Green Structure and Urban Planning

41cg61_hardcover 13-09-2005 11:57 Pagina 1
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COST Action C11

The funds provided by COST — less than 1 % of the total value of the projects — support the COST European cooperation in the field
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Green structure and urban planning — Final report

nanotechnologies, meteorology, environment, medicine and health, forests, agriculture and social
sciences. It covers basic and more applied research and also addresses issues of a pre-normative
nature or of societal importance.
Green structure
and urban planning
The European Science Foundation provides and manages the scientific

Final report
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COST is supported by the EU framework programme

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ISBN 92-898-0014-3
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41cg61_hardcover 13-09-2005 11:57 Pagina 2
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41CG61_Pages_lim 02-08-2005 07:44 Pagina 1
COST Action C11
Green structure
and urban planning
Final report
COST
European cooperation in the field of
scientific and technical research
COST Action C11
Green structure
and urban planning
Final report
Edited by
Ann Caroll Werquin, Bernard Duhem, Gunilla Lindholm,
Bettina Oppermann, Stephan Pauleit, Sybrand Tjallingii
Authors:
K. Attwell, A. Beer, J. Bendl, K. Bjornberg, M. Buizer, J. M. Chapa,
C. Costanzi, B. Duhem, U. Ellefsen, E. Erhart, M. Eronen, P. Grahn, G. Grundt,
S. Guldager, J. M. Halleux, P. Hanocq, I. Hanouskova, C. Harrison, K. Jorgensen,
E. Kaliszuk, T. Kucera, K. Lapintie, G. Lindholm, O. Maijala, B. Malbert, L. Martincigh,
M. Meriggi, S. Nyhuus, B. Oppermann, S. Pauleit, U. Reeh, G. Scudo,
S. Schöbel, A. Ståhle, R. Stiles, B. Szulczewska, S. Tjallingii, I. Vähä-Piikkiö,
A. Van Herzele, M. Vesely, K. Wagner, A. C. Werquin, K. Zaleckis
2005 EUR 21731 EN

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not directly available, but this was assumed to be not less than the amount used
in public areas. Thus, the minimum quantity of nutrients and organic matter from
organic waste products that can be applied in the urban green structure amount to
8 tonnes of N, 1.6 tonnes of P and 40 tonnes of sphagnum. In order to estimate the
maximum amount of organic waste products that can be applied within the urban
green structure having regard to environmental protection, the limits stipulated by the
Danish Ministry of the Environment (1996, 1998) were used. These limits are: 170
kg N ha-1, 30 kg P ha-1 and 15 tonnes of dry organic matter ha-1. With 2,750 ha. of
urban green structure available, the following quantities can be applied in Herning:
2750*170 kg N, 2750*30 kg P, and 2750*15 tonnes dry organic matter.
Information on the actual amounts of different fractions of organic waste produced
in the Municipality, the present treatment methods and the end use of products was
gathered, and illustrated in a single waste flowchart.
The figure shows that the Municipality of Herning uses most of its organic waste to
produce energy, so the motivation for using the local urban green structure in the han-
dling of organic waste is small. However, to complete the assessment of the potential
for using organic waste, the amounts of N, P and dry matter contained in the urban
fractions of organic waste, which was produced annually by the Municipality, were
calculated. Approximately 166 tonnes of N, 82 tonnes of P, and 8,459 tonnes dry mat-
ter in total are contained in these fractions. Compared to the minimum estimate, the
potential for the urban green structure to contribute to the handling of organic waste
in non-agricultural fractions by replacing purchased fertiliser and sphagnum is small.
It amounts to 5% of N, 2% of P, and 0.2% of sphagnum/organic matter. Compared to
the maximum estimate, the available area in the urban green structure just suffices in
terms of legal application of organic waste products.
In conclusion, the ongoing consumption of manufactured fertiliser and sphagnum
in parks and gardens was unnecessary and could be replaced by compost based on
garden and park waste.
Climate and Air

The prevailing westerly wind brings fresh air from the North Sea into the region.
Accordingly, protection by windbreaks has been necessary to support agricultural
production. Over the years, a network of pine and fir hedgerows has been created.
The hedgerows today virtually belong to the perception of the traditional landscape
in the region. Within the last few decades, however, these traditional hedgerows have
been replaced by deciduous trees and shrubs planted in three, five or seven rows.
Since agriculture on poor soils is no longer profitable, some of these areas have been
changed again to meadows or have been forested. The Danish Government and the
EU give financial support for these changes as part of a general nature protection and
forestation policy.
174
Cost-d-final.indd 174 15-07-2005 09:06:34

3 How are the character and functions of green structure considered in
land use/landscape planning? How are the character and functions being man-
aged to meet ecological and environmental goals?
Formal planning instruments - Danish planning regulations

