Thermal Expansion

Fundamental Physics I by Dr. Abhijit Kar Gupta (email: kg.abhi@gmail.
com) 1
Thermal Expansion
What is thermal expansion?

When the temperature of a substance (solid, liquid or gas) is increased, the molecules or
atoms in it vibrate faster and they tend to move away from each other, on average. This
results in an expansion (increase of length, breadth and depth) of the substance as a
whole. This is called thermal expansion.
[Note: When the temperature is decreased (the substance is cooled), there is a contraction which
can be considered as ‘negative’ expansion. A similar expansion or contraction is also possible
with the application of a force. This has been discussed in the chapter dealing with elastic
properties of matter.]
Some facts:
• Generally the size of all material bodies increases with the increase of
temperature. The exceptions are the water and some aqueous solutions in the
range of 0 0 C to 4 0 C , the iodide of silver (resolidified) below 142 0 C and some
nickel-steel alloys.
• Different substances expand at different rates. This depends on the physical

property of the substance. Different solid substances have different expansion
rates like iron, glass, wood all have distinctly different rates of expansion.
Expansions in some substances are not easily detectable with naked eye.
• The property of thermal expansion is utilized in various ways in our daily life and
in scientific works.
Examples: Blacksmiths use to put red-hot iron rims on wooden cart wheels so
that they cool and shrink tight. The property of thermal expansion of liquid
mercury is used in clinical thermometers.
• Liquids expand appreciably as compared to solids, in general.

Example: The expansion of mercury is greater than the expansion of glass. If the
expansion of glass of a thermometer would be at the same rate as that of mercury,
the mercury would not rise with the increase of temperature.
Fundamental Physics I by Dr. Abhijit Kar Gupta (email: kg.abhi@gmail.com) 2
Thermal Expansion of Solids
The expansion of solids is of three types. Linear expansion of solids can be

experimentally measured from the expansion of length of bars or rods of the solid.
Surface or volume expansions of solids are generally difficult to measure directly and
thus they are calculated from the linear expansion.
In this chapter we consider isotropic solids only. Isotropic materials are those whose
properties are the same in all directions. Thus the expansion is also the same in all
directions for such materials. Examples: all amorphous solids, e.g., glass; the regular
crystals, e.g., sodium chloride (table salt); metals.
Demonstrations of Expansion of Solids:
• Bar and Gauge Experiment
A is a metal bar with a wooden rod attached to it. B is a metallic gauge as shown
in the figure [Fig. #] . At normal room temperature, the bar A just fits into the
gauge B. When the bar A is heated, it can not be fitted into the gauge B anymore.
This is an indication that there has been a thermal expansion in the bar A. Now
when the bar is cooled down, it fits into the gauge again. This means that the bar
regains its original length by contraction.
Fig. to be included
• Ball and Ring Experiment
A metal ring B has been attached with a stand as shown in the adjacent figure
[Fig. #]. A metal ball A is hanged from a hook above this fixed with the stand. At
normal room temperature the metal ball just passes through the ring. Now if the
ball is heated separately and then we attempt to insert this through the ring again,
the ball gets stuck. From this it can be understood that the volume of the metal
ball is increased due to heating and thus it is unable to pass through the ring.
When it is allowed to cool down to previous temperature (room temperature), the
ball gets back its original volume and then it can again pass through the ring. Thus
we understand from this experiment that the volume of a solid material increases
as the temperature is increased.
Fig. to be included
Experiments showing that the

Expansions of Different Solids are Different:
• Ferguson’s Experiment
This experiment shows that the expansions for different materials due to the same
increment of temperature are different.
In this experiment, one end of a metal beam R is rigidly clamped at L and the
other end is kept on a roller C as shown in the figure [Fig. #]. The roller can move
on a glass plate G. A pointer P is attached to the roller which can rotate over a
circular scale S. The beam R is heated from below by some Bunsen burners. As a
result, the beam expands and the roller R rolls over the glass plate. Thus there is a
deflection of the pointer. The amount of deflection depends on the amount of
expansion of the beam. The deflection is seen to increase as the beam is heated
more. Thus it is understood that the expansion of length of the beam is increased
along with the increase of temperature.
The same experiment is repeated with beams of different materials but of same
length. Deflections in the scale are found to be different for different beams where
the increase of temperature is kept fixed. Thus the expansions for different
materials are found to be different for the same increment of temperature.
Fig. to be included
• Experiment with Bimetallic Strip

