from about 250 times per month to 2 to 5 times per month. Tap changing mechanisms are prone to failure, and the estimated cost of each failure is about $1M. The Sullivan substation is also equipped with a mechanically switched 84 Mvar capacitor banks to extend the effective range of the STATCOM to 184 Mvar capacitive to 100 Mvar inductive. This bank is directly controlled by the STATCOM on a contingency basis in the event that the Sullivan transformer bank is lost during winter peak conditions. If this occurs, a 10 to 15 percent drop in the 161 kV bus voltage will result. The rapid and coordinated control of the STATCOM with the fixed capacitor bank will eliminate this problem by maintaining the voltage at reasonable levels until shunt capacitor banks at other substations in the general area can be energized. Without the STATCOM, TVA would be compelled either to install a second transformer bank at Sullivan or to construct a fifth 161 kV line into the area; both are costly alternatives. The STATCOM has allowed TVA to defer these large expenditures. 2.14 UPFC at Inez Substation The first UPFC at the AEP Inez substation was commissioned in 1998. 31 Transmission System Conditions : The Inez load area has a power demand of approximately 2,000 MW and is served by long heavily loaded 138 kV transmission lines. This means that, during normal power delivery, there is a very small voltage stability margin for system contingencies. Single contingency outages in the area will adversely affect the underlying 138 kV system, and, in certain cases, a second contingency would be intolerable, resulting in a wide-area blackout. A reliable power supply to the Inez area, therefore, requires effective voltage support and added real power supply facilities. System studies have identified a reinforcement plan that includes, among other things, the following system upgrades: Erection of a new double-circuit high-capacity 138 kV transmission line from Big Sandy to the Inez substation. Installation of a FACTS controller to provide dynamic voltage support at the Inez substation and to ensure full utilization of the new high capacity transmission line. The UPFC satisfies all these needs, providing independent dynamic control of transmission voltage as well as real and reactive power flow. Installation Technical Characteristics: The UPFC installation comprises (See Figure 14): Two identical, three-level 48-pulse, 160 MVA voltage source inverters coupled to two sets of dc capacitor banks The two inverters are interfaced with the ac system via two intermediate transformers, a set of magnetically coupled windings configured to construct a 48-pulse sinusoidal wave shape. Two identical step-down shunt transformers and a single series transformer. The transformers are connected to the inverters through buswork and manually operated disconnect switches as indicated in the simplified one-line diagram in the figure below. 32 Figure 14. One-line Diagram of the Inez UPFC Installation With this arrangement, the following operation modes are possible: Inverter 1 can operate as a STATCOM, with either one of the two main shunt transformers, while inverter 2 operates as a static synchronous compensator (SSSC). Alternatively, inverter 2 can be connected to the spare shunt transformer and operates as an additional STATCOM. With the latter configuration, a shunt reactive capability of 320 MVA would be available, necessary for voltage support at some transmission contingencies in the Inez area. Under normal operating conditions, the installation will be configured as a UPFC with the two inverters connected at their dc terminals. In the event that either inverter is out of service, the other inverter can be disconnected by means of dc bus switches and can operate independently, providing reactive power support. Expected Benefits of the Installed UPFC are seen to be: Dynamic support of voltage at the Inez substation to prevent voltage collapse under double transmission contingency conditions. Flexible, independent control of real and reactive power flow on the new high capacity (950 MVA thermal rating) Big Sandy to Inez 138 kV transmission line. Optimal utilization of the existing transmission system Frees up transmission capacity for years of load growth Reduction of real power losses by more than 24 MW, which is equivalent to a reduction of CO 2 emissions by about 85,000 tons per year. 33 The quantified impact of the UPFC on power transfer and voltage quality a the Inez substation is: - more than 100 MW increase in the power transfer and - excellent voltage support at the Inez bus. 2.15 Convertible Static Compensator (CSC) at Marcy Substation. Experience with the convertible static compensator (CSC) will be obtained at the Marcy substation on the New York Power Authority (NYPA) transmission system. The system is expected to be in operation in 2001. Transmission System Conditions: The New York State (NYS) system has two major interfaces, the Total East interface and the Central East interface. Currently, the transfer across these interfaces is limited to 6,150 MW and 2,880 MW, respectively. Voltage collapse conditions and power system damping concerns, which could occur at critical contingencies, impose these limits. NYPA and EPRI have conducted extensive studies to identify the means by which existing operational restrictions could be removed in order to increase power transfer capabilities while maintaining network reliability and providing flexibility to meet future uncertainties. The conducted studies have resulted in the identification of a FACTS controller that could serve a dual role by initial application as a shunt device, for voltage support in the near term, and as a series device for power flow management in the long term. Installation Technical Characteristics: This innovative concept provides the operational functionality to eliminate the current limits of NYS transmission system and provides the possibility for power flow management on more than one transmission corridor. A conceptual block diagram of the CSC structure is shown in the figure 15, below. 34
MARCY NORTH BUS BR11 NO.1 INVERTER I inv1 SWDC1 M MOD 2 &CS 2 LV1 MOD 1 & CS 1 TR-SH M LV2 M MOD 3 & CS 3 TR-SE1 MARCY SOUTH BUS THYRISTOR INVERTER NO. 2 I inv2 BYPASS SWITCH COOPERS CORNERS UCC2-41 THYRISTOR M MOD 4 & CS 4 M BR12 TR-SE2 SWITCH BYPASS NEW SCOTLAND NS-18 Figure 15. CSC Structure This structure consists of a number of 100 MVA inverter blocks and will provide the following distinct and interchangeable operation modes: 200 Mvar STATCOM 200 Mvar SSSC 100 Mvar STATCOM, 100 Mvar SSSC 100 MVA, 100 MVA rated inverters for a UPFC operation 100 MVA, 100 MVA rated inverters for an interline power flow controller (IPFC) operation. Expected Benefits of the CSC are seen to be: - Increase upstate-to-downstate power transfer by 240 MW - Relieve power transfer bottleneck - Provide maximum utilization of NYS transmission system - Relieve power transfer bottlenecks - Improve voltage control - Reduce system losses. 35 2.16 Forbes SVS. Northern States Power Co. (NSP), USA, is operating a SVC in its 500 kV power transmission network. The SVC, located at Forbes, is part of the Manitoba- Minnesota transmission system, the purpose is to increase power exchange capability between Winnipeg and Minneapolis. The main purpose of the SVC is to improve the generation and transmission systems dynamic response to network disturbances. With the SVC in service the capability of the transmission system has been increased by some 200 MW. The SVC has a dynamic range of 450 Mvar inductive to 1000 Mvar capacitive at 500 kV, making it one of the largest of its kind in the world. The large inductive capability of the SVC is required to control the over-voltage during loss of power from the incoming HVDC at the northern end of the 500 kV line. The SVC consists of two thyristor switched reactors (TSR) and three thyristor switched capacitors (TSC). The overall dynamic range of the SVC as seen from the 500 kV side is: 149 Mvar inductive continuously 450 Mvar inductive during 10 seconds every 30 minutes 110 Mvar capacitive continuously 400 Mvar capacitive during 10 seconds every 30 minutes The step down transformer, rated 168 MVA, has likewise been designed to have a 10 seconds overload capability of 450 MVA. This short time rating offers substantial economical and technical benefits to the user. Two 300 Mvar, 500 kV Mechanically Switched Capacitor (MSC) banks are being controlled by the SVC controller to extend the compensator range for the slowly changing reactive power demand of the power grid. The SVC control is co-ordinated with the switching of the MSC's in order to keep the voltage changes on 500 kV within 2,5 %. The MSC's are furthermore switched in a synchronised mode thereby minimising switching transients. 36 CHAPTER 3. TOOLS PLANNING METHODS AND SIMULATION TOOLS. 3.1 Introduction In order to collate the large amount of information concerning the planning methods and the simulation tools used to assess the need and advantages of FACTS devices, a questionnaire was prepared by three JWG members. This questionnaire was also aimed at preparing an up-to-date review of the current and recent investigations 1 undertaken by the different countries and utilities as to understand the actual and possible use of FACTS devices for their respective system. This questionnaire was sent to all JWG members and answers were received from: eight European countries : Belgium, England and Wales, France, Germany, Norway, Poland, Romania and Sweden, Brazil, USA (two utilities) and Japan Although all countries were involved at least once in investigations regarding some FACTS assessment for their power grid, it is not clear whether particular planning methods or specific protocols of studies were used for this special class of equipment. On the contrary, answers to the questionnaire tend to show that classic and well established planning methods and criteria were used. Except for special cases (British and Swedish studies for instance), it also appears that such studies were more of conventional planning studies type rather than operational planning study type which often includes investigations in the field of network topology, operation and control. No definition of control law for FACTS command is mentioned. Studies involving both planning and operational planning point of view were only performed in England. In Brazil and in the USA (2 utilities sampled), the economics of a FACTS project is not made by conventional planning studies. It is rather a very pragmatic combination of technical and economical consideration that leads to the investment decisions (investment payback is generally compared to the direct profitability of an increased system transfer capability). Information about the planning criteria and the main characteristics of planning studies involving FACTS are summarised below.
1 Investigations about the interactions between several FACTS devices are not considered here. 37 3.2 Specific driving forces for FACTS investigation Some members related actual problems that led to consider a FACTS application as a possible solution. Some of those problems were identified: need to increase the network transfer capacity or to relieve a congested power transfer corridor, better voltage control, oscillation damping and subsynchronous resonance damping, transient stability improvement against faults for heavy loaded lines, specific needs to reinforce the system capability as to allow the connection of a new IPP to the system or to improve a market position project, growing uncertainties in future transmission duties (dispersed generation, IPP). Some other reasons were also quoted, justifying some feasibility studies: difficulties in obtaining new right of way, voltage stability problems, the mitigation of unwanted loop flows and power sharing distribution, 3.3 Time frame considered for FACTS investigation Looking at the general study time frame mentioned by each member, it clearly appears that FACTS investigations are regarded in some approaches that can be classified in two groups. A first group where FACTS assessments are made in a relative short term time scale (less that 5-6 years in advance) and a second group where a longer term is considered (10 to 20 years time frame). This is very coherent with the driving forces which were notified, and which can also be in two main groups: studies initiated for shortly arising or actual problems, and studies led by more prospective approaches (feasibility studies sometime led to the scope of a more long term system development policy). 3.4 Main planning criteria Looking more in details at the planning intrinsic parameters used in members investigations, some general planning criteria can be listed. Load conditions for FACTS investigations Peak load situations are the most common conditions to be considered in the studies. This is particularly true for investigations driven by actual problems, which seem to arise in the most stressed network situations. More flexibility on the choice of load conditions is found for more theoretical feasibility studies: mean load level or low load level situations are considered in addition to peak load conditions. England performs all year round investigations. 