Vitamin A (Retinol)

HYG-5551-05
This fact sheet is one in a series containing information to help you select foods that provide adequate daily amounts of
vitamins, minerals, and dietary fiber. The Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee just released the Dietary Guidelines
for Americans 2! that convey the follo"ing nine major messages concerning these topics#
Adequate nutrients "ithin calorie needs
$eight management
%hysical activity
&ood groups to encourage# fruits and vegetables, "hole grains, and nonfat or lo"'fat mil( and mil( products
&at
Carbohydrates
)odium and potassium
Alcoholic beverages
&ood safety
What is the importance of vitamin A?
*itamin A, a fat'soluble vitamin, plays essential roles in vision, gro"th, and development+ the development and
maintenance of healthy s(in, hair, and mucous membranes+ immune functions+ and reproduction.
How much do you need?
*itamin A is also called retinol. ,easurement of the amount of vitamin A is ta(en in retinol activity equivalents -.A/0.
Carotene, an orange pigment found in food, is split by the body to become t"o active units of vitamin A. This is also
important "hen calculating the amount of vitamin A in the body.
The 1.). .ecommended Daily Allo"ance -.DA0 for vitamin A is 2 .A/ per day for "omen and 3 .A/ per day for

Vitamin A: What is it?
*itamin A is a family of fat'soluble compounds that play an important role in vision, bone gro"th, reproduction, cell
division, and cell differentiation -in "hich a cell becomes part of the brain, muscle, lungs, etc.0 45'!6. *itamin A helps
regulate the immune system, "hich helps prevent or fight off infections by ma(ing "hite blood cells that destroy
harmful bacteria and viruses 45,7'56. *itamin A also may help lymphocytes, a type of "hite blood cell, fight infections
more effectively.
*itamin A promotes healthy surface linings of the eyes and the respiratory, urinary, and intestinal tracts 486. $hen
those linings brea( do"n, it becomes easier for bacteria to enter the body and cause infection. *itamin A also helps
maintain the integrity of s(in and mucous membranes, "hich also function as a barrier to bacteria and viruses 43'556.
.etinol is one of the most active, or usable, forms of vitamin A, and is found in animal foods such as liver and "hole
mil( and in some fortified food products. .etinol is also called preformed vitamin A. 9t can be converted to retinal and
retinoic acid, other active forms of the vitamin A family 456.
%rovitamin A carotenoids are dar(ly colored pigments found in plant foods that can be converted to vitamin A. 9n the
1nited )tates, appro:imately 27; and <=; of vitamin A consumed by men and "omen, respectively, is provided by
provitamin A carotenoids 456. Common carotenoids found in foods are beta'carotene, alpha'carotene, lutein,
>ea:anthin, lycopene, and crypto:anthin 4556. ?f the !7< identified carotenoids, fe"er than 5; are precursors for
vitamin A 4526. Among these, beta'carotene is most efficiently converted to retinol 45,5<'5!6. Alpha'carotene and beta'
crypto:anthin are also converted to vitamin A, but only half as efficiently as beta'carotene 456. @ycopene, lutein, and
>ea:anthin are carotenoids that do not have vitamin A activity but have other health promoting properties 456. The
9nstitute of ,edicine -9?,0 encourages consumption of carotenoid'rich fruits and vegetables for their health'promoting
benefits.
)ome carotenoids, in addition to serving as sources of vitamin A, have been sho"n to function as antio:idants in
laboratory tests. Ao"ever, this role has not been consistently demonstrated in humans 456. Antio:idants protect cells
from free radicals, "hich are potentially damaging by'products of o:ygen metabolism that may contribute to the
development of some chronic diseases 4<,5='5!6.
What foods provide vitamin A?
.etinol is found in animal foods such as "hole eggs, mil(, and liver. ,ost fat'free mil( and dried nonfat mil( solids
sold in the 1nited )tates are fortified "ith vitamin A to replace the amount lost "hen the fat is removed 4576. &ortified
foods such as fortified brea(fast cereals also provide vitamin A. %rovitamin A carotenoids are abundant in dar(ly
colored fruits and vegetables. The 2 Bational Aealth and Butrition /:amination )urvey -BAAB/)0 indicated that
major dietary contributors of retinol are mil(, margarine, eggs, beef liver and fortified ready'to'eat cereals, "hereas
major contributors of provitamin A carotenoids are carrots, cantaloupes, s"eet potatoes, and spinach 4526.