When two thin bars of different metals, such as brass and iron, are welded or
riveted together, the compound thin bar such made is called bimetallic strip.
At the beginning, the bimetallic strip remains straight at normal room

temperature. When it is heated, one side of the double strip becomes longer than
the other as the expansion rate of one metal (brass) is more than that of other
(iron). As a result, it is seen that the strip is bent into a curve with the brass on the
outer side of the curve.
Next, the strip is cooled below room temperature keeping it in ice. When the strip
is cooled, it tends to bend in the opposite direction, because the metal that
expands more (brass) also shrinks more.
Fig. to be included
Application of Bimetallic Strip:

The movement of bimetallic strip is used to turn a pointer, regulate a valve or
close a switch. A very important application is the thermostat. The back-and-forth
bending of this is applied to open and close an electrical circuit. Thermostats are
used in refrigerators, air conditioning machines, electric toasters and various other
devices. The idea is to control temperature as it is desired.
Coefficient of Linear Expansion:
Definition
The thermal expansion of a solid in a particular direction that is the change in one
dimension (length, breadth or thickness) is called linear expansion.
• For most of the solids, the change in size due to temperature change is very low*.
• For small temperature changes, linear expansion is approximately proportional to
the change in temperature.
Experimentally, it is seen that the amount of expansion of length of a rod is proportional

to the (i) initial length of the rod and (ii) the increase of temperature.
Let us suppose that the temperature is increased from T0 to T . Thus the change in
temperature is ∆T = (T − T0 ) . The length is changed from L0 to L . So the change in
length is ∆L = ( L − L0 ) .
Thus we have
∆L ∝ L0 and
∆L ∝ ∆T .
∴ ∆L ∝ L0 ∆T
Therefore, we can write

∆L = α L0 ∆T , (1)
where the proportionality constant α is called the coefficient of linear expansion.
The above equation (1) can also be written in the following form
( L − L0 ) = α L0 ∆T .
∴ L = L0 (1 + α ∆T )
Or L = L0 [1 + α (T − T0 ) ]. (2)
When the initial temperature, T0 = 0 and the final temperature is T , we can write
LT = L0 (1 + α T ), (3)
where LT is the length at temperature T .
From equation (1) we get a definition of the coefficient of linear expansion:
*
A typical metal expands only about 7% when its temperature rises from near 0 K to its melting point.
∆L
α = . (4)
L0 ∆T
If we now put L0 = 1 and ∆T = 1, we have α = ∆L . Thus we can define α in the
following way.
Definition: The linear expansion of a solid material of unit length due to one unit of
increase of temperature is called coefficient of linear expansion.
• The coefficient α is specific to a material. The magnitude of this depends on the

atomic arrangements inside a matter.
• The coefficient of expansion may vary slightly for different temperature ranges.
So it is not strictly a constant. However, this variation is negligible for most
applications. Thus we consider α to be practically a constant and independent of
temperature.
Dimension of α :
It can be analyzed from the relation (3)
Dimension of length
Dimension of α = Dimension of length × Dimension of temperature
1
=
Dimension of temperature
• Thus we see, α depends only on temperature. Dimension of α is / C 0 [also

written as (C 0 ) −1 ] or / F 0 [also written as ( F 0 ) −1 ]; in Kelvin scale it is / K (also
written as K −1 ).
9
As we have 1 C 0 = F 0 , the coefficient of linear expansion for steel in two
5
scales can be related as
5
12 × 10 −6 / C 0 = × 12 × 10 −6 / F 0 = 6.67 × 10 −6 / F 0 .
9
• The value of α does not depend on the dimension of length. This is because it is
essentially a ratio of two lengths.
When we say the coefficient of linear expansion of steel is 12 × 10 −6 / C 0 , we
understand that if we take a steel rod of length 1 cm. and the temperature of it is
increased by 1 C 0 then the increase of length will be 0.000012 cm. Likewise, when
the length is taken to be 1 m or 1 ft, then the increments are 0.000012 m or

0.000012 ft.
Below is a list of mean coefficients of expansion of several solid substances between 0 0 C

and 100 0 C .
Table # 1: Coefficient of linear expansion of different solids
Material α
(C 0 ) −1
Cadmium 32 × 10 −6
Lead 28 × 10 −6
Magnesium 26 × 10 −6
Aluminium 24 × 10 −6
Brass 20 × 10 −6
Copper 17 × 10 −6
Nickel 13 × 10 −6
Steel 12 × 10 −6
Glass 4-9 × 10 −6
Invar 0.9 × 10 −6
Quartz (fused) 0.4 × 10 −6
Numerical Examples with Solutions:
Example #1
A steel scale 1 m long is calibrated at a temperature of 30 0 C . What is the length of this
scale on a hot summer day when the temperature is 40 0 C ?
Solution: From equation (1),