38 Load Growth rates Apart from Brazil which have used a very high load growth rate of 4 % for the past years, load growth rates values raging from 0.5 % per year up to 2.8 % per year are mentioned in the survey. For the German Feasibility studies, it is not possible to define growth rates because there is no explicit defined time frame. The Romanian team considered the highest value in Europe. Other members seem to consider an average load growth rate of 1 to 2 % per year for their studies, although generally never exceeding 2 %. Voltage margins criteria When studying FACTS options for other issues than pure active power flow control (which is the case for all members), different voltage margins are considered, all according to each country planning standards (or grid code). A usual steady state voltage range is the 0.95- 1.05 p.u. domain (especially for the 400 kV level). Some countries seem to widen this range for N-1 situations or post contingency conditions. A larger voltage range of 0.90-1.10 p.u. appears to be generally admitted for the 225 kV level. Definition of devices overloads Information has been mostly given for overhead lines. For most countries, an overload situation arises when the current rises above 100 % of the continuous thermal rating of lines (defined as the current that the equipment or any system or facility can support or withstand indefinitely, through the daily demand cycles, without accelerated loss of equipment life). Also, for most countries, planning criteria take into account of short-term overloads (conventionally for N-1 states). A 1.2 p.u. overload is generally admitted during a period of 20 minutes, provided that that overload can be removed by authorised manoeuvres within this period. Sweden defines its overload considering an increase of the OHL conductors temperature of 20C. According to planning rules in France, and only in the case of FACTS devices planning, larger overcurrent limits can be admitted for some cases and during shorter periods while considering the FACTS rapidity to react. Planning criteria (outages and contingency situations considered) Each individual country has its own rule, according to its planning rules or grid code, although some general trends are common to all. N-1 circuit N-1 transformer All members use these. N-1 generator Some members but not all use this planning criterion. Japan considers the shutdown of its largest capacity unit. 39 N-1 double circuit line N-2 circuits Apart for England and Wales where this criteria is taken into account in all cases, N-1 double circuit line and N-2 circuits are considered by some members and for special cases: with lines connecting nuclear plant (Romania, France), or when supplying important areas (Japan) or deficit areas where the qualitative assessment of inadequate supply show that dramatic consequences are involved (France and Poland). N-1 generator and circuit N-2 generator This is used by some members Simulation of load / generation unbalance in some areas This is studied in Romania and England, to assess the possibility for a given area to be strongly exporting / importing, and to study the maximum transfer capacity between this area and the others. Specific out of standards contingency plans These are sometimes investigated in England and Wales, and in Brazil where the kind of contingency scenario depends on the structure of the local network (peculiar scenarios for radial networks and long corridors). 3.5 Planning tools. Load flow modelling and analyses Deterministic methods are the most commonly used for FACTS planning studies, especially for near term design studies. All countries but France and Japan (for rough evaluation) use AC load flow modelling for active and reactive power flow studies. France uses an DC approximation model for most of its active power flow assessments, and a AC load flow for more in-depth active power studies and for reactive power flow and voltage analyses. The last one is performed by a model which optimises the voltage profile while making use of any available reactive power capabilities, and allow the planning of additional necessary compensation means to maintain the voltage within acceptable limits. In each country, load flow analyses are performed for steady state conditions and for all outage situations. The number of different situations under investigation depends on the type of study being undertaken. For generally long term strategic views, large number of situations are simultaneously considered by the means of a probabilistic approach (in France and England). Names of software and tools are given in tables (the list cannot be exhaustive due to the large number of home made tools which are not commercialised). 40 Short circuit calculation All short circuit current calculations are performed according to IEC 909 or better. SC tools are developed in accordance to those norms. Stability Tools Not all members perform static stability, voltage stability and transient stability. Germany, Romania and Norway seem to concentrate on transient stability (with some modules that include the possibility of free definition of control means for FACTS). Belgium, England and France perform transient and voltage stability with a tool based on a variable time step integration method which simulates the dynamic behaviour of the system, from electromechanical phenomena, to long term dynamics and in which FACTS devices are described as block diagram through a graphic interface. Several different software are used in Poland to assess static stability, voltage stability and transient stability, while a similar tool is used for all by the Swedish planners, who use written dynamic models for FACTS devices such as UPFC, SVC and TCSC when needed in dynamic simulations. Regarding control system behaviour, it must be noted as noted by England - that investigations are generally made at the design stage rather than at the planning stage. Economics Tools Although all members at some point study the profitability and pay back conditions of any new equipment, three members have declared to perform more in depth economics studies based on the intensive use of specific economical tools. In Romania, some cash flow and economic indicators are calculated. They provide indications of the Net Present Value, the Cost Benefit Ratio, and the Rate of Return or Discounted Payback. In France, economic analyses are performed by the mean of probabilistic tools. Based on DC load flow approximation, they measure costs of redispatching, losses and cost of unserved energy, by a single point or annual system behaviour analysis, considering a very large number of random network situations taking account of the system availability. Simulation of FACTS and their fast acting actions are possible within these tools. In England, a program aimed at securing the cost benefit ratio of reinforcements is used. Other tools Adequacy of supply and expected costs of unserved energy are assessed by Polish planners, based on analytical calculations of expected values of failures, frequency, and duration indices, taking account of partial interdependencies of events. A tool is also used within NORDEL as to accomplish better analysis of system marginal profits and utility values derived from -for example- FACTS devices and new transmission lines. This newly developed Norwegian model integrates market simulations, energy management and power simulations model with load flow analyses. Brief details of some of the aforementioned tools are given in Appendix. 3.1. 41 The following tables give a general review of the main planning methods and their characteristics, and quote the simulation tools used by the seven utilities from which replies to a questionnaire were received. Information contained in those tables is not exhaustive; tables aim at allowing general comparisons between countries at a glimpse. Blank spaces relate to missing information. TABLE 1 DRIVING FORCES FOR INVESTIGATIONS ON FACTS DEVICES AND MAIN PLANNING CRITERIA USED IN THE DIFFERENT COUNTRIES 42 BELGIUM ENGLAND FRANCE GERMANY SWEDEN ROMANIA Driving forces for FACTS studies Master plan (long term prospects) Compliance with security standards. Actual problems Feasibility studies Feasibility studies Actual problems Feasibility studies Actual problems Feasibility studies Usual Time Frame 4 years Later years - some time. 2 to 3 years ahead for actual problems 5 years outlook for feasibility studies Not explicitly defined At most 5-6 years ahead Y+3 to Y+10 for actual problems Y+10 to Y+15 for feasibility studies Load conditions studied Peak load conditions Medium load level conditions All year round conditions Peak load conditions (January 9 am) Off load conditions (January 4 am or June 4 am depending of the problem) Defined for a normal situation Peak load conditions Market driven scenarios Peak Load conditions (evening peak load in winter) Off load conditions (summer night load) Load Growth rate considered As advised by the supply companies. About 2% per year Normally set to 1 % per year 2.8 % per year from 2005 to 2020 Planning Criteria N-1 circuit/ transformer N-1 circuit + N-1 generating units N-2 generating units N-2 circuits Some specific contingency plans sometimes N-1 circuit/ transformer N-1 double circuits lines for some cases N-1 generating unit combined with N-1 circuit/transformer. N-1 circuit/ transformer N-1 generating unit N-2 circuits + generator N-1 circuit / transformer / busbars N-1 circuit, IPP and generators N-2 circuit connecting nuclear plants TABLE 1 DRIVING FORCES FOR INVESTIGATIONS ON FACTS DEVICES AND MAIN PLANNING CRITERIA USED IN THE DIFFERENT COUNTRIES 43 NORWAY POLAND BRAZIL USA JAPAN Driving forces for FACTS studies Master Plan. Actual problems. Feasibility studies. Feasibility studies Master plan (medium term prospects) Actual problems Master plan Feasibility studies Short term actual problems Actual problems Feasibility studies based on actual problems Usual Time Frame Master plan : 10 years, Feasibility studies : 3 to 5 years, Actual problems : 1 to 3 years ahead 10 years ahead Up to 10 years ahead (formerly, it used to be 15 years) Several years to 10 years Load conditions studied Average historic peak load Light summer load Worst loading cases for specific problems Average peak load conditions Off load conditions (July 3 am) Peak load scenarios Light load scenarios Peak load conditions (average of 3 measures), off load conditions (the lowest load monitored during the lightest load season) Load Growth rate considered 1.4 % from 1999 to 2005; 0.5 % from 2006 to 2020. 2 % per year Around 4 % per year for the past 3 years. Generally less that 2 % Planning Criteria N-1 circuit / transformer / busbars N-1 circuit/ transformer N-1 gen. unit, N-1 circuit + N-1 gen. Units, N-2 gen. units in some cases, N-2 circuit (limited for rare cases). N-1 and specific but numerous N-k criteria for extra long corridors. Specific voltage requirements for radial systems. To be referred to local Administrations standards (WSCC and NYPP in our survey N-1 circuit/ transformer N-2 circuits for some specific cases N-1 largest generating unit TABLE 1 DRIVING FORCES FOR INVESTIGATIONS ON FACTS DEVICES AND MAIN PLANNING CRITERIA USED IN THE DIFFERENT COUNTRIES 44 BELGIUM ENGLAND FRANCE GERMANY SWEDEN ROMANIA Voltage Margins considered (kV) As planning standards Normal state range 219<V<242 380<V<417 N-1 state range 205<V<245 365<V<420 Values according to Grid Code Normal state range 0.95 1.05 p.u. 108<V<123 200<V<242 380<V<420 SC current Limits generally admitted 63 kA for 400kV. 31.5kA for 275kV. 63 kA for 400 kV level, 31.5 kA for 225 kV level 31.5 kA for 400, 220, 110 kV equipment Line normal and overload thermal rating considered 1 p.u. of line thermal rating for steady state operation Light overload admitted if they ca be removed by authorised easy manoeuvres (pre- defined list) Appropriate lines and transformers overload ratings. 1 p.u. of line thermal rating for steady state operation For N-1 situation, 1.2 p.u. during 20 min 1.3 to 1.5 p.u. during 5 or 1 min (depending of the voltage) 1.0 p.u. of line thermal rating Up to 1 p.u. of line thermal rating for steady state operation Overload capability defined as an increase of conductor temperature by 20C. Transformers overload capability of 1.2 to 1.4 p.u. Up to 1 p.u. of line thermal rating for steady state operation TABLE 1 DRIVING FORCES FOR INVESTIGATIONS ON FACTS DEVICES AND MAIN PLANNING CRITERIA USED IN THE DIFFERENT COUNTRIES 45 NORWAY POLAND BRASIL USA JAPAN Voltage Margins considered (kV) Normal state range 420 kV : 390<V<420 300 kV : 280<V<300 132 kV : 125<V<145 Normal state range 210<V<245 380<V<420 N-1 state range 200<V<245 360<V<420 For SVC : 95 % to 105 % of normal operation range According to standards set by the government SC current Limits generally admitted No fixed value given ; varies at different places and based on specific calculation and standard procedures 50 kA for 400 kV level 40 kA for 225 kV level Line normal and overload thermal rating considered Up to 1 p.u. of line thermal rating for steady state operation Overload capability allowed during 15 minutes defined from the loading before outage. 1 p.u. of line thermal rating for steady state operation For N-1 situation, 1.2 p.u. during 20 min 0.8 to 1.0 p.u. depending of the equipment. SVCs must withstand overvoltage for 1 second. 