Animal sources of vitamin A are "ell absorbed and used efficiently by the body. %lant sources of vitamin A are not as
"ell absorbed as animal sources. Tables 5 and 2 suggest many sources of vitamin A and provitamin A carotenoids 4586.
a!"e 1: #e"ected anima" sources of vitamin A $1%&
'ood Vitamin A ()*+, -.V,,
@iver, beef, coo(ed, < ounces 22,58! !=!
@iver, chic(en, coo(ed, < ounces 52,<2! 2=!
,il(, fortified s(im, 5 cup ! 5
Cheese, cheddar, 5 ounce 28= 7
,il(, "hole -<.2!; fat0, 5 cup 2=3 !
/gg substitute, C cup 227
!
a!"e /: #e"ected p"ant sources of vitamin A (from !eta-carotene+ $1%&
'ood Vitamin A ()*+, -.V,,
Carrot juice, canned, D cup 22,!72 =!
Carrots, boiled, D cup slices 5<,=58 22
)pinach, fro>en, boiled, D cup 55,=!8 2<
Eale, fro>en, boiled, D cup 3,!!8 53
Carrots, 5 ra" -2D inches0 8,777 52!
*egetable soup, canned, chun(y, ready'to'serve, 5 cup !,82 55!
Cantaloupe, 5 cup cubes !,=55 55
)pinach, ra", 5 cup 2,85< !!
Apricots "ith s(in, juice pac(, D cup 2,7< =
Apricot nectar, canned, D cup 5,7!5 <!
%apaya, 5 cup cubes 5,!<2 <
,ango, 5 cup sliced 5,272 2!
?atmeal, instant, fortified, plain, prepared "ith "ater, 5 cup 5,2!2 2!
%eas, fro>en, boiled, D cup 5,! 2
Tomato juice, canned, 7 ounces 853 5!
%eaches, canned, juice pac(, D cup halves or slices =2< 5
%each, 5 medium <53 7
%epper, s"eet, red, ra", 5 ring -< inches diameter by C inch thic(0 <5<
7
F 91 G 9nternational 1nits.
FF D* G Daily *alue. D*s are reference numbers based on the .ecommended Dietary Allo"ances -.DAs0. They "ere
developed to help consumers determine if a food contains a lot or a little of a nutrient. The D* for vitamin A is !,
91. ,ost food labels do not list vitamin A content. The percent D* -;D*0 column in the table above indicates the
percentage of the D* provided in one serving. A food providing !; or less of the D* is a lo" source "hile a food that
provides 5'53; of the D* is a good source. A food that provides 2; or more of the D* is high in that nutrient. 9t is
important to remember that foods that provide lo"er percentages of the D* also contribute to a healthful diet. &or foods
not listed in this table, refer to the 1.). Department of AgricultureHs Butrient Database $eb site#
http#II""".nal.usda.govIfnicIcgi'binInutJsearch.pl.
What are recommended inta0es of vitamin A?
.ecommendations for vitamin A are provided in the Dietary .eference 9nta(es -D.9s0 developed by the 9nstitute of
,edicine -9?,0 456. D.9 is the general term for a set of reference values used for planning and assessing nutrient
inta(e in healthy people. Three important types of reference values included in the D.9s are Recommended Dietary
Allowances -.DA0, Adequate Intakes -A90, and Tolerable Upper Intake Levels -1@0. The .DA recommends the
average daily dietary inta(e level that is sufficient to meet the nutrient requirements of nearly all -32'38;0 healthy
individuals in each age and gender group 456. An A9 is set "hen there are insufficient scientific data to establish a .DA.
A9s meet or e:ceed the amount needed to maintain nutritional adequacy in nearly all people. The 1@, on the other hand,
is the ma:imum daily inta(e unli(ely to result in adverse health effects 456.
9n Table <, .DAs for vitamin A are listed as micrograms -mcg0 of .etinol Activity /quivalents -.A/0 to account for
the different biological activities of retinol and provitamin A carotenoids 456. Table < also lists .DAs for vitamin A in
9nternational 1nits -910, "hich are used on food and supplement labels -5 .A/ G <.< 910.
a!"e 1: 2ecommended .ietary A""owances (2.As+ for vitamin A
A3e
(years+
4hi"dren
(mc3 2A5+
6a"es
(mc3 2A5+
'ema"es
(mc3 2A5+
7re3nancy
(mc3 2A5+
8actation
(mc3 2A5+
5'<
<
-5, 910
='8
=
-5,<2 910
3'5<
7
-2, 910
5='58
3
-<, 910
2
-2,<5 910
2!