∆L = α L0 ∆T
= 12 × 10 −6 ( (C 0 ) −1 × (1 m) × (40 0 C − 30 0 C )
= 0.12 × 10 −3 m = 0.00012 m.
Thus the length at 40 0 C is 1.00012 m.
Example #2
An Aluminium rod is expanded 0.5 cm when heated from 20 0 C to 80 0 C . What is its
initial length? Assume α = 24 × 10 −6 / C 0 .
Solution: ∆L = α L0 ∆T
∆L
∴ L0 = .
α (T − T0 )
Here, α = 24 × 10 −6 / C 0 , T = 80 C 0 and T0 = 20 C 0
0.5 0.5 × 10 6
∴ L0 = = = 347.2 cm. Initial length
24 × 10 −6 × (80 − 20) 24 × 60
Example #3
The length of a copper rod is measured to be 200.166 cm and 200.664 cm at the
temperatures 50 0 C and 200 0 C . What is the linear coefficient of thermal expansion for
copper? [ H.S. (T)]
∆L ( L − L0 )
Solution: α = =
L0 ∆T L0 (T − T0 )
Here, L0 = 200.166 cm, L = 200.664 cm, T0 = 50 0 C and T = 200 0 C .
200.664 − 200.166 0.498

∴α = = = 16.6 × 10 −6 C 0 .
200.166 × (200 − 50) 200.166 × 150
Example #4
The length of a brass bar is 150 cm at 40 0 C . What will be its length at 100 0 C ? The coefficient
of linear expansion of brass is 20 × 10 −6 / C 0 .
Solution: L = L0 (1 + α ∆T ) = L0 [1 + α (T − T0 ) ]
Here, L0 = 150 cm, T0 = 40 0 C , T = 100 0 C , α = 20 × 10 −6 / C 0 .
[ ] [ ]
∴ L = 150 1 + 20 × 10 −6 (100 − 40) = 150 1 + 1200 × 10 −6 = 150 × 1.00120 = 150.18 cm.
Increase in temperature generally causes increment in surface area and volume of a

material. Therefore, there should be a coefficient associated with the surface expansion
and also another with volume expansion.
Coefficient of Surface Expansion
If the area is increased from A0 to A due to the increase of temperature from an initial
value T0 to T then we can write, the change in the area is ∆A = A − A0 and to the
change in the temperature is ∆T = T − T0 .
As before, the change in area ∆A is proportional to the initial area A0 and the change in
temperature ∆T :
∆A ∝ A0 and
∆A ∝ ∆T .
∴ ∆A ∝ A0 ∆T
Or ∆A = β A0 ∆T , (5)
where β is the coefficient of surface expansion (or area expansion).
From above, can write

A − A0 = β A0 ∆T .
Or A = A0 (1 + β ∆T )
Or A = A0 [1 + β (T − T0 )] . (6)
If the initial temperature is T0 = 0 and the final temperature is T then we can write,
A = A0 (1 + β T ) (7)
From equation (5) we can write the expression for coefficient of surface expansion:
∆A
β = . (8)
A0 ∆T
When we put A0 = 1 and ∆T = 1, we have β = ∆A . Thus the definition of β can be

given as the following.
Definition: The increase in surface area of a solid material of unit surface area due to
one unit of increase of temperature is called coefficient of surface expansion.
Nature of β :
• Like the coefficient of liner expansion α , the coefficient of surface expansion β
is specific to a certain material (material property).
• This coefficient of expansion also may vary slightly for different temperature
ranges. Therefore, it is not strictly a constant. However, this is negligible for most
practical applications and an average value within a certain range is always
quoted.
Dimension:
• Dimension of β does not depend on the dimension of area as it is essentially the
ratio of two areas and thus dimension of area cancels out.
• Dimension of β depends on temperature only and it is the inverse of temperature.
The meaning of the coefficient of surface expansion for steel to be 24 × 10 −6 C 0 (=

0.000024 /C 0 ) is the following. If we take a steel sheet of area 1 ft 2 or 1 cm 2 or 1 m 2 ,
then its area is increased by 0.000024 ft 2 or 0.000024 cm 2 or 0.000024 m 2 when the
temperature is increased by 1 C 0 .
Conversion from one scale to another is again the same thing as we have done in the case
of linear expansion. We have to remember the relationship between the temperature
differences in two scales
9
1C0 = F 0 .
5
Thus the value of β in Fahrenheit scale is
5
24 × 10 −6 / C 0 = × 24 × 10 −6 / F 0 = 13.34 × 10 −6 / F 0 .
9
Coefficient of Volume Expansion:
If the volume of a material is increased from V0 to V due to the increase of temperature

