BIO 241
CELL BIOLOGY
LAB REPORT

NAME OF THE EXPERIMENT: Structure of Cells
EXPERIMENT NO:2
EXPERIMENT DATE:
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The living cell is the fundamental unit of which all living organisms are composed.The word \u02ddcell\u02ddwas itself introduced by Hooke as long as 1665 to describe the spaces observed in scales of cork.

Later,Schleiden and Schwann put forward their important concept,called cell theory which states that cells are organisms and that animals and plants are aggregated of these organisms arranged according to definite laws.

All cells possess a cell membrane,a cytoplasm containing various organelles
and inherits their characteristics from thier parents;they can synthesise nucleic
acids and proteins and with the exception of bacteria and lower algae,they all
possess a well-defined nucleus.

Many staining procedures are used to demonstarate the various parts of the cell or the intracellular substances.Most cytologic staines are solutions of organic aromatic dyes.

Since Ehrlic,two types of dyes are recognised;basic and acid.In a basic
dye the chromophoric group,which imprtas the colour,is basic(cationic).For
example,methylene blue is used as potassium eosinate,in which the base is
colourless.Sometimes the two components of the salt are
chromophoric,e.g.,eosinate of methylene blue.The most used chromophores for
acid dyes contain nitro and quinoid groups.Basic chromophores contain azo and
indamin groups.For axample,picric acid has three nitro groups (chromophores)
and one OH group,also called auxochrome,by which the dye combines with the
tissue.Acid dyes combine with the protein structure of the cell by either

It is important to learn the mechanism of action of different dyes.The
properties that proteins,certain polysaccharides and nucleic acids have the
ionizing either as bases or acids should be remembered.

The net charge of nucleic acids is determined primarily by the
dissociation of the phosphoric acid groups,and the isolelectric-point is very
low(PH2 or less).For this reason,staining with basic dyes(e.g.toluidine) at low PH
values is selective for nucleic acids.Toluidine blue is used frequently to stain
ribonucleic acid,and its specifity can be demonstarated by previous hydrolysis
with ribonuclease.

Because of different isoelectric points,the staining affinities of cellular
components may be merkedly different.For example,the background
cytoplasm,certain secretion granules and the erythrocytes stain with acid dyes
at the ordinary PH of staining (about PH 6).The nucleus and the
ribonucleoprotein,mucus and mucoprotein of the cytoplasm stain with basic dyes.

To demonstrate proteins,nucleic acids,polysaccharides and lipids within
the cell structure,some chromogenic agents that bind selectively to some
specific groups of these substances may be used.The best reactions generally
involve the formation of covalent bonds.In each case the specifity can be
improved by the use of collateral methods involving the extraction,blockade or
enzymatic digestion of the nonspecific components.

Cytochemical staining methods for nucleic acids depend on the properties of the three components of nucleotide)phosphoric acid,carbohydrate and purine and pyrimidine bases).They may also depend on the degree of polymerization of the polynucleotide chain.

Both DNA and RNA absorb ultraviolet light at 2600A\u00ba,owing to the
presence of nitrogeneous bases.The deoxyribose present in DNA is responsible
for the Feulgen Reaction,which is specific for this type nucleic acid.

The phosphoric acid residue is responsible for the basophilic properties
of both DNA and RNA which can be observed even with common basic histologic
stains,such as hematoxylin.Among the basic stains,azure B gives a specific
reaction with DNA and RNA.Another stain for DNA,based on the use of mthyl
green,also depends on the phosphoric acid residues.

Examination of cell structures with the microscope is based on the
differences in the refractive index of the various components.Because cells are
almost transparent and the refractive indices of the components are
similar,very little structure is ordinarily visible and it is thus necessary to find