-2,! 910
5,2
-=, 910
53K
3
-<, 910
2
-2,<5 910
22
-2,!7! 910
5,<
-=,< 910
There is insufficient information to establish a .DA for vitamin A for infants. A9s have been established based on the
amount of vitamin A consumed by healthy infants fed breast mil( -Table =0 456.
a!"e 9: Ade:uate )nta0es (A)s+ for vitamin A for infants
A3e (months+ 6a"es and fema"es (mc3 2A5+
'7 = -5,<2 910
2'52
! -5,7! 910
The BAAB/) 999 survey -5388'533=0 found that most Americans consume recommended amounts of vitamin A 4536.
,ore recent BAAB/) data -5333'20 sho" average adult inta(es to be about <,< 91 per day, "hich also suggests
that most Americans get enough vitamin A 426.
There is no .DA for beta'carotene or other provitamin A carotenoids. The 9?, states that consuming < to 7 mg of
beta'carotene daily -equivalent to 8<<'5,772 91 vitamin A0 "ill maintain blood levels of beta'carotene in the range
associated "ith a lo"er ris( of chronic diseases 456. A diet that provides five or more servings of fruits and vegetables
per day and includes some dar( green and leafy vegetables and deep yello" or orange fruits should provide sufficient
beta'carotene and other carotenoids.
When can vitamin A deficiency occur?
*itamin A deficiency is common in developing countries but rarely seen in the 1nited )tates. Appro:imately 2!,
to !, malnourished children in the developing "orld go blind each year from a deficiency of vitamin A 456. 9n the
1nited )tates, vitamin A deficiency is most often associated "ith strict dietary restrictions and e:cess alcohol inta(e
4256. )evere >inc deficiency, "hich is also associated "ith strict dietary limitations, often accompanies vitamin A
deficiency. Linc is required to synthesi>e retinol binding protein -.M%0 "hich transports vitamin A. Therefore, a
deficiency in >inc limits the bodyHs ability to mobili>e vitamin A stores from the liver and transport vitamin A to body
tissues 456.
Bight blindness is one of the first signs of vitamin A deficiency. 9n ancient /gypt, it "as (no"n that night blindness
could be cured by eating liver, "hich "as later found to be a rich source the vitamin 426. *itamin A deficiency
contributes to blindness by ma(ing the cornea very dry and damaging the retina and cornea 4226.
*itamin A deficiency diminishes the ability to fight infections. 9n countries "here such deficiency is common and
immuni>ation programs are limited, millions of children die each year from complications of infectious diseases such as
measles 42<6. 9n vitamin A'deficient individuals, cells lining the lungs lose their ability to remove disease'causing
microorganisms. This may contribute to the pneumonia associated "ith vitamin A deficiency 42,7'26.
There is increased interest in subclinical forms of vitamin A deficiency, described as lo" storage levels of vitamin A
that do not cause overt deficiency symptoms. This mild degree of vitamin A deficiency may increase childrenHs ris( of
developing respiratory and diarrheal infections, decrease gro"th rate, slo" bone development, and decrease li(elihood
of survival from serious illness 42='2!6. Children in the 1nited )tates "ho are considered to be at increased ris( for
subclinical vitamin A deficiency include#
toddlers and preschool age children+
children living at or belo" the poverty level+
children "ith inadequate health care or immuni>ations+
children living in areas "ith (no"n nutritional deficiencies+
recent immigrants or refugees from developing countries "ith high incidence of vitamin A deficiency or
measles+
children "ith diseases of the pancreas, liver, or intestines, or "ith inadequate fat digestion or absorption.
A deficiency can occur "hen vitamin A is lost through chronic diarrhea and through an overall inadequate inta(e, as is
often seen "ith protein'calorie malnutrition. @o" blood retinol concentrations indicate depleted levels of vitamin A.
This occurs "ith vitamin A deficiency but also can result from an inadequate inta(e of protein, calories, and >inc, since
these nutrients are needed to ma(e .M% 456. 9ron deficiency can also affect vitamin A metabolism, and iron
supplements provided to iron'deficient individuals may improve vitamin A nutriture as "ell as iron status 456.
/:cess alcohol inta(e depletes vitamin A stores. Also, diets high in alcohol often do not provide recommended amounts
of vitamin A 456. 9t is very important for people "ho consume e:cessive amounts of alcohol to include good sources of
vitamin A in their diets. Ao"ever, supplemental vitamin A may not be recommended for individuals "ho abuse alcohol
because their livers may be more susceptible to potential to:icity from high doses of vitamin A 4276. A medical doctor
"ould need to evaluate this situation and determine the need for supplemental vitamin A.