from an initial value T0 to T then we can write, the change in the volume is ∆V =
V − V0 and the change in the temperature is ∆T = T − T0 .
As before, the change in volume ∆V is proportional to the initial volume V0 and to the
change in temperature ∆T :
∆V ∝ V0 and
∆V ∝ ∆T .
∴ ∆V ∝ V0 ∆T
Or ∆V = γ V0 ∆T , (9)
where γ is the coefficient of volume expansion.
From equation (9), we can write
V − V0 = γ V0 ∆T .
Or V = V0 (1 + γ∆T )
Or V = V0 [1 + γ (T − T0 )] . (10)
If the initial temperature is T0 = 0 and the final temperature is T then the formula (10)
can be written as
V = V0 (1 + γT ) (11)
From equation (9) we can write the expression for coefficient of volume expansion:
∆V
γ = . (12)
V0 ∆T
When in expression (12) we put V0 = 1 and ∆T = 1, we have γ = ∆V . Thus the

definition of γ can be given as the following.
Definition: The increase in volume of a solid material of unit volume due to one unit of
increase of temperature is called the coefficient of volume expansion.
Nature of γ :
• Like the coefficient of liner expansion and that of surface expansion, the
coefficient of volume expansion γ is specific to a certain material (material
property).
• This coefficient of expansion also may vary slightly for different temperature
ranges. Therefore, it is not strictly a constant. However, this is negligible for most
practical applications and an average value within a certain range is always
quoted.
Dimension:
• Dimension of γ does not depend on the dimension of volume as it is essentially
the ratio of two volumes and thus dimension of volume cancels out.
• Dimension of γ depends on temperature only and it is the inverse of temperature.
The meaning of the coefficient of volume expansion for steel to be 36 × 10 −6 C 0 (=

0.000036 /C 0 ) is the following. If we take a steel sheet of volume 1 ft 3 or 1 cm 3 or 1 m 3 ,
then its volume is increased by 0.000036 ft 3 or 0.000024 cm 3 or 0.000024 m 3 when the
temperature is increased by 1 C 0 .
Conversion from one scale to another is again the same thing as we have done in the case
of linear expansion and surface expansion. We have to remember the relation between the
temperature differences in two scales
9
1C0 = F 0 .
5
Thus the value of γ in Fahrenheit scale is
5
36 × 10 −6 / C 0 = × 36 × 10 −6 / F 0 = 20 × 10 −6 / F 0 .
9
The Relation among the three Coefficients of Expansion:
The relation between α and β

2
Suppose we take a square sheet of length L0 . The area is A0 = L0 .
The temperature of the square sheet is increased from an initial temperature of T0 to T .
The increase in temperature is ∆T = T − T0 . We call here t = ∆T for the sake of
calculation.
The increase in temperature causes the increase in length which now becomes L .
Thus we can write,
L = L0 (1 + α ∆T ) = L0 (1 + α t ),
where α is the coefficient of linear expansion.
Therefore, the present area of the sheet is
A = L2 = L0 2 (1 + α t ) 2
= A0 (1 + 2 α t + α 2
t 2 ).
Now since α is usually much smaller than 1 and if the temperature difference t = ∆T is
not very high then the term α t is still very small compared to 1. The square of this
quantity α 2 t 2 will be even smaller than 1. Thus the term α 2 t 2 can be neglected as it
is very small compared to the term α t .
Hence we have an approximate relationship
A = A0 (1 + 2 α t ). (13)
On the other hand, we can write from the definition of the coefficient of surface
expansion β ,
A = A0 (1 + β t ). (14)
Comparing (13) and (14), we have
β = 2α (15)
The relation between β and γ

3
Suppose we take a cube of length L0 . The volume is V0 = L0 .
The length is increased from L0 to L when the temperature is increased from T0 toT .
We write the increase in temperature,
t = ∆T = T − T0 .
If the linear expansion coefficient be α then
L = L0 (1 + α ∆T ) = L0 (1 + α t ).
The present volume of the cube is

V = L0 (1 + α t ) 3
3
= V0 (1 + 3α t + 3α t 2 + α 3 t3 )
3 2
Since α t is small (less than 1), α 2 t 2 and α 3 t 3 are much smaller compared to α t .
Therefore, we can write the approximate relation
V = V0 (1 + 3α t ).
3
(16)
On the other hand, we can write from the definition of the coefficient of volume
expansion γ ,
V = V0 (1 + γ t ). (17)
Comparing equations (16) and (17),
γ = 3α . (18)
Now from (15) and (18) we get
β γ
α= =
2 3
The above is the relation among the three coefficients of expansion. This can also be
written in the following form:
α : β :γ = 1 : 2 : 3
Note:
If a quantity, say x , is bigger than 1 then its successive powers become bigger
and bigger than 1. If x is taken smaller than 1 then its successive powers
become smaller and smaller than 1.
Example: Suppose, x = 2, we then have x 2 = 4 , x 3 = 8 , x 4 = 16 etc.
If x is smaller than 1, say x = 0.2 , then we have x 2 = 0.04 , x 3 = 0.008 ,
x 4 = 0.0016 . Therefore, when x is smaller than 1, the higher powers become
negligible compared to x and thus we often neglect them for approximation.
Derivation of the relationship among α , β and γ by Calculus:
The differential form of the expression of linear coefficient of expansion is