47 TABLE 2 TOOLS USED FOR FACTS INVESTIGATIONS. BELGIUM ENGLAND FRANCE GERMANY SWEDEN ROMANIA Load Flow Deterministic AC load flow Probabilistic DC and Deterministic AC/ DC load flow Deterministic DC load flow Deterministic AC load flow (PAS- INTEGRAL) SINCAL PSS/E Deterministic AC load flow Voltage limits Deterministic AC load flow Deterministic AC load flow QUASAR Deterministic AC load flow Deterministic AC load flow (PAS- INTEGRAL) PSS/E Deterministic AC load flow Short Circuit currents Calculated according to IEC 909 Calculated according to IEC 909. Calculated according to IEC 909 Calculated according to IEC 909 (PAS- INTEGRAL SINCAL NETOMAC PSS/E Calculated according to IEC 909 Stability matters EUROSTAG (transient and voltage stability) EUROSTAG (transient and voltage stability) PTI-PSS/E EUROSTAG (transient and voltage stability) PAS-INTEGRAL (Transient Stability studies) PTI-PSS/E NETOMAC PSS/E Programs for steady state, dynamic and transient stability Economical tools ESCORT Probabilistic tools METRIS- OPERA (yearly and punctual studies) SAMLAST MAPS-Mecore (calculation of LOLP and power deficiency) Other tools SISTAZ Plus (reliability calculation) 48 TABLE 2 TOOLS USED FOR FACTS INVESTIGATIONS. NORWAY POLAND BRASIL USA JAPAN Load Flow PSS/E PLANS PSLF IPFLOW-PSAPAC NH2 (from CEPEL) PSS/E PSS/E Deterministic DC load flow Deterministic AC load flow Voltage limits PSS/E PLANS PSLF IPFLOW-PSAPAC NH2 (from CEPEL) PSS/E PSS/E Deterministic AC load flow Short Circuit currents PSS/E SHORT PSLF Calculated according to IEC 909 PSS/E PSS/E Stability matters PSS/E SIMPOW SSSP-PSAPAC (static stability) DYNAEMTDC- PSAPAC (transient stability) VSTAB-PSAPAC (voltage stability) ANAREDE for static and voltage stability (from CEPEL) PSS/E (transient stability) EMTP EMTDC PSS/E ETMSP Program codes developed by CRIEPI Economical tools SAMLAST Microsoft EXCEL Other tools EMTDC PACDYN NIEZ (expected costs of unserved energy) EMTDC ATP 49 CHAPTER 4. FACTS and Open Access Networks Case Studies. 4.1 Introduction This chapter considers the application of FACTS devices to meet the specific requirements of Open Access Networks. Initially the state of deregulation at the time of writing - is given for the countries who contributed to the Report, followed by a discussion of the unique requirements of Open Access Networks and how FACTS devices can help to meet these requirements. The final section contains a summary of different case studies seeking to answer these questions for specific examples. The summary is based on cases from the United Kingdom, Poland, Sweden, Norway, Germany, Italy, and France. In some cases FACTS based projects have been implemented as described, in other cases project implementation decisions have yet to be taken. 4.2 State of Deregulation with Respect to Open Access The UK and Norway were among the first countries in the world to deregulate their power markets by means of open access to bulk transmission facilities in the early 1990s. Since then Sweden, Finland and soon Denmark have joined the common Nordic Power Pool (Nordpool), the European Community has taken the first step towards deregulation and most other industrialised nations are preparing for some degree of deregulation of their power markets. The implementations vary, from the present single power exchange introduced in the 1990s in the UK, to the Norwegian model where, in addition, bilateral contracts are options for all market participants, including household consumers. Deregulation is moving forward in the US. A few ISOs have been formed and are operating. In the Western US system the California ISO is operational. Effort is still under way by FERC to accelerate the formation of Regional Transmission Organisations (RTO) with the goal in place to have RTO plans formulated by the end of 2000, and the RTOs operational by the end of 2001. South America started out early by deregulating bulk power trading and followed up by deregulating the transmission sector. As an example Brazil recently passed bills to provide open access both within transmission and distribution. In Europe the network operations have been kept as monopoly operations. Even though the energy market is deregulated, network operation is seen as a natural monopoly and network owners, private and public, have been granted a monopoly under government supervision. In the U.S.A, Australia and New Zealand this concept has been challenged and competition has been introduced also with respect to transport services. The argument is that only the core part of the system operations tasks, such as security and co-ordination of operations, is really monopoly or government responsibility. 50 At the time of writing this Report, the Nordic countries and UK are fully exposed to deregulation. The rest of the European countries (following the EC deregulation process) and Japan have variations of deregulation of the wholesale market. Despite these differences, it can be argued that even a modest deregulation, like energy wholesale through IPPs, will create a situation where flow patterns can no longer be predicted with certainty. Thus all countries deregulating are facing a situation where the system of the future must be able to cope with potentially large variations in flow patterns. 4.3 Unique requirements for Open Access Networks and how FACTS can help Applications of FACTS devices are, clearly, not restricted to Open Access Networks. In general they are one amongst several options for realising transmission capacity, damping power oscillations, controlling voltage profiles and stability, and limiting overloading in case of faults. However restricting ourselves to Open Access Networks and FACTS, we should question what the unique requirements of Open Access Networks are and how FACTS devices can help meet them. In an Open Access Network the Market is dominant. The transmission providers must ensure that the transmission services do not constrain the development of the energy market. In other words the Market dictates the flow patterns and the goal of the transmission providers must be to meet its demands both in the short and long term. Satisfying this demand is more difficult in a deregulated market than in the old centrally planned situation. More uncertainty in the planning of new generation directly leads to more uncertain future transmission demands. This uncertainty related to future flow patterns favours a transmission system that is flexible in the sense that it must be able to accommodate all the future possible flow scenarios. FACTS devices for power flow control provide an attractive option to meet this situation. In the UK a trend towards building gas turbine units with fairly short planning and construction times have dramatically reduced the time available for planning and installing the related network reinforcements. The increased speed of change and environmental constraints on new transmission lines will lead to increased utilisation of the existing system. To push transmission capacities to the limit there is a need for flow control in existing systems. Similar needs are observed even in countries where production capacity is not expanded, but where increased power input from neighbouring countries have met an increase in domestic demand. FACTS devices are obvious candidates for controlling flows on parallel paths and over interconnections in competition with line upgrading or static flow control devices. In operations, the trend in the Nordic system is that the market wants to trade closer and closer to the operating hour. Currently the standard timeframe is to close the market a day ahead, in the future trading up to less than an hour ahead of real time is foreseen. This trend leaves less and less time for operational planning and interacting with the market to ensure system security, and pushes the system planner and operator towards automating services for handling deviations from the agreed exchanges to ensure system security. 51 Usually a regulating or balancing market takes care of the mismatch between power delivered and power demanded, manually or automatically operated. For taking care of system security ancillary services like power reserves allocation and stability control (power oscillations, transient stability, subsynchronous resonance etc) are needed. With hardly any time for security planning, both detecting the need for such services and calling upon them will have to rely on remote control and a large degree of automation, again favouring FACTS type of devices. Besides the ancillary services described, FACTS can be used in different ways for leading transits inside given corridors see Figure 1. These methods based on research activities see reference [1] for more details - are somewhat academic because of the investment cost, but can give transit paths that do not influence the neighbouring power systems. Actual investigations have been undertaken to check the feasibility of the methods in large power systems. Those investigations are based on steady - state power flows. After the determination of the best locations for the FACTS elements the additional advantages e.g. the fast control possibilities for power oscillation damping (POD) can be investigated. Figure 1: Direct and indirect method for leading transits Another operational aspect is the need to control across-the-border power transfer to accommodate market agreements and security requirements. The whole problem of loop flows and how to control across-the-border trade is discussed in chapter 5 on FACTS and Large Interconnected Systems. In a common access bulk transmission system similar to the one in the Nordic countries, there is an overall objective to utilise the system as a whole, given the needs of the market. In this scheme there is no need to control across the border flows due to contract or domestic security reasons, the flows are controlled seeing the bulk transmission system as a whole. In a transmission path based system, as at present in the U.S.A., there is an inherent need to control the flow on all lines in the system according to contracted paths of transmission. Pushed to the extreme, this scheme favours a pure DC, or heavily FACTS based ac system where line flows can be set at will. However the trend in the USA is to form large Regional Transmission Organisations (RTO) and internalise loop flow. E A D B C F F F F F E A D B C F F F F F F 52 Bottlenecks can then be addressed in a reasonable manner. In the past phase shifting transformers were often installed as protection against the unwanted effects of the schedules of other companies. The RTOs are a requirement of restructuring. Another area of application of FACTS devices is related to distributed small-scale power production in weak regional or distribution networks. Wind turbines, solar power, tidal power and small-scale hydro plants provide power when the source is available and not when demanded by the consumer. This mismatch is a challenge for power quality and flow control in traditionally radial distribution systems. In such a scenario FACTS devices can serve as power quality and flow controllers to ensure the customer receives the same quality of supply to which he is accustomed. In summary FACTS devices can help meet the requirements of Open Access Networks in the following ways: Provide flow control (load sharing and interconnection flow) Increase transmission capacity i.e. increase utilisation of existing transmission capacity. Improve stability and damping control Provide enhanced security control Provide ancillary services Help post fault system recovery and control Control small scale distributed power input in weak networks 4.4 Case studies. The cases discussed in this section are relevant to the study of or use of FACTS devices to meet Open Access conditions. Uses of FACTS to meet more general system expansion needs are not included. UK The increase in requirement was driven by multiple individual generation connection applications. The timescale for treating each of these, and the need to contain risk meant that solutions were sought within existing technologies, using circuit thermal uprating, rearrangement of connections and thyristor based SVCs and mechanically switched capacitors. These alone were insufficient, however, and further improvement in load sharing i.e. power flow control was needed to avoid a requirement for new circuits. This was achieved by specifying five 400 kV quad boosters or phase shifters on North-Midlands circuits and a trans-Pennine circuit, to balance flows. These are the UKs first at this voltage and rating (2000 MVA) but the technology is well known (smaller, 275 kV, examples have operated satisfactorily for many years) and designers could readily model and specify them. Three of these large quad boosters are now commissioned at Legacy and Stocksbridge substations, the remaining two (now at 2750 MVA each) are scheduled for Keadby in 2001. Each has a boost/buck tapping range of 20%. 