Who may need e;tra vitamin A to prevent a deficiency?
*itamin A deficiency rarely occurs in the 1nited )tates, but the $orld Aealth ?rgani>ation -$A?0 and the 1nited
Bations 9nternational ChildrenHs /mergency &und -1B9C/&0 recommend vitamin A administration for all children
diagnosed "ith measles in communities "here vitamin A deficiency is a serious problem and "here death from measles
is greater than 5;. 9n 533=, the American Academy of %ediatrics recommended vitamin A supplementation for t"o
subgroups of children li(ely to be at high ris( for subclinical vitamin A deficiency# children 7 to 2= months of age
hospitali>ed "ith measles and hospitali>ed children older than 7 months 4226.
&at malabsorption can result in diarrhea and prevent normal absorption of vitamin A. ?ver time this may result in
vitamin A deficiency. Those conditions include#
Celiac disease#
?ften referred to as sprue, celiac disease is a genetic disorder. %eople "ith celiac disease are intolerant to a
protein called gluten found in "heat and some other grains. 9n celiac disease, gluten can trigger damage to the
small intestine, "here most nutrient absorption occurs. Appro:imately <; to 7; of people "ith celiac
disease have gastrointestinal'motility disorders such as diarrhea 4286.They need to follo" a gluten'free diet to
avoid malabsorption and other symptoms.
CrohnHs disease#
This inflammatory bo"el disease affects the small intestine. %eople "ith CrohnHs disease often e:perience
diarrhea, fat malabsorption, and malnutrition 4236.
%ancreatic disorders#
These often result in fat malabsorption 4<'<56, since the pancreas secretes en>ymes important for fat
absorption. $ithout these en>ymes, it is difficult to absorb fat. ,any people "ith pancreatic disease ta(e
pancreatic en>ymes in pill form to prevent fat malabsorption and diarrhea.
Aealthy adults usually have a reserve of vitamin A stored in their livers and should not be at ris( of deficiency during
periods of temporary or short'term fat malabsorption. @ong'term problems absorbing fat, ho"ever, may result in
deficiency. 9n these instances physicians may recommend supplemental vitamin A 436.
*egetarians "ho do not consume eggs and dairy foods need provitamin A carotenoids to meet their need for vitamin A
456. They should include a minimum of five servings of fruits and vegetables in their daily diet and regularly choose
dar( green leafy vegetables and orange and yello" fruits to consume recommended amounts of vitamin A.
What are some current issues and controversies a!out vitamin A?
Vitamin A, beta carotene and cancer
)urveys suggest an association bet"een diets rich in beta'carotene and vitamin A and a lo"er ris( of many types of
cancer 4<26. A higher inta(e of green and yello" vegetables or other food sources of beta carotene andIor vitamin A
may decrease the ris( of lung cancer 42,<<'<=6. Ao"ever, a number of studies that tested the role of beta'carotene
supplements in cancer prevention did not find them to be protective. 9n the Alpha'Tocopherol Meta'Carotene -ATMC0
Cancer %revention )tudy, over 23, men "ho regularly smo(ed cigarettes "ere randomi>ed to receive 2 mg beta'
carotene alone, ! mg alpha'tocopherol alone, supplements of both, or a placebo for ! to 8 years. 9ncidence of lung
cancer "as 58; higher among men "ho too( the beta'carotene supplement. ,ortality "as 8; greater in these men, as
compared to those receiving other treatments or placebo 4<!6. )imilar results "ere seen in the Carotene and .etinol
/fficacy Trial -CA./T0, a lung cancer chemoprevention study that provided subjects "ith supplements of < mg beta'
carotene and 2!, 91 retinyl palmitate -a form of vitamin A0 or a placebo. This study "as stopped after researchers
discovered that subjects receiving beta'carotene had a =7; higher ris( of dying from lung cancer 4<7'<26.
The 9?, states that Nbeta'carotene supplements are not advisable for the general population,N although they also state
that this advice Ndoes not pertain to the possible use of supplemental beta'carotene as a provitamin A source for the
prevention of vitamin A deficiency in populations "ith inadequate vitamin A nutritureN 456.