1 dL
α=
L dT
The interpretation of the above is that if the temperature of a solid having coefficient of
linear expansion α , is increased from T to T + dT , the length is increased from L
to L + dL .
Similarly, we can write the expressions of β and γ as
1 dA
β=
A dT
1 dV
γ = .
V dT
Suppose, we take a cube of length L whose each surface has an area A = L2 and the
volume of the cube is V = L3 .
Differentiating the area A = L2 with respect to temperature T , we get
dA dL
= 2L .
dT dT
Now,
1 dA 1 dL 1 dL
β= = 2 .2 L = 2. = 2α . (19)
A dT L dT L dT
Again differentiating the volume V = L3 with respect to T , we get

dV dL
= 3L2 .
dT dT
From the definition of γ ,
1 dV 1 dL 1 dL
γ = = 3 .3L2 = 3. = 3α . (20)
V dT L dT L dT
∴ From (19) and (20) we have

β γ
α= = .
2 3
---------------------Numerical Examples with Solutions--------------------------
Example #1 A brass disc has diameter 8 cm at 30 0 C . How much will be the increase in
area of it when the temperature is raised to 80 0 C ? Given α = 18 × 10 −6 / C 0 .
Solution:
The increase of area is
∆A = β A0 ∆T = 2 α A0 ( T − T0 ) as we know β = 2 α .
Here, the initial area
A0 = π 4 2 = 16π sq. cm, α = 18 × 10 −6 / C 0 , T0 = 30 0 C and T = 80 0 C .
∴ ∆A = 2 × 18 × 10 −6 × 16 × 3.1416 × (80 − 30)

= 36 × 16 × 3.1416 × 50 × 10 −6 = 0.0905 sq. cm.
Example #2 A rectangular copper block measures 8′′ × 5′′ × 1′′ . How much of its volume
will increase when its temperature is increased from 0 0 C to 800 0 C ? The coefficient of
linear expansion for copper is = 0.16 × 10 −4 / C 0 . [H.S.]
Solution:
The initial volume of the block is V0 = 8 × 5 × 1 = 40 cubic inch.
The increase in volume is
∆V = γ V0 ∆T = 3 α V0 ∆T
since the coefficient of volume expansion γ = 3 α , where α is the coefficient of linear
expansion.
Here, we have α = 0.16 × 10 −4 / C 0 , V0 = 40 cub. in, ∆T = T − T0 = (800 − 0) = 800 C 0 .
∴ ∆V = 3 × 0.16 × 10 −4 × 40 × 800 = 1.536 cub. in.
Example #3 The volume of a lead bullet is 25 c.c. at 0 0 C . At 98 0 C , its volume increases

by 0.021 c.c. What is the coefficient of linear expansion for lead? [H.S.(T)]
Solution:
∆V
The volume expansion coefficient, γ =
V0 ∆T
Here, V0 = 25 c.c., ∆V =0.021 c.c., ∆T = T − T0 = 98 – 0 = 98 C 0 .

0.021
∴ γ = = 8.57 × 10 −6 / C 0 .
25 × 98
γ 8.57 × 10 −6
The linear expansion coefficient, α = = = 2.86 × 10 −6 / C 0 .
3 3
Example #4 An aluminium sphere whose diameter is 20 cm, is heated from 0 0 C to
100 0 C . What will be its change in volume? The coefficient of linear expansion is =
23 × 10 −6 / C 0 .
Solution:
4
The initial volume of the sphere, V0 = π × 10 3 c.c.
3
The change in volume, ∆V = γ V0 ∆T = 3α V0 ∆T .
The coefficient of volume expansion, γ = 3α = 3 × coefficient of linear expansion.
The increase in temperature is ∆T = T − T0 ,
where T0 = 0 0 C is the initial temperature and T = 100 0 C is the final temperature.
4
∴ ∆V = 3 × 23 × 10 −6 × × 3.1416 × 10 3 × (100 − 0) = 28.9 c.c.
3
Example #5 A piece of metal weighs 46 gm in air. The same weighs 30 gm when that is
immersed in a liquid of specific gravity 1.24 at temperature 27 0 C . When the temperature
of the liquid is increased to 42 0 C , the metal piece weighs 30.5 gm when immersed. The
specific gravity of the liquid is 1.20 at 42 0 C . What is the coefficient of linear expansion
of the metal? [H.S. ’98]
Solution:
At 27 0 C , the apparent decrease in weight of the metal is = (46 − 30) = 16 gm. This
should be the weight of the displaced liquid of same volume.
16
∴ The volume of the displaced liquid = c.c.
1.24
Volume of metal piece = Volume of displaced liquid
16
Thus we can say, the initial volume of the metal piece is V0 = c.c.
1.24
Similarly, the volume of the metal piece when immersed in the liquid at 42 0 C is
46 − 30.5 15.5
V= = c.c.
1.20 1.20
Therefore, the coefficient of volume expansion is