53 Two further 400 kV 2750 MVA units are to be installed at High Marnham and Staythorpe in 2002. Whilst the system is voltage constrained and requires reactive compensation equipment, uncertainties in generation siting mean that some areas may require voltage support at short notice, due to generation closure, whereas new generation openings may reduce requirements elsewhere. As a consequence NGC now requires new reactive compensation plant to be readily relocatable. Specifications were developed for relocatable -0/+60 Mvar SVCs for transformer tertiary connection, and ten of these were commissioned by the end of 1998. Elimination of a dedicated transformer means these modular devices can be dismantled and reassembled at a new site in less than three months. Phase Shifting Transformer (phase shifters) interconnecting France and I taly The European Directive, introducing competition in the electricity market, requires a better market liquidity between the numerous European partners. Wishing to increase this market liquidity and to allow all market actors better interconnection access, EDF has studied various means to increase the existing exchange transfer capacity between France and Italy. Building a new 400 kV overhead line between the two countries would encounter severe problems, and therefore phase shifting transformers appeared to be the most practical and efficient solution. The interconnection between France and Italy consists of a high capacity two circuit 400 kV line (north Albertville Rondissone line) and a weaker one circuit 400 kV line (south 54 Figure 2: EHV network between France and Italy. The south line has a far lower capacity than the north line, which raises two problems: - It does not allow optimum use of the water resources in the Alps region: In case of contingency of the double north line, the power flowing from France transfers to the south line, which can become overloaded if the flows are too high. To avoid this problem, specific security rules have been designed as to reduce preventively the use of local hydroplants. The consequences are economic (congestion management calling for the substitution of hydro power by more expensive energy) and environmental (the corresponding energy will have to be produced by thermal plants which emit pollutants (CO 2 , No x , SO 2 ). - It does not enable to increase the European exchanges: due to important loop flows in the highly meshed European network, this low transfer capacity corridor creates congestion on other interconnections (overloads between France and Italy generally involve limitations of the level of exchanges between France and Switzerland, France and Germany and even France and Belgium). As a result, the French Transmission System Operator (TSO) may not be able to satisfy all demands for transactions toward Italy or other countries, and despite the opening of the Internal Electricity Market (IEM), may hinder the market liquidity. Of course, the most efficient solution would be to build a new 400 kV line between the two countries. However, this construction seems barely possible in the foreseeable future. Therefore the FACTS solution was adopted. It was shown that the main constraints would occur on the south line in the case of the loss of one of the circuits of the two-circuit north line, or in the case of a loss of a tower (simultaneous loss of both circuits). To cater for these conditions, the phase-shifter must induce an adjustable additional phase angle on the south line to operate as a flow regulator, bucking the power in the line. Used then as a power limiter, the phase-shifter makes it possible, after an outage, to avoid overloads on the low capacity south line, and to better use the transmission margins available on the north Albertville La Bathie Grande le Le Cheylas Coche Vaujany Super- Bissorte Praz St Andr Villarodin Venaus Piossasco ITALY To Rondissone Phase Phase Shifter Shifter FRANCE 55 line (if one circuit is available) or on further lines in case of double contingency. The hydroplants located near to the south line can then be used more effectively, and the level of exchange with Italy may be increased - as well as the global exchange capacity between France and her eastern neighbours. In the case of the interconnection between France and Italy, the phase shifting transformer size was calculated so as to allow a sufficient bucking action to avoid the south line load to reach its thermal capacity rating, until the secondary control start to provide additional power from Italy. Simultaneously, the control law of this device was determined so as to comply with all possible events. The advantages and disadvantages of both preventive (pre- contingency) or corrective (post-contingency) actions were considered. In this work, active power flow studies were performed by the means of the graphic deterministic XPLOR tool, in which phase shifting transformers are modelled. Then, economical considerations aimed at checking the profitability of the phase shifter were treated with the METRIS and OPERA tools, designed for snap shot and yearly studies taking into account both the hydro resources and the power system. As a result, EDF has decided to install a 2 x 270 MVA phase shifter located at La Praz substation. The PST maximum phase shift has been specified to be 15, so as to enable the power system to remain stable after the loss of the double north line. An automatic controller will alter the phase shift according to the situation and the kind of event: in normal operation, the phase angle will be set near to zero so as to avoid disturbances for the Italian TSO. The phase angle will be shifted to its maximum for the most severe contingency (loss of the double line). German feasibility studies This section is a summary of the feasibility study undertaken by FGH in close co-operation with DVG and others. For more detailed information please see the CIGRE paper reference [2]. In addition information is presented concerning various research projects that arose from the recommendations of the feasibility study described. The feasibility study was carried out for a model power system representing the behaviour of the German bulk power system. Realistic transmission scenarios were investigated as well as realistic demand forecasts. The system contains about 200 Generators, the total load was 45 GW and the length of the overhead lines usually double circuit varies between 30 km and 100 km. The following questions regarding of the use of FACTS were investigated: Can FACTS elements be integrated into planning in addition to classical components? What technical and operational prerequisites for the use of FACTS have to be satisfied in an electric power system, and what consequences result therefrom? Do FACTS elements show an economic benefit or do they contribute to a more efficient network operation? 56 To what extent can other investments into the network development be delayed through the use of FACTS elements? As a first step, load-flow and stability analyses were used as a basis to determine the possible applications of FACTS elements for the purpose of: Load-flow control and realisation of the network's inherent transmission capacity in the (n-1) case, Improvement of system voltage control and Improvement of the system dynamic behaviour. After determining the particular applications, the technical, operational and economic advantages and drawbacks of this equipment were compared with conventional solutions. On the basis of model transmission scenarios, the impact that the use of FACTS elements for load-flow control would have on interconnected operation under competition aspects was subsequently, analysed and conclusions drawn as to the technical, operational and organisational consequences. Furthermore, the required investment expenditure was assessed by means of specific examples of transmission reinforcement projects. FACTS devices can be used in two principal ways: for line current limitation on a temporary basis or for load flow control on a permanent basis. The load flow analyses lead to the conclusion that the application of FACTS is not necessary for permanent action in the scenarios that were investigated. For temporary action the analyses lead to two situations where FACTS can be used for this purpose. Figure 3 shows an interesting situation for the possible FACTS application for power flow control. Overload of 46 % occurs in the case of a single circuit outage. Need of two control elements each 150 MVA Centre position of the investigated system. SVC, STATCOM and UPFC were the options investigated 57 Figure 3. The dynamic investigation led to the conclusion that transient stability is only slightly improved. The resulting transient voltage reductions are similar with and without FACTS. As alternatives the operation with conventional equipment was investigated. Series reactors, quadrature booster transformers and the construction of new lines were compared with FACTS. Figure 4 shows the results of the economical analyses assuming a service life of 30 years. The series reactor is used as reference. The FACTS elements are twice as expensive. The alternative of building a line will be more costly and faces environmental and institutional difficulties. 340% 220% 100% 160% 390% 180% -35% 0% 200% 400% GTO-CSC TC-QBT TCSC Conventional QBT Series reactor AC line, loss reduction low AC line, loss reduction high Figure 4. The use of FACTS for permanent operation was investigated for leading transits to a given transit channel. Here different solutions are possible. A reasonable solution will be the not completely led transit i.e. not all participating lines of the chosen transit channel are 150 MVA 150 MVA E F 58 equipped with FACTS devices. The disadvantage is that the neighbouring system can experience additional load flows. If only current limitation on one or several circuits is required in the case of failure, reactors or conventional quad boost transformers will constitute the most economically favourable variants. The investigated FACTS elements stand out for their fast controllability; furthermore they are able to efficiently improve the system performance with regard to oscillation damping as well as transmission and voltage stability. However, as compared to conventional equipment, FACTS elements give rise to higher investment costs. The construction of new lines, on condition that they can be put through, constitutes the most long-term economic solution. A further aspect is the use of FACTS elements for power-flow control in a competitive environment. The use of several FACTS elements in different partner networks, possibly for different purposes, is likely to necessitate in most cases a co-ordination of the mode of operation. This leads to the use of a superordinate master controller that calculates, for example, the target values of control voltages to be adjusted on the different FACTS devices. None of the investigated scenarios revealed that the use of a large number of FACTS elements in the network with fast local control would adversely affect the characteristics of oscillation damping. The advantage of power electronic and conventional control elements lies in their mobility. Therefore, when dimensioning the control elements, it should be possible to assess in advance the requirements of the location with a view to a later shift. The results of the study refer to the conditions of a closely meshed German 380 kV network with generation close to consumption centres. The results and the examples used differed considerably from the studies implemented in other countries, particularly in the USA. These countries have mostly installed their generation remote from consumption centres, which means long transmission distances and long transmission lines. The resulting large distances between substations and the tendency towards system oscillations - in contrast to the network conditions in Germany - give rise to a more efficient application of fast acting power-flow control equipment. Poland Several studies have been performed in Poland, projects aimed mostly at controlling the flow of power domestically and cross-border to its neighbours. Beside load flow analysis, transient stability conditions and the need for damping of low frequency power oscillations have also been checked. Within Poland some new mechanically controlled FACTS (400/220 kV autotransformers in quadrature or skew ratios) are planned in order to control unbalanced loading of parallel 220 59 and 400 kV systems. Technical and economic assessments showed that power electronic FACTS controlled devices were too expensive and their fast response performance was not needed. Several cross-border flow control projects are at the study/planning stage: - Existing two 220 kV lines interface at the Polish-Czech border operate in parallel with the double-circuit cross-border 400 kV line, and tend to be overloaded in single contingency conditions. It has been concluded that conventional Mechanical Phase Shifters (QBT type) controllers are efficient countermeasures and should be preferred economically to upgrading lines. - A 240 km long, + 450 kV HVDC cable link between Southern Sweden and Northern Poland, with two 600 MW converter stations is expected to be commissioned in 2000. The converters will be equipped with fast load control devices, measures for mitigating SSR resonance and if needed with controllers for damping LF oscillations (being thus counterparts of fast FACTS-controllers). - Studies performed together by Poland and Lithuania proved the usefulness, in 2005 of a 400 kV AC double-circuit link, interconnecting both countries systems through a back-to-back HVDC station 600 MW (or 2 x 600 MW) on the Lithuanian side. A definitive decision concerning the implementation of this project has not been taken yet. - In the Southeast the present 750 kV AC line between Chmielnicka Nuclear Power Plant (Ukraine) and the 750/400 kV substation in Rzeszw (Poland) is permanently de - energised because of the impossibility of running the two systems in synchronism. Studies have been made to show the effect of installing back-to-back (DC/AC/DC) equipment in Rzeszw, transferred and reutilized from Etzenricht and/or Vienna-South. Implementation will possibly be in 2005 but the decision depends yet on bilateral agreements between Polish and Ukrainian sides. Norway A series of studies of possible applications of FACTS devices was initiated in 1995 see reference [3] for more detail. The most promising component was a TCSC. A model for studying TCSC and/or UPFC performance in relation to flow and stability control in PSS/E was developed and tested. The studies showed that a TCSC could increase the transfer limits from west to east in the southern part of Norway by means of flow control. A similar study was done to test out the performance of a UPFC. The network configuration is shown in figure 5. A TCSC would also increase the flow limit for the existing lines between the northern and southern part of Norway by increasing the transfer level at which power oscillations occurred. 