Vitamin A and osteoporosis
?steoporosis, a disorder characteri>ed by porous and "ea( bones, is a serious public health problem for more than 5
million Americans, 8; of "hom are "omen. Another 58 million Americans have decreased bone density "hich
precedes the development of osteoporosis. ,any factors increase the ris( for developing osteoporosis, including being
female, thin, inactive, at advanced age, and having a family history of osteoporosis. An inadequate dietary inta(e of
calcium, cigarette smo(ing, and e:cessive inta(e of alcohol also increase the ris( 4<8'=6.
.esearchers are no" e:amining a potential ne" ris( factor for osteoporosis# an e:cess inta(e of vitamin A. Animal,
human, and laboratory research suggests an association bet"een greater vitamin A inta(e and "ea(er bones 4='=56.
$orld"ide, the highest incidence of osteoporosis occurs in northern /urope, a population "ith a high inta(e of vitamin
A 4=26. Ao"ever, decreased biosynthesis of vitamin D associated "ith lo"er levels of sun e:posure in this population
may also contribute to this finding.
?ne small study of nine healthy individuals in )"eden found that the amount of vitamin A in one serving of liver may
impair the ability of vitamin D to promote calcium absorption 4=<6. To further test the association bet"een e:cess
dietary inta(es of vitamin A and increased ris( for hip fractures, researchers in )"eden compared bone mineral density
and retinol inta(e in appro:imately 2! "omen "ith a first hip fracture to 82! age'matched controls. They found that a
dietary retinol inta(e greater than 5,! mcgIday -more than t"ice the recommended inta(e for "omen0 "as associated
"ith reduced bone mineral density and increased ris( of hip fracture as compared to "omen "ho consumed less than
! mcgIday 4==6.
This issue "as also e:amined by researchers "ith the Burses Aealth )tudy, "ho loo(ed at the association bet"een
vitamin A inta(e and hip fractures in over 22, postmenopausal "omen. $omen "ho consumed the most vitamin A
in foods and supplements -greater than or equal to <, mcgIday as retinol equivalents, "hich is over three times the
recommended inta(e0 had a significantly increased ris( of e:periencing a hip fracture as compared to those consuming
the least amount -less than 5,2! mcgIday0. The effect "as lessened by use of estrogens. These observations raise
questions about the effect of retinol because retinol inta(es greater than 2, mcgIday "ere associated "ith an
increased ris( of hip fracture as compared to inta(es less than ! mcg 4=!6.
A longitudinal study in more than 2, )"edish men compared blood levels of retinol to the incidence of fractures in
men. The investigators found that the ris( of fractures "as greatest in men "ith the highest blood levels of retinol
-greater than 2! mcg per deciliter 4d@60. ,en "ith blood retinol levels in the 33
th
percentile -greater than 5< mcg per
d@0 had an overall ris( of fracture that e:ceeded the ris( among men "ith lo"er levels of retinol by a factor of seven
4=76. Ao"ever, high vitamin A inta(e does not necessarily equate to high blood levels of retinol. Age, gender,
hormones, and genetics also influence these levels. .esearchers did not find any association bet"een blood levels of
beta'carotene and ris( of hip fracture. .esearchersH findings, "hich are consistent "ith the results of animal, in vitro
-laboratory0, and epidemiologic studies, suggest that inta(es above the 1@, or appro:imately t"o times that of the .DA
for vitamin A, may pose subtle ris(s to bone health that require further investigation.
The Centers for Disease Control and %revention -CDC0 revie"ed data from BAAB/) 999 -5388'3=0 to determine
"hether there "as any association bet"een bone mineral density and fasting blood levels of retinyl esters, a form of
vitamin A 4=26. Bo significant associations bet"een blood levels of retinyl esters and bone mineral density in !,8
subjects "ere found.
There is no evidence of an association bet"een beta'carotene inta(e, especially from fruits and vegetables, and
increased ris( of osteoporosis. Current evidence points to a possible association "ith vitamin A as retinol only. 9f you
have specific questions regarding your inta(e of vitamin A and ris( of osteoporosis, discuss this information "ith your
physician or other qualified healthcare practitioner to determine "hatHs best for your personal health.
What are the hea"th ris0s of too much vitamin A?
Aypervitaminosis A refers to high storage levels of vitamin A in the body that can lead to to:ic symptoms. There are
four major adverse effects of hypervitaminosis A# birth defects, liver abnormalities, reduced bone mineral density that
may result in osteoporosis -see previous section0, and central'nervous'system disorders 45,=8'=36.
To:ic symptoms can also arise after consuming very'large amounts of preformed vitamin A over a short period of time.