∆V V − V0 1 V 
γ = = =  − 1 .
V0 ∆T V0 (T − T0 ) T − T0  V0 
Here, the initial temperature is T0 = 27 C and the final temperature is T = 42 0 C .
0
1  15.5 1.24  1  19.22 

∴ γ = × × − 1 = × − 1
42 − 27  1.20 16  15  19.2 
0.02
= = 69.44 × 10 −6 / C 0 .
15 × 19.2
γ
The coefficient of linear expansion, α = = 23.15 × 10 −6 / C 0 .
3
Change in Density of a Solid due to Change in Temperature:
M Mass
We know, the density of a material D = = .
V Volume
When the temperature of a material is increased, its volume is increased but the mass
remains unchanged. Thus the ratio of mass and volume changes which means the density
changes. Density is increased when the volume is decreased and it is decreased when the
volume is increased since the volume is in the denominator.
Suppose, the density of a material is D0 and the volume is V0 at an initial temperature T0 .

The density becomes D and the volume to V when the temperature is increased to T .
The mass M remains unchanged.
M M
∴ D0 = and D =
V0 V
D V0
∴ The ratio of two densities, = .
D0 V
If the coefficient of volume expansion of the material is γ , we can write
V = V0 (1 + γ ∆T ),
where ∆T = T − T0 , the temperature difference.
D V0
∴ = = (1 + γ∆T ) −1 .
D0 V0 (1 + γ∆T )
Thus we have D0 = D(1 + γ∆T ) .

We can also write,
D = D0 (1 + γ∆T ) −1 = D0 (1 − γ∆T ) .
[Expanding binomially and neglecting other terms after expanding as they are much
smaller than γ∆T .]
--------------------Numerical Examples with Solutions-------------------------

Example# 1 Density of glass is 2.6 gm/cc and 2.596 gm/cc at 10 0 C and 60 0 C

respectively. Find the average coefficient of linear expansion of glass within this range of
temperature. [H.S. ‘88]
Solution:
We know D0 = D(1 + γ∆T ) = D[1 + γ (T − T0 )] , where γ is the coefficient of volume
expansion.
Here, D0 = 2.6 gm/cc, D = 2.596 gm/cc, T0 = 10 0 C and T = 60 0 C .
∴ 2.6 = 2.596 [1 + γ (60 − 10)]