60 A similar study of the exchange between the southern part of Norway and Sweden is described in the following section. The results from other studies indicate that TCSCs are effective for handling oscillations between areas. Their effect in meshed systems is not as obvious, and depends on careful tuning of the regulators. Implementation is still considered feasible but a decision has not yet been taken because of the high cost of the devices. So far traditional, manually controlled devices seem sufficient and represent a less costly alternative. Figure 5: Load flow control between middle and eastern part of Norway. Sweden and Norway The demand for increased transfer capacity on the Hasle interconnection has risen during the 1990s mainly as a consequence of market reforms / deregulation in Norway and Sweden. Active power flows derived from different market reactions have forced main grid operation in southern Sweden to extremes. Different FACTS applications together with classic grid reinforcements have therefore been evaluated. Svenska Kraftnt and Statnett presented, in 1997, a feasibility study on a TCSC application in the Hasle interconnection between Sweden and Norway see reference [4] for more details. A TCSC was shown to be effective for damping of electromechanical power oscillations in the Hasle intersection. Electromechanical power oscillations are however not the single most important limiting phenomenon in this interconnection. Many of the issues related to energy transit must be solved before any UPFC TCSC Kl bu Aura Vgmo Nea P P Xc n Po Po -3 0 3 0,7 1,3 P P P 1 1 2 2 61 common bilateral investments of considerable proportions are taken. Economic criteria have led to a FACTS-solution not being adopted due to the very long payback period. Sweden Subsynchronous resonance: An evaluation of performed feasibility studies at Svenska Kraftnt clearly showed that a TCSC-solution was the most effective measure to handle subsynchronous resonance at the nuclear plant Forsmark 3. Technical as well as economical realities disqualified other solutions. The TCSC at Stde was commissioned in 1998. The project is described in a Cigr report (D.Holmberg, M.Danielsson, P.Halvarsson, L. ngquist: The Stde Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor, paper 14-105, CIGRE session 1998). Small scale generation/weak networks: In 1997, ABB Power Systems and GEAB, the local power supplier, agreed to install the worlds first HVDC Light transmission system on the Swedish island of Gotland, in the Baltic Sea. GEAB is a subsidiary of Vattenfall, which is financing the project together with the Swedish National Energy Administration. In recent years the emerged market reforms together with the push for renewable forms of energy have brought wind power mills into focus on the island of Gotland. Installed capacity has greatly expanded on the southern tip of the island while the main load area is the city of Visby some 70 kilometres to the north. Today the island needs additional transmission capacity and better means of maintaining good power quality. Rated at 50 MW the HVDC Light link will connect the windmill park with the Visby load area. The link will run in parallel with existing AC connection. The link is based on HVDC Light technology, with voltage source converters (VSC) and two extruded HVDC Light cables. The main advantages that qualified an HVDC Light solution were: Rapid control of both active and reactive power, giving a high level of power quality Minimal environmental impact Connection to weak AC network Preassembled enclosures, which reduces civil work, installation and commissioning to a minimum. Cost effective with a favourable payback time. TEN-Study: New HVDC Electricity Links between Central Europe and Scandinavia The TEN-Study was initiated by plans for three new HVDC-cable connections between Scandinavia and Central Europe see Figure 6. The participants in the study are Norway, Sweden, Germany and the Netherlands. The main technical task of the study is to investigate the interaction of the different power systems involved. Therefore three working groups (System Interaction Common, System 62 Interaction Norway, and System Interaction Continent) have been established to deal with particular aspects of the complete system. The investigations deal with short circuit analysis oscillatory stability (inter - area oscillations) of the interconnected systems transient behaviour of the system for faults in different systems (transient and dynamic stability) transient overvoltages harmonic interaction between the converters. According to the time schedule the complete study will finish in autumn 2000. GERMANY POLAND 0 Equivalent, buses machines Equivalent buses machines Detailed model Equivalent UCTE system Figure 6: Overview of the investigated power system The East-West High Power Transmission System In 1994 a feasibility study was initiated on the East-West High Power Transmission System. The linking of the four power systems of Russia, Belarus, Poland and Germany was investigated with a maximum east-west load flow of approx. 4000 MW. The following alternatives have been investigated: HVDC transmission system between Smolensk and Frankfurt via Minsk, Warsaw and Berlin with 5 converter stations, one for each partner (multiterminal). 63 750 kV AC lines with HVDC back-to-back stations in Smolensk and Minsk. Utilising the existing grid with some reinforcements and a HVDC back-to-back station between Belarus and Poland. The comprehensive feasibility study has been undertaken with the following main objectives: Investigate various options ; alternating and/or direct current (technical, system- strategic, ecological and economic aspects) Preliminary determination of transmission line routes and location of substations Determination of nominal electrical parameters (transmission line capacity, voltage, losses, electromagnetic fields, radio interference, etc.) Loadflow and stability calculations Analysis of expected future power production situation of the partners Determination of economic effects and conditions of power exchange Estimation of expected investments for considered variants Clarification of financing possibilities Evaluation of the benefits of the variants for the partners Clarification, presentation and evaluation of the advantages and risks of realising the variants Definition of the preferential variant for the high power transmission system Clarification, presentation and evaluation of the economic, legal and political conditions for the joint realisation of the project Definition of the status of power transmission system including clarification of legal possibilities in the event of a joint realisation of the project especially regarding the question of the creation of a joint-venture company with the following possible tasks: planning, projecting, construction, question of ownership, control, operation and maintenance. The investigation was performed for the years 2005 and 2010 taking into consideration that the UCPE and the Unified Power System (UPS) are not synchronously connected. Because of technical, ecological and economic reasons the + 500 kV Multi-Terminal HVDC Interconnection was the preferred option. The cost details refer to a DC line with two bipoles and a conductor cross section of 4 x 564/72 ACSR for each pole. The following route was assumed having a total length of app. 1800 km: Smolensk (Russia) Minsk (Belarus) Warsaw/Ciechanow (Poland) Berlin (Germany, VEAG) Frankfurt a. M. (Germany, PE). Figure 7 shows the route of the East-West High Power Transmission System as planned as a consequence of the 1994-feasibility study. In the meantime further studies have been performed and the planning has been extended to include the future (possible) Baltic Ring. A feasibility study is presently being undertaken which includes the High Power Transmission System and the Baltic States. The actual planning of the HVDC multiterminal system consists of 7 locations with 9 converters (Fig. 8) with stations in Germany (2), Poland, Russia (Kaliningrad), Lithuania, Belarus and Russia (Smolensk). 64 Figure 7: Route of the East-West High Power Transmission System (Planning 1994). Figure 8: Route of the East-West High Power Transmission System (Planning 1997) 65 After completing the study, which was funded by The European Community (TEN), in spring 2000 the conclusions regarding the future of the HVDC-connection can be summarised: The overhead-line route starting in Wahle (Germany) to Smolensk (Russia) has a total length of about 2000 km. Official approval of this route seems to be possible. The available transmission power of the HVDC line is 4000 MW. The reliability of the supply exceeds the reliability of comparable power plants. The economical assessments are positive, given the different load characteristics as well as time zone differences (1 2 h). The main advantage is given by transmission of middle and peak load power as well as by reserve power. Compared to the transport of gas the HVDC transmission has nearly the same cost of investment as well as comparable losses. The main advantage of the HVDC is that operation is bi - directional. The implementation of this project is dependent upon the need for/timing of additional power plants and/or the refurbishment of existing power plants in the western part. The HVDC alternative has economical advantages compared to the costs of building new plant. [1] Schnurr, N.; Weber, Th.; Wellow, W.H.; Wess, Th.: Load flow control with FACTS devices in competitive markets. DRPT London April 2000 [2] R.Gampenrieder et al. Load Flow control in EHV networks. Feasibility study on the possibilities of application of FACTS elements in the German power system. CIGRE 1998. SC 14 110. [3] EFI TR A4376, Grande/Fosso/Gjerde/Hernes/Uhlen: HVDC and power electronic components (FACTS) Technical status, network analysis and possible utilization in the Norwegian main grid. December 1995. [4] Svenska Kraftnt, Statnett: Innledande studie av systemmessige forhold med to TCSC- anlegg med demperegulering i Hasle-snittet, common report 1997. 66 CHAPTER 5. OPEN ACCESS AND LARGE SYSTEMS 5.1 Introduction. FACTS have been commissioned around the globe for many years. As the FACTS definition has deliberately been enlarged to the most classic and basic devices in this survey, we can state that the first FACTS devices were installed during the 30s, long before open access perspectives. At this very first stage, the main idea which drove such commissioning was to increase the natural load of a specific high impedance electric path, or to allow a better load sharing of local unbalanced parallel electric links. Better management of reactive power of more stable network behaviour were also in the scope of a better utilisation of assets in specific more or less constrained areas. The problem today is not different while the electric utilities often focus on more advanced power electronic devices: 1) The most classic devices are still used to allow a more balanced use of parallel electric links and a better loop flow management, to relieve congestion and redistribute flows to relieve overloads, 2) More advanced devices are used for reactive power management and low voltage profiles which are generally a consequence of the load increase in electric lines, 3) To help to keep the system stable and robust to all events which could possibly affect the static or dynamic stability of the network. In all cases, the problem is local (limited to a corridor, the interconnection between two regions) and generally due to either an increase of energy transfer through this corridor or this interconnection, or a drastic change of load flow pattern compared to what was scheduled at the planning stage. The local characteristic of such problems is easy to demonstrate. In the same way as for road networks, weak capacity portions always create congestion also called bottlenecks in the power industry. Then, in all countries, capacity or other technical restrictions on high voltage networks are always concentrated in a few specific areas, always well addressed by Engineers. They often correspond to regions of highly growing development, or places where a network reinforcement (new line, refurbishment of existing assets) was decided but never commissioned, mostly for political or environmental reasons. The main other reasons of such bottlenecks (or even limited transfer capacity from one spot to an other due to voltage or stability problems) come from the world-wide evolution which affect more and more the scene of the electricity sector, and rapidly change the hypothesis used during the last decades of network development and planning. Deregulation of the electricity sector, development of open access, birth of a European Internal Electricity Market (IEM) are all the cause of the problem which will be considered in the following in two stages according to the market force (national and international). 