)igns of acute to:icity include nausea and vomiting, headache, di>>iness, blurred vision, and muscular uncoordination
45,=8'=36. Although hypervitaminosis A can occur "hen large amounts of liver are regularly consumed, most cases
result from ta(ing e:cess amounts of the nutrient in supplements.
The 9?, has established Tolerable 1pper 9nta(e @evels -1@s0 for vitamin A that apply to healthy populations 456. The
1@ "as established to help prevent the ris( of vitamin A to:icity. The ris( of adverse health effects increases at inta(es
greater than the 1@. The 1@ does not apply to malnourished individuals receiving vitamin A either periodically or
through fortification programs as a means of preventing vitamin A deficiency. 9t also does not apply to individuals
being treated "ith vitamin A by medical doctors for diseases such as retinitis pigmentosa.
a!"e 5: o"era!"e *pper )nta0e 8eve"s (*8s+ for retino"
A3e
(years+
4hi"dren
(mc3+
6a"es
(mc3+
'ema"es
(mc3+
7re3nancy
(mc3+
8actation
(mc3+
'5
7
-2, 910
5'<
7
-2, 910
='8
3
-<, 910
3'5< 5,2 -!75 910
5='58 2,8 -3,2= 910 2,8 -3,2= 910 2,8 -3,2= 910 2,8 -3,2= 910
53K <, -5, 910 <, -5, 910 <, -5, 910
<, -5, 910
.etinoids are compounds that are chemically similar to vitamin A. ?ver the past 5! years, synthetic retinoids have been
prescribed for acne, psoriasis, and other s(in disorders 4!6. 9sotretinoin -.oaccutaneO or AccutaneO0 is considered an
effective anti'acne therapy. At very high doses, ho"ever, it can be to:ic, "hich is "hy this medication is usually saved
for the most severe forms of acne 4!5'!<6. The most serious consequence of this medication is birth defects. It is
extremely important for se:ually active females "ho may become pregnant and "ho ta(e these medications to use an
effective method of birth control. $omen of childbearing age "ho ta(e these medications are advised to undergo
monthly pregnancy tests to ma(e sure they are not pregnant.
What are the hea"th ris0s of too many carotenoids?
%rovitamin A carotenoids such as beta'carotene are generally considered safe because they are not associated "ith
specific adverse health effects. Their conversion to vitamin A decreases "hen body stores are full. A high inta(e of
provitamin A carotenoids can turn the s(in yello", but this is not considered dangerous to health.
.ecent clinical trials that associated beta'carotene supplements "ith a greater incidence of lung cancer and death in
current smo(ers raise concerns about the effects of beta'carotene supplements on long'term health. Ao"ever,
conflicting studies ma(e it difficult to interpret the health ris(. &or e:ample, the %hysicians Aealth )tudy compared the
effects of ta(ing ! mg beta'carotene every other day to a placebo in over 22, male physicians and found no adverse
health effects 4!=6. Also, a trial that tested the ability of four different nutrient combinations to inhibit the development
of esophageal and gastric cancers in <, men and "omen in China suggested that after five years those participants
"ho too( a combination of beta'carotene, selenium, and vitamin / had a 5<; reduction in cancer deaths 4!!6. ?ne
point to consider is that there may be a relationship bet"een alcohol and beta'carotene because men "ho consumed
more than 55 gramsIday of alcohol -appro:imately one drin( per day0 "ere more li(ely to sho" an adverse response to
beta'carotene supplementation in one lung cancer trial 456.
The 9?, did not set 1@s for carotene or other carotenoids. 9nstead, it concluded that beta'carotene supplements are not
advisable for the general population. As stated earlier, ho"ever, they may be appropriate as a provitamin A source for
the prevention of vitamin A deficiency in specific populations 456.
Vitamin A inta0es and hea"thfu" diets
According to the 2! Dietary Guidelines for Americans, NButrient needs should be met primarily through consuming
foods. &oods provide an array of nutrients and other compounds that may have beneficial effects on health. 9n certain
cases, fortified foods and dietary supplements may be useful sources of one or more nutrients that other"ise might be
consumed in less than recommended amounts. Ao"ever, dietary supplements, "hile recommended in some cases,
cannot replace a healthful diet 4!76.N &or more information about building a healthful diet, refer to the Dietary
Guidelines for Americans -http#II""".health.govIdietaryguidelinesIdga2!IdocumentIpdfIDGA2!.pdf0 and the
1.). Department of AgricultureHs food guidance system -,y %yramid+ http#II""".mypyramid.gov0.