2.6 2.6 − 2.596
Or, 1 + γ × 50 = Or, 50 γ =
2.596 2.596
0.004
∴ γ = = 30.8 × 10 −6 / C 0 .
2.596 × 50
γ
The coefficient of linear expansion, α = = 10.27 × 10 −6 / C 0 .
3
Thermal Stress:
The length of a solid rod expands due to heating and it contracts due to cooling. But if the
rod is rigidly fixed at two ends then this expansion or contraction can not happen. Thus
there is an internal force developed inside the material of the rod. This internal force per
unit area of the rod is called thermal stress.
Demonstration of thermal stress
Take an iron rod B which is placed inside a heavy metal frame Y as shown in the figure.
One side of the rod is threaded and the other side is having two grooves P1 and P2 . The
threaded side is fitted with a screw N.
An iron pin is inserted into the groove P2 and this is made to sit tight with the frame by
rotating the screw. Now if the rod is heated, there is a force developed due to thermal
expansion for which the pin breaks down inside the groove.
Now the pin is inserted into the groove P1 and this is made to sit tight with the outside of
the frame. If the rod is cooled down, the pin P1 now breaks as the rod wants to contract.
Thus we have a clear demonstration of thermal expansion or contraction.
Fig. to be included
Determination of thermal stress
Let a rod of length L0 be subjected to heating and the temperature of the rod is increased
by ∆T . If the coefficient of linear expansion of the material of the rod be α then the
expansion of the rod is ∆L = α L0 ∆T .
Suppose, the same expansion in the rod be created due to a force F . If he cross-sectional
area of the rod is A then the longitudinal stress is = F / A .
∆L αL0 ∆T
Longitudinal strain = = = α ∆T
L0 L0
F/A
∴ We can write the Young Modulus, Y = .
α∆T
∴ The thermal stress developed in the rod is = Y α ∆T .
Example# 1 A steel rod is clamped rigidly at two ends. The cross-sectional area of the
rod is 4 sq. cm at 30 0 C . Find the force exerted by the rod at two ends when the
temperature is increased to 60 0 C . [The Young Modulus for steel, Y = 2.1 × 1012 dyne/
cm 2 and the coefficient of linear expansion, α = 12 × 10 −6 / C 0 .]
Solution:
Here, the cross-sectional area A = 4 sq. cm., Y = 2.1 × 1012 dyne/ cm 2 , α = 12 × 10 −6 / C 0 ,
Temperature change, ∆T = T − T0 = 60 − 30 = 30 C 0 .
∴ The force to be exerted due to thermal expansion is,
F = A Y α ∆T
= 4 × 2.1 × 1012 × 12 × 10 −6 × 30 = 3.024 × 10 9 dyne.
Example# 2 A wire is rigidly fixed at two ends. Determine the change in tension in the
wire when the temperature is decreased by 10 0 C . The cross-section is = 0.01 sq. cm;
α = 16 × 10 −6 / C 0 , Y = 20 × 1011 dyne/ cm 2 [ J.E.E.]
Solution:
Here, A = 0.01 sq. cm. Y = 20 × 1011 dyne/ cm 2 , α = 16 × 10 −6 / C 0 , ∆T = 10 0 C .
The change in tension in the wire = the force developed due to thermal contraction F .
The force, F = A Y α ∆T = 0.01 × 20 × 1011 × 16 × 10 −6 × 10 = 32 × 10 5 dyne.

Practical applications of Thermal Expansion of Solids:
The property of thermal expansion (and contraction) of solid is often utilized in a number
of ways. Sometimes, trouble arises due to the expansion or contraction with temperature
and our knowledge of this is used to avoid the trouble. So there are both advantages and
disadvantages. Here are some examples.
Advantages
• Metal lids: Metal lids on glass jars or metal caps of glass bottles are often
loosened by heating under hot water. This is possible since the expansion of
glass is negligible compared to a metal lid or cap.
• Iron rim: Blacksmiths put red-hot iron rims on wooden wheels of bullock
carts. The radius of the rim is taken a little smaller than the outer radius of the
wheel so that at normal temperature the rim can not be fitted onto the wheel.
The iron rim expands when heated and thus can be easily put on the wheel.
When it cools, the rim sits tight on the wheel.
• Metal strips: Two metallic strips are placed together and a hole is drilled for
riveting. A bolt is inserted through the hole when heated and the two ends of it
are beaten flat as shown in the figure [Fig.**] to hold the two metal strips
tightly. When the rivet is cooled down, it shrinks and holds the two metal
strips more strongly. This is a way by which big metal strips are joined to
form structures of big steel bridges.
Fig. to be included
• Thermostat: We have already seen in the previous section (**), how a

bimetallic strip bends when heated. This property is used in thermostat.
Thermostat is an automatic temperature control device which is used in
Electric Micro oven, refrigerator, incubator, electric iron, electric heater, air
cooling machine and in many other home appliances and instruments.
It has been shown in the adjacent circuit how it works as an automatic switch.
Here a bimetallic strip is shown to be made of invar and brass. The brass part
is connected to the connecting point A of the thermostat. The bimetallic strip
remains straight at ordinary temperature. Hence the thermostat circuit remains
on. So the current flows through the connected heater and it keeps heating.
The air around the heater gets heated and after a while the bimetallic strip also
gets heated and bends. The coefficient of linear expansion for brass is more
than that of invar. Thus the bimetallic strip bends in the opposite direction to
the contact that is made. Because of this the circuit is disconnected and the
current through the heater stops. As the heating stops, the bimetallic strip
eventually comes back to normal temperature and becomes straight. Again the
connection is established and the heater starts heating. This way the heating
can be limited and thus the temperature can be controlled by controlling the
current through the circuit.
Fig. to be included
• Fire alarm: Bimetallic strip is used in fire alarm circuit. Now the invar side is
made to have contact with the thermostat. When there is fire, the bimetallic
strip gets heated and it bends towards the invar side as the thermal expansion
of invar will be much less than that of brass. Thus the contact is established
and the current flows to start the alarm.
• Temperature measurement: A bimetallic strip can be used as a thermometer.