67 5.2 Use of FACTS for National Open Access Open access in most countries involves generally well known consequences. While the right for any customer to choose from a range of supplier remain a subject of subsidiarity of each European member states (notion of eligibility), more and more have the choice to contract electricity purchase to numerous generating companies which compete for market. It implies that: 1) Electricity transits pattern resulting from contracts arrangement are more and more driven by the market rather than the long term equilibrium which was involved by a long term vertically integrated development policy ; 2) Bulk electricity transfer is more and more concentrated in denser geographical corridors which form between two specific areas: some areas where for numerous reasons the settlement of new generators attracted by low price generation prospects is facilitated, and some areas where industry and energy customers gather and concentrate. Numerous examples of such situations exist in many countries and the situation sometime arises where local network transfer capacity increase are required as to follow the development of bilateral contracts (or even to allow the access of an increasing number of actors to some electricity markets of pools). Many examples show that in such situation, classic or more advanced FACTS were used to allow additional implementation of generating assets; chapter 4 relates some cases where one or several FACTS devices were specifically installed conjointly to the connection of a new power plant or a new IPP (which without the FACTS would have been substituted to an other higher costs generator, better located from the network point of view). The problem to solve was to increase the global transfer capacity of a given corridor by a better balance between different lines with different impedances, different compositions (OHL versus cables) or different capacities, or was to manage loop flows and load sharing of different voltage equipment. It could also have been the need for voltage support due to this higher power concentration or system stability support within security limits. In many cases, FACTS do not provide additional system capacity, and have limited life in their application. In other cases, it is not possible to envisage the connection of additional generators or IPPs without envisaging the development of the system with new assets (lines or cables). Such situations well predicted in advance are one of the reasons why FACTS tend to be relocatable (another reason is the fluctuating character of generating units profitability or life). 68 5.3 International Scale Open Access and FACTS. The question, which should be dealt with, is to what extent FACTS could provide suitable solutions to enhance the open access at larger scales than regional, for power transactions between countries or some group of countries. One of the best examples for such a case is the European Internal Electricity Market (IEM) which is emerging from the European Community Directive, and progressively being implemented by all European Community countries. Long term collaboration in electricity exchanges took place long ago between different European partners. Such exchanges were common agreement among the members of the synchronous zone of former UCPTE (now become UCTE), and UCPTE had exchanges with other interconnected areas such as CENTREL, NORDEL, SUDEL and England and Wales (connected to the rest of Europe by an HVDC link) which were themselves practising energy exchange within their zone of synchronism. It is important to note that due to those very long term political and financial involvements, the European transmission grid developed as it is now, with specific cross-border tie lines commissioned between long term exchanging countries. Following the European directive and all matters involved in the unbundling of former vertically integrated companies, the market structure of European exchanges is experiencing drastic changes. To promote competition on the generation business, the directive requires an extreme market liquidity in parallel to a non-discriminatory access to the network for all actors to be granted by the TSOs. The TSOs are responsible for: 1) the non discriminatory allocation of capacity on international tie-lines, 2) the management of congestion which should be as efficient as possible as to enhance the market liquidity, 3) the assessment of system security (operational planning duties and real time security assessment). At the heart of Open Access is the consumers right to choose supplier at will. This implies that the customer and the supplier in principle make deals independent of the physical transmission capacity of the transmission network. The market is right and the main purpose of the transmission system is to enforce as few restrictions as possible on the marketplace. It can be argued that open access does not change the power flow in the distribution system compared to the old scheme. The flow is mainly given by the power demanded by the consumer and not by which bulk supplier he buys power from. The conclusion would be that the load demanded by the customers its serving still would dimension the distribution system. The market influence is restricted to how price variations affect the amount of power demanded. For the transmission system the situation is different. It is fully exposed to the changes caused by open access. Markets decide where and when power is produced, and dictate the flow pattern in the transmission system. The equilibrium of flow patterns generated by the long 69 term, stability oriented, vertically integrated (often national or regional) utilities no longer applies. Experience from the development of the Nordic power market indicates that these challenges follow the expansion of the marketplace. When the Norwegian market became a Nordic market, the congestion at the border tie lines were similar to any market restricting lines within Sweden or Norway. The transition from a national to an international marketplace based on open access included both technical and cultural aspects. Technically there are now no national borders, only congested tie-lines between areas, but the cultural and political aspects demand that the specific national interests of consumers and producers be considered and addressed. It is also now recognised that in a true open access market, the theory is that economic incentives slowly will remove nationally based restrictions as the advantages become obvious and as trust between the participants is established. Enhancing market liquidity and satisfying all market actors requests for transactions involves an efficient treatment of congestion which by nature limits the number of transactions, the number of request of network access and thus hinder international trade. In the short term and for limited volumes of exchanges, congestion treatment may be envisaged by specific congestion management methods which are to be chosen by the member states, the TSOs and according to the severity of the congestion; some congestion may also be cleared out by the way of technical means (FACTS are one option). But anyhow, it is obvious that structural congestion must call for much more efficient and durable solutions such as network reinforcements, or more generally the development of interconnections. Let us examine those points with the western and central European countries, where traditions for balancing supply with demand within the nations have put restrictions on power exchange across national borders. The situation is that with open access introduced and consumers starting to see the results of market freedom within the country, they progressively ask why they cant start buying power from neighbouring country suppliers at lower prices. Then some specific trends have been emerging from a few years experience of open access at the European system scale: In most cases, the electricity market is extremely volatile and for different reasons (electricity price, demand,) is constantly changing, sometimes several times a day. It is particularly the case for all transactions towards electricity pools, short terms markets such as intra day markets, spot markets etc. Bottlenecks within Europe and between countries could be classified into two groups. A first one would be the group of congestions, occurring on very special situations of network topology, and for non-typical load generation schedules (forced outages situations, typical day-off in some countries involving particular load pattern, etc). Such situations are scarce, generally forecasted and are specifically addressed by adequate preventive measures. A second group gathers the well known and well located more severe structural congestion, which are occurring most of the year and are created by strong and constant unidirectional demand of unidirectional transactions. Among this second group, some congestion have a long existing record and are mostly linked to a new network reinforcement project which was postpone or cancelled; others are newer, and are the consequence of new market trends i.e. when the market is extremely profitable in one 70 specific direction with very high profit expectations attracting too many market actors. For European examples of such structural bottlenecks, one may quote the interconnections Holland-Belgium-France-Germany, or France-Spain, or even the international links with Italy. The requests of IPPs or large generators to access specific high profit zones is such that the corresponding global volume of request (in MW) sometime exceeds by several times the actual existing or available capacity. For instance, in November 1999, during the reservation process of interconnection capacity for importation to Holland, the sum of the firm requested capacity allocation was more than 10,000 MW to be compared with an actual available capacity of 800 MW (the first declarations of intention went up to a total request of 350,000 MW of capacity). As a matter of fact, the pro-rata allocation principle chosen by the Dutch Regulator led to an allocation of 5.3 MW for each one of the transactions. Such extreme example shows that some markets like the APX in Holland or other markets in Europe are so attractive for market actors that any interconnections leading to the supply of such markets will always be over-requested and thus always used up to their full transfer capacities, while several transactions will have to be limited to avoid congestion. Such example also shows that market liquidity in so congested interconnections may be an unreachable target. The analysis of those specific aspects of large system scale bottlenecks brings the question whether devices such as FACTS may be well adapted to the problem. Two different groups of congestion, respectively coherent with two different time frames can be envisaged. The short term challenge or managing unexpected congestion A market settlement might be infeasible due to a lack of transfer capacity in the transmission system while it involves congestion that in some way must be managed. In the short term, one has to make the best use out of the system at hand. The following figure - Figure 1 -illustrates what type of limits that cause congestion and the role of FACTS devices in alleviating the congestion. Figure 1 - Security limits on interconnections. Operational line limit Stability limit (with FACTS) Thermal limit (without FACTS) Security margin Thermal limit (with FACTS) Stability limit (without FACTS) L i n e