The Danish planning system was changed radically in the 1970s with a new Planning
Act. According to the Planning Act three comprehensive planning levels were intro-
duced in local authorities, based on the principle of framework control. Local authori-
ties have to formulate plans for the total geographical expanse of the particular local
authority, including the countryside. Following an amendment to the Planning Act in
2000, an Agenda 21 strategy on environmental issues is now a compulsory part of
municipal planning.
Green areas are highlighted in the Planning Act as one possible category of land use
within towns and cities. Green structures connecting urban and rural areas are also
brought into focus. In the overall structure plan in Herning, green areas and green
structures are integrated.
A Green Plan presented by the Parks Department underlines traditional cultural and
recreational values, but does not specifically take the ecological potential of green
structure into consideration. But the Danish Nature Protection Act also places empha-
sis on planning activities and an Action Plan on the Protection of the Environment
has to be prepared by local authorities. In Herning, such a plan was first presented in
1993 and has since been evaluated and revised several times. Topics in the plan for
the period 2001-2006 include: health, noise, air pollution, and the protection of water
and soil resources, etc. Tools to support the plan include identifying indicators (birds
and fresh water conditions) and subjects of high priority (energy saving in industrial
production and transport planning to reduce vehicle movements).
Informal strategies
The actual handling of urban landscapes and potential for green structures is defined
by economic possibilities and by the experience and skill of the local authority’s spe-
cialist staff, where dialogue with citizens also plays an important role.
In the last decade or so, economy and efficiency related to quality in the manage-
ment of green areas have been a big issue in park departments all over Denmark.
Management systems have been developed to help all actors within the profession to
communicate and find a common understanding.
The Parks Department in Herning has defined quality criteria expressing different
aims in the management of parks and green areas. In relation to environmental goals,
the use of pesticides has ceased and alternative methods have been introduced with
success. Different standards are also accepted in the maintenance of the green ele-
ments. For example, different levels in the maintenance of lawns allow biodiversity
to be enhanced according to their natural potential.
From 2003 onwards, the Parks Department is hosting an innovative project, called
Holistic Park Management, which is supported by the National Agency for Enterprise
175
Cost-d-final.indd 175 15-07-2005 09:06:35

and Housing, under the Ministry of Economic and Business Affairs. The project
brings the users of the parks into focus and relates user needs to financial issues and
priorities, and to the organisation of green areas and nature.
4 Summary and perspectives
The experience of Herning shows that records on biological and environmental

matters are found in different departments within the local authority. This implies
that data on parks is held in the Parks Department; that data on green issues as an
integrated part of the urban environment is kept in the Town Planning Department;
and that data on flora and fauna is found in the Environment Department. Systematic
information is not currently collated by the local authority itself, but information on
certain subjects of interest, such as birds and botany, is gathered in co-operation with
private organisations.
This procedure creates problems for the adoption of a holistic approach in relation to
sustainable planning and management. This seems to be the case not only in Herning,
but generally in Danish municipalities.
The research study in Herning clearly demonstrated that tools to make information
available and support interdisciplinary solutions are needed urgently and that the
planning process must take care to co-ordinate local plans with the overall goals in
planning and management.
In co-operation with the administrators in the Municipality of Herning, it became
clear that the green structure does possess the potential for contributing to a more
sustainable management of biodiversity in particular, and urban runoff, and to some
extent organic waste too. However, lack of adequate information and appropriate
methodologies are barriers to the planning process, as well as in the realisation of
goals in design and management.
The Municipality of Herning took an early interest in sustainability and formulated
goals in local planning demanding sustainable solutions from designers and develop-
ers. Much valuable experience was gained and new knowledge was gathered, which
have influenced the next steps and have clearly identified the need for new tools and
methodologies.
References :
Jensen, M. B., Persson, B., Guldager, S., Reeh , U., Nilsson, K., 2000. Green struc-
ture and sustainability – developing a tool for local planning. Landscape and Urban
Planning 52, 2000, p. 117 – 133.
Persson, B., Guldager, S., Reeh, U. Jensen, M. B., 1999. Økologiske muligheder i
byens grønne struktur – et tværfagligt samarbejde om biodiversitet, organisk affald og
regnvand i Herning Kommune. Park- og Landskabsserien nr. 26, 1999.
Ministry of Environment: The Danish Planning Act (763 – 11/9 2002).
Municipality of Herning: Green plan for Herning and Environment 1996.
176
Cost-d-final.indd 176 15-07-2005 09:06:35

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COST Office
COST domain: Urban civil engineering
EUR 21731 — COST Action C11 — Green structure and urban planning
Final report
Edited by Ann Caroll Werquin, Bernard Duhem, Gunilla Lindholm, Bettina Oppermann, Stephan
Pauleit,
Sybrand Tjallingii
Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities
2005 — 438 pp. — 17.6 ҂ 25 cm
ISBN 92-898-0014-3
The COST Action C11, ‘Green structure and urban planning’, was launched at the beginning
of 2000. Fifteen countries were involved in this action and about 40 delegates and experts
participated. COST Action C11 belongs to the ‘Urban civil engineering’ domain of the COST
programme.
The main objective of this action was to address researchers, planners and practitioners
about the multitude of roles played by the city’s green structure.
Green structure links town and country. In a spatial perspective, green structure is more than
the sum of green spaces. Speaking of green structure implies drawing attention to the spa-
tial network that links open spaces, public and private gardens, public parks, sports fields,
allotment gardens and recreational grounds within the city to the networks of woodlands and
river floodplains in the surrounding countryside. Thus, green structure highlights the role of
greenways for walkers and cyclists and stresses the importance of ecological corridors for
wildlife.
Green structure links the past to the future. From a time perspective, green structure
expresses a long history and a long-term planning policy to make the spatial structure of
green spaces a basis for sustainable urban development.
Green structure concerns, existence and strategies to maintain, create or improve — differ
to a large extent from one country to the next, and sometimes between two cities in the
same country, which is why so useful for comparison elements to be gathered through field
visits.
In order to progress in its work, COST Action C11 was organised in three working groups:
one on the ecological approach of green structure, the second on the ‘human issues’; and a
third dealing with the policy aspects.
The final seminar was open to ‘key-note speakers’ who could add their own contribution to
this report and, to conclude, a kind of synthesis stresses some questions still worthy of
reflection.
For more information on COST Action C 11 :
http://www.map211td.com/COSTC11/C11.htm

Green Structure and Urban Planning

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COST Action C11