l o a d i n g 71 In this example dynamic stability is the limiting phenomena. If the stability problem can be managed, the thermal limit of the heaviest loaded line in the interconnection is limiting. FACTS devices might help control the dynamic stability problem to move it behind the thermal limit of the interconnection, and help distribute the power flow more evenly among the lines in the interconnection (a security margin is added to the most limiting security problem). It should be noted that operating lines to their thermal limits increases losses significantly and this has to be taken into account in the economic appraisals. A competitor to FACTS devices for stability control is traditional control systems. For flow control, the alternative is traditional devices like capacitor banks or phase shifters. In the last case the flexibility and robustness of FACTS devices can be met with relocatable traditional devices. The long term challenge or managing structural congestions While the challenge in operations is to minimise the restrictions put on the market by the transmission system under changing flow patterns, the long term problem is to find out how and when to increase transmission capacity. FACTS devices can help utilise the existing system components up to their thermal limits but not beyond. The remaining alternatives are to increase the system transfer capacity or to increase production at the load side of the interconnection. The long-term challenge is a complex incentive problem, and will not be dealt with here except for pointing out that it has a strong relationship with how economics of short-term congestion are handled. Who gains and who loses due to operating restrictions form incentives for addressing system expansion. A real competitor to technical solutions: Economic tools for congestion management A simple and elegant way of handling congestion is by means of economic tools. For instance, dividing the market into price areas or using buy-back or buy-forward to avoid bottlenecks are already well proven techniques in several energy markets. Capacity allocation on different economic basis are also a solution. In all cases, economic tools put the cost of congestion on somebody. Then, the size of the cost over time will decide at which moment a FACTS device for flow control or a system expansion project is the better option. Economic tools for congestion management can therefore be said to serve two purposes. They handle unexpected congestions a lot cheaper that expensive control or FACTS equipment, and they provide a motive for such devices or system expansion when congestions are persistent over time. 5.4 Tentative Conclusions. One of the main challenges for Large Open Access Systems is handling bottlenecks in the system, created by a mismatch between the desire of the marketplace and the transmission systems physical capability. 72 FACTS devices provide Open Access systems with flow- and stability (voltage and power oscillations) control functionality, and are as such one of several options for increasing the systems physical capacity. Their main advantage over transmission line expansion and traditional flow control units is that they are more robust with respect to varying flow patterns. The main disadvantage is that they do not really increase capacity, they only enable the utilisation of the systems maximum capacity, usually to the thermal limit. To this regard, one can see that the treatment of international congestion with FACTS remains essentially a local and very limited issue unable to provide sufficient further transmission capacity on the interconnections leading to real market liquidity. One of the main competitor to physical flow control (or stability enhancement devices) are economic tools for handling bottlenecks, mainly cross-border co-ordinating redispatching (also called counter trading in the Nordic Countries) price areas (in countries where spot market exist), or numerous capacity allocation mechanisms based on Auctioning. Trading can be used both ways to fully utilise a path: cross-border co-ordinating redispatching when power flow is too high and parallel trading when not fully utilised. Note however that except cross-border co-ordinating redispatching, all those economic mechanisms allow to fully use capacities but do not really provide new room for international trade by physical capacity enhancement. The economic control schemes also put the cost on somebody, creating a motivation for spending money on physical flow control devices or on capacity expansion. This leaves a space for FACTS devices between economic control schemes and real physical capacity expansion (new lines, upgrading old lines..). This space is presently independent of network tariff scheme. In a point tariff system the TSO will seek to optimise operations by minimising bottleneck costs (and losses), having to face the long term risk involved in answering the question: Should I use my economic tools, should I invest in control (FACTS & other control options) or expand capacity? In a contract path system, as in the U.S.A, with many independent transmission providers it seems to be more of a challenge to come up with a regulatory concept that gives the correct signals to address the same problem i.e. finding the right balance between economic tools, control and expansion. When it comes to actual examples of the use of FACTS devices in relation to open access, the obvious examples are tied to increasing the capacity on interconnections as shown in some of the case studies in chapter 4. When it comes to security enhancement like stability control or fault trajectory control, it remains to be seen if the cost of the devices can give them a role in the mentioned space between economic tools and system capacity expansion. 73 CHAPTER 6. ECONOMIC EVALUATION OF FACTS DEVICES. 6.1 Introduction. Except in situations, where the application of FACTS devices is required by technical necessity or where very strict environmental constraints make impossible or prohibitively costly extensions to an existing network, the use of FACTS devices is most often optional. The preferred reinforcement option, for any particular situation, will depend on the results of comparisons of the different possible solutions available, with and without the application of FACTS devices. In these complex comparisons, economic factors will often be the most important consideration that determines whether or not FACTS equipment is used. Shortage of adequate meaningful information on FACTS device initial costs (present and in the future) is one of the main factors which limits the accuracy level of any economic calculations undertaken when justifying their use. The principal objective of this chapter is to establish a credible base of coherent specific cost data for various FACTS controller types which can be used in cost - benefit or feasibility analyses. Other objectives of the chapter are: To identify the main reasons of FACTS controller cost discrepancies. To assess the actual and maximum achievable accuracy levels for FACTS device specific costs. This level should be taken into account when determining acceptable simplifications in performing economic analyses. 6.2 FACTS controllers estimated specific costs. Table 1 presents an overview of presently available information on specific investment costs for various FACTS controllers and for their conventional counterparts. This information is derived, in the main, from FACTS installations commissioned prior to 1996, with some information from studies concerning post 1996 projects. Before commenting upon the mutual coherence and goodness of the collected information for performing economic analyses which it is suggested anyway are limited to feasibility study level - a short critique of the source information material is needed. 74 Most of the source material, particularly that showing relatively good coherence, is concerned with the North American market. This is to be expected given the fact, that for over 10 years the appropriate source publications were sponsored and co-ordinated in the USA by the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI). Of the source materials used, the most valuable was the report [1] which contains, besides the bare values of specific costs levels, information about how the investment cost structure and its components have been used as a basis for the calculation of specific cost Of the other source materials utilised and quoted in [1] as original, most came from EPRI co- ordinated and sponsored studies. In particular one was a scoping and overview study, which tried to define the dispersion range for the estimated specific costs for different controllers types. The remaining material is based upon specific FACTS controllers application studies for various utilities. A significant feature was that most of the aforementioned studies were technical in nature and tended to treat the question of devices investment costs in a less than rigorous manner. Given the above observations the following reservations arise concerning the coherency and goodness of the specific costs quoted in Table 1: The dispersion (spread) of the estimated values is distinctly greater for new FACTS device types. This is obviously logical, bearing in mind the following: the very small number of installations, i.e. the results are highly dependent upon particular projects and their specific local conditions, most installations were prototype in nature. At the same time it is interesting to note that there is considerable disparity even between the specific costs for the established FACTS devices (for example SVCs). The most likely explanation is that the device specific costs have been assembled from the component costs in an incomplete and inconsistent manner. Another sources of inconsistency in the FACTS controllers specific costs may arise because of the use of different definitions for controllers ratings. For example an SVC is assigned a rating possibly the larger but not the sum of the inductive and capacitive outputs. Confusion also seems to arise between the continuous and short-term ratings of FACTS devices. Reference 1 suggests a methodology for improving the accuracy and coherency of FACTS device specific costs. An important drawback of the data presented in Table 1 specific costs is their relative obsolescence. (This remark concerns mostly the newest of the considered FACTS devices - TCSC, STATCOM, TCPST, SSSC and UPFC).
75 For these controllers it would be useful to undertake additional investigations, analysing in the first instance the probable costs reductions over next 5 or 10 years due to various reasons e.g. technological advances, standardisation of certain solutions, quantitative increase of production and sales. 1)
6.3 Conclusions. The general conclusion (drawn from analysis of Table 1) is that the cost data presented is not consistent, for the reasons given, and should be used with care when undertaking economic analyses. Clearly sensitivity studies must be undertaken using the variations indicated. However the data given in Table is a useful compilation of existing data and can be used as the basis for further more accurate cost information compilation. References: [1] J.Van Coevering et al. The next generation of HVDC. Needed R and D Equipment costs and cost comparisons. Paper on the Conference: The Future of Power Delivery, April 1996, Washington. [2] EPRI TR 112965 Application of FACTS Technology to the Polish Power Grid EPRI, Palo Alto CA, PPGC Warsaw Poland, 1999. 1) In [1] it was mentioned, that such a short analysis had been performed in 1996 by the two (of three) major vendors operating on American market for HVDC turnkey costs estimating the probable reductions of these costs. 76 Table 1. Specific costs of different FACTS devices and their conventional counterparts (1) Specific cost (C s ) $/ kVA, $/ kVAr 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1. Shunt controllers 1.1 Shunt capacitors (conventional) 1.1.1 8 most references in USA [1] 1996 1.1.2 10 +/ -10% E P RI -EL-6943 1990 1.2 SVC 1.2.1 45 referred to sum of inductive and capacitive ratings [1] Chester (550MVAr) SVC actual costs 1990 1.2.2 45 E P RI -TR-103167 1993 1.2.3 40 - 30%+50% E P RI -EL-6943 1990 1.2.4 80 seems to be too high E P RI -TR-103641 1993 1.2.5 35- 50 [1] ABB- sales estimate 1995 1.2.6 35 [2] cited after EPRI spnsored study for a USA utility 1996 1.3 STATCOM and/ or shunt porti ons of UPFC 1.3.1 48 GE / TV A- I EEE paper (cited in [1]) 1994 1.3.2 50 [1] Westinghouse- sales estimate 1995 1.3.3 80 as in 1.2.6 position (above) 1996 2. Series controllers 2.1 Series capacitors (conventional) 2.1.1 20 +/ -25% included costs of devi ces f or SSR mitigation E P RI -EL-6943 1990 2.1.2 10 E P RI -EL-6943 vol.I I 1991 2.1.3 13 E P RI -TR-103641 1993 2.1.4 20 E P RI -TR-103167 1993 2.2 MC PST ( PAR, QBT) - mechanically switched phase shifters 2.2.1 20 +/ -15% E P RI -EL-6943 1990 2.2.2 10-20 E P RI -TR-103904 1994 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Year of publication No. Devi ce Comments Source of information 2) Dispersion range of C s value 77 Table 1 (cont.) 1.1.1 additional comments to table 1 1) Data taken mostly from publication [1], containing information from before 1996, completed by some more recent information from other sources, collected in [2]. 2) Publication number codes, quoted in column 6 of table above as original sources of information denote reference numbers of EPRI and EPRI sponsored publications 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 2.2.3 30 PST( QBT type, 220kV 50 MVA) [2], based on ABB- Elta (Poland) budget prices 1998 2.3 T CSC 2.3.1 40 - 30%+50% E P RI -EL-6943 1990 2.3.2 32,5 E P RI -EL-6943 vol.I I 1991 2.3.3 40 E P RI -TR-103641 1993 2.3.4 40 E P RI -TR-103167 1993 2.4 TCPST ( TCPAR, TCQBT) - thyristor switched phase shifters 2.4.1 50-100 strongly dependent on configuration E P RI -TR-103904 1994 2.5 SSSC or seri es porti ons of UPFC 2.5.1 50 [1] Westinghouse- sales estimate 1995 2.5.2 80 [2],cited, after EPRI sponsored study for a USA utility 1996 78 CHAPTER 7. CONCLUSIONS. This Report is intended to be a Planners Guide to FACTS applications in the context of Open Access Transmission networks. FACTS technology and their areas of application have been reviewed; also a number of case studies are described which it is hoped will be helpful to Planners of transmission networks. A wide range of analytical techniques is described. The information provided is mainly related to European experience and is a snapshot of the situation in a fast developing scene. This report has described a number of FACTS devices, the result of 10 years or more of development. It seems certain that developments of FACTS technology will continue aimed at finding flexible control devices to meet the needs of deregulated systems whilst continuing to strive for lower costs. Deregulation and the opening of electricity networks to facilitate competition has led to changes in power flow patterns in transmission networks, previously planned on an integrated basis. It has also led to much uncertainty in the way markets for new generation and customers will evolve making planning of transmission networks more difficult. Measures such as relocatability of transmission plant, as described in the Report, are meant to address this aspect. However another important measure is system flexibility and an ability to control or channel flows so as to make maximum use of existing networks. Building new lines against uncertain future transmission needs is difficult particularly in view of environmental concerns. FACTS devices do not provide new transmission capacity but they will certainly remove constraints and enable improved use of existing transmission networks, and are capable of fast control. Where new lines are not an option their application must be compared with conventional methods e.g. network rearrangement, circuit upratings or the use of phase shifters which are often quite adequate. FACTS device economics as shown in this Report are difficult to establish there is limited information available, mainly from prototypes, and quite understandably manufacturers are reluctant to provide information for planning purposes against the background of a limited number of applications. The consequence of these factors is that in most cases conventional measures e.g. the use of phase shifters will be adequate and more economic than FACTS devices. One of the main challenges of large international open access systems is handling bottlenecks or congestions in the system, created by mismatch between the desire of the marketplace and the transmission networks physical capabilities. In this context the treatment of congestion with FACTS devices remains essentially a local and very limited solution unable to provide sufficient further transmission capacity on the interconnectors leading to real market liquidity. 79 APPENDICES. APPENDIX 0.1. Terms of Reference of the Joint Working Group - FACTS Technology for Open Access. Background: New institutional arrangements are evolving almost everywhere, implying increased access to the transmission networks. This will probably create the need to better control the sharing of power flows on parallel lines. It also leads to more heavily loaded networks and possible associated voltage and stability problems. Moreover, in a very competitive environment, utilities will try to limit investments as much as possible and possibly favour FACTS based solutions. Scope. The JWG will focus on power electronics devices, but also cover conventional devices such as phase shifters and HVDC links, applied to power systems. The following tasks will be undertaken: 1. Summarise available information on realised FACTS controllers for different applications (why they were installed, how they are operated and which benefits they provide for electric systems). Present future trends concerning FACTS technology. 2. Summarise planning methods and simulation tools to study and evaluate FACTS applications. 3. Analyse the use of FACTS controllers in the system focusing on the applications to support Open Access and extension of large interconnections. Evaluate economic and technical justification of FACTS controllers for these applications. Deliverables and Original Time Schedule: Installation of the JWG March 1998 Beginning of the work May 1998 Interim Report Duration 24 months Final Report Duration 12 months 80 APPENDIX 0.2 Joint Working Group Contributing Members List. Mr Maurice G Dwek, Consultant, UK (Convenor) Mr Eric G Cleobury, National Grid Company, UK. (Secretary) Dr Mircea Eremia University POLITEHNICA at Bucharest, Romania. Mr John Loughran Alstom, Power Electronic Systems, UK Mr Pierre Pramayon EDF, France. Dr Rolf Witzmann Siemens AG, Germany. Dr Thomas Weber Forschungsgemeinschaft fur Elektrische Anlagen und Stromwirtschaft e. V. Abt. SY, Germany. Dr Petter Stoa SINTEF Energy Research, Norway. Per Halvarsson ABB Power Systems AB, Sweden. Dr Maciej Kula. T & D Engineering and Consulting Company, Poland. Mr Carlos Gama. ONS, Brazil. Mr.Carson W Taylor. BPA, USA. 81 APPENDIX 3.1 Additional Information on Economic Tools The ESCORT Tool (NGC) ESCORT 2 (Economic and Secure Costing of Options for Reinforcement of Transmission) as the expansion of the acronym suggests was originally designed to aid transmission system development decisions and is used daily within NGC to evaluate the cost of a portfolio of different investment options. The program was developed in-house, after a comprehensive review of other software options had shown that the required functionality was not available at that time. - In operational planning timescales ESCORT is used to evaluate the expected transmission constraint uplift costs of different transmission maintenance plans and; - In the commercial planning timescales ESCORT is used daily to evaluate the expected transmission constraint uplift costs against a range of uncertainties (e.g. generator costs and availability) and can thus be used for contract assessments. As indicated ESCORT is designed to assist in the assessment of changes to the transmission system by calculating the economic/financial benefit of transmission reinforcement. It does this by producing transmission reinforcement constraint forecasts, outage constraint forecasts and losses forecasts. It contains data for a full year, and is used for weekly or yearly forecasts and rapid costing of transmission system or outage change proposals. The model can also aid the economic selection of generation based on generator running costs. It contains a full DC network model and automatically produces a DC (i.e. thermal) security constrained system. ESCORT includes the following features: - Input data major time slice is a week. This is broken down into two day-types of weekday and weekend, each consisting of up to eight demand blocks. The blocks are of a number of hours (fixed for the whole year per block (at a demand level, produced using a load duration curve with the assumption that the same generation output will be on at all times of the same demand level. Each time block of weekday/weekend has a certain demand level in terms of percentages of the national peak demand and any voltage or stability limits. - A full DC network model including pre-fault, post-fault short-term and post-fault continuous ratings for each season and assumptions made on pre-fault flow (refined during the year).
2 R M Dunnett, J F Macqueen, Transmission Planning by Monte Carlo Optimisation, 10 th Power System Computation Conference (PSCC), Graz, Austria, August 1990 82 - The planned outages of generators and transmission equipment can be modelled either probabilistically or deterministically based on known or typical outage patterns. A substation configuration changes and demand transfers under different demand level and different outage patterns can also be modelled. - The unplanned outage of generators can be modelled by using breakdown rates to scale back the unit MW output. - Multiple generation merit orders can be accommodated, for example to take account of different generator running costs or bidding behaviour in different seasons. - Standard protection measures (under circuit faults), including the use of system-to- generator intertrips are modelled. - Post-fault actions taken by system operator to relieve system limitation, e.g. generator output increase or decrease, and quadrature booster tap change, are also modelled. The main output from the model is cost and energy volume (GWh) of constraints, in total and by individual generator. Forecasts of the cost and volume associated with the transmission i 2 r losses are also produced. By applying actual data (circuit outages, running arrangements, voltage/stability, generator availability and bids), the model can be checked post-event, and individual indicative retro costs for all circuits can be produced. The SAMLAST Tool (the NORDEL) Samlast is a model for the calculation of socio-economic benefits of transmission capacity in the power grid. It integrates market simulations (Energy Management and Power Simulation model) with load-flow analyses. As the model is unique it provides a substantial improvement in relation to earlier models when it comes to simulations of main grid utilisation in a market- based power system dominated by hydropower. Since there are increased efficiency demands on the parts of the electricity supply industry that have a monopoly and there are also income limits on electricity delivery, it will become increasingly important to make correct decisions about grid reinforcements. The model provides many results that had not been available earlier. This will give a significant improvement in the calculation of the utility values for different components in the power system. Energy losses and loss utilisation times may be calculated for single lines or sections of the grid, and mean yearly energy delivery can be calculated from the simulations. With 60 years of inflow statistics and four price area levels for each week, a total of 12 480 load-flow situations can be analysed. The Samlast model can calculate issues such as load duration, the power loss and loss periods for individual power lines or the whole network. The model is utilised by the main grid companies in Norway, Sweden and Denmark. With detailed data for the production system, main grid and the market in the Nordic countries, this is the most comprehensive model for power system simulations available in Scandinavia today. 83 The METRIS Tool (EDF - France) The tool METRIS is used to measure the networks capacity to handle the power transactions by assessing both operating costs and transaction reliability. It is also used by network planners and operational planning teams to identify network constraints and to assess where reinforcements are most needed to reduce operating costs or match power transactions. METRIS meets those needs in three ways: Operating costs : for each utility, METRIS computes the operating costs, taking into account the availability of generating units and transmission lines, Transaction reliability : METRIS determines the reliability of each transaction while taking into account network constraints, considering a preventive security criterion, Weak points: METRIS identifies weak point where increased transmission capacity offers significant improvements in operating costs or transaction reliability. The assessment of network adequacy and transaction reliability is made possible by using a probabilistic approach (like the EDFs MEXICO model, now replaced by METRIS). To model interconnected power systems operated by independent utilities, METRIS introduces new modelling concepts. Power transfer contracts are explicitly represented. Simultaneously, the balance between generation, load and transfers is reached for each utility. Moreover, each randomly generated scenario is analysed to minimise an objective function including operating costs as well as an indication of contract renegociation possibilities. METRIS superimposes a model of the electrical system and a model of inter-utility transactions. This enables the user to measure the power transfer capabilities of the different utilities. A graphic, interactive post-processor offers efficient resources for the detailed analysis of the numerous results. This reinforces the interest of the probabilistic approach. Although METRIS uses new modelling concepts, it is based on a tried-and-tested probabilistic approach and sound algorithms. The approach and algorithms are similar to those that have proven their performance with MEXICO, an EDF software adopted by a large number of utilities. Working in a probabilistic framework, the algorithms can handle large networks while taking into account a wide range of contingency constraints. These advantages are further improved by METRIS with the detailed analysis of the transactions between the interconnected networks. 84 BIBLIOGRAPHY. 1. A-A. Edris et al. Proposed Terms and Definitions for Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS) IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol. 12 No 4, October 1997 pp. 1848 2. CIGR Working Group 38-05 Analysis and Optimization of SVC Use in Transmission 3. CIGR Task Force 38.01.06 Load Flow Control in High Voltage Power Systems Using FACTS Controllers (CIGR Edition, January 1996) 4. IEEE/ CIGRE FACTS Working Group FACTS Overview April 1995 5. CIGR Technical Brochure: Thyristor Controlled Series Compensation (CIGR Working Group 14-18) (the date of edition will be completed) 6. T. Jauch et al. Operational Aspects and Benefits of Interphase Power Controllers with Conventional or Electronically Switched Phase Shifting Devices. A Robust FACTS Application. CIGR Session, Paper 38-101, 1998 7. J. Brochu et al. 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