At an ordinary temperature it remains flat. Suppose we find out the
temperature T0 at which the bimetallic strip is exactly flat or straight. As the
temperature is increased more than this, it starts bending. As the temperature
is raised higher, the amount of bending becomes greater which can be
correctly measured by determining the curvature. The radius of curvature
becomes smaller as the bending or curvature is more. Experimentally it is
seen, the radius of curvature R is inversely proportional to the temperature
1
difference, (T − T0 ) raised above T0 : R ∝ . Thus R (T − T0 ) = Constant.
T − T0
This constant can be determined by measuring R from a known temperature.
However, this has not much practical importance.
Disadvantages
• Fishplate: Fishplates are used to join two iron rails of certain length to make
rail tracks. A gap is deliberately kept between two rail pieces and they are
joined by fishplates fitted with nut and bolts. The gap is kept to allow thermal
expansion due to excessive heating in the day time and that due to friction by
running trains. Also it may be noticed that the holes in a fishplate are made
elongated along the length of it so as to allow expansion or contraction along
the length.
Fig. to be included
Such a gap or the arrangement of fishplate is not there for tram lines. Tram
lines are implanted partly inside the ground and are surrounded by granite and
concrete. The heat developed in the rails due to heating can be dissipated
easily to the ground through the concrete and granite. Thus there is not much
scope of bending of rails due to excessive heating.
• Bridge: Both the ends of a steel or iron bridge are generally not rigidly fixed
to concrete foundations. One end is left free and placed on a rocker kept on
the concrete slab (Fig, **). This allows the steel bridge to have free expansion
or contraction due to temperature variation. There could be damage in the
concrete foundation due to thermal expansion or contraction if both the sides
would be rigidly fixed inside the concrete.
Fig. to be included
• Breaking of glass: A thick glass tumbler often breaks when hot water is
poured in it. Glass is a bad conductor of heat. Thus the inside of the glass
tumbler expands more due to heating compared to that of outside where heat
can not reach quickly. This uneven expansion (or contraction in the case of
cooling) causes an unbalanced thermal stress on the wall of the glass and the
glass breaks. For a thin glass wall this is less likely to happen as the heat can
flow to all parts of it more efficiently. Pyrex is a special type of glass whose
linear expansion coefficient is comparatively small (three times less than
ordinary glass). The thermal expansion in such a glass material is much less
and thus the possibility of breaking is also less likely. The beakers, test tubes
etc. that are used in laboratories are made out of this kind of glass.
• Metal scale: A metal scale is standardized at a certain temperature. Thus the

marks in it are correct only at that temperature. Metal is good conductor of
heat. The distance between two marks are expanded or contracted due to
heating or cooling. Thus to have correct measure by such a scale we have to
know the coefficient of expansion of the material of the scale and then to
calculate the correct scale reading.
• Aluminium piston: The aluminium pistons of some car engines are made a
little bit smaller in diameter than the steel cylinders to allow for the greater
expansion rate of alumimium.
• Cavity in Teeth: Dentists use filling material for the cavities of teeth which
has the same rate of expansion as teeth.
• Concrete Roadways: Concrete roadways and footpaths are intersected by

gaps, sometimes filled with tar or some other material so that concrete can
expand freely in summer and contract in winter.
• Electric Bulbs: The filament of an electric bulb is made of such a material

(tungsten, platinum) whose coefficient of thermal expansion is very close to
that of the glass. A high vacuum is created inside the bulb and the filament is
inserted and sealed at high temperature. If the glass and the filament are of
different expansion rates, there can be gaps created in the seal after cooling.
Compensated Pendulum:
The pointers in a pendulum clock are regulated by a pendulum. This pendulum is

suspended by a metal rod. The metal rod expands in summer and contracts in winter. The
time period of the pendulum depends on the effective length of the suspension rod which
is the distance between the point of suspension and the centre of gravity of the pendulum
bob. In summer, this effective length increases due to increase in temperature. Hence the
time period increases and the clock slows down. On the other hand in winter, due to
decrease in temperature the effective length of the rod decreases. Thus the time period
decreases and the clock runs faster.
But the effective length of the suspension rod should be kept fixed to get correct timing in
all seasons. Therefore, some arrangement is made to compensate the expansion and
contraction of the suspension rod. The clock is then called compensated pendulum.
The basic principle is demonstrated in the Fig. **. AB and CD are two different rods
made of different metals. These two rods are joined by another rod BC. There is
expansion in the two rods AB and CD due to increase in temperature. The lengths and the
materials of the two rods are taken in such a way that the expansions in the two rods are
same. Thus the distance between the suspension point O and the centre of gravity D of
the bob remains unchanged.
Fig. to be included
Suppose the initial lengths of the two rods AB and CD are L1 and L2 respectively and
the linear coefficients of expansion of the materials of the two rods are α 1 and α 2 . The
lengths of the rods become L1α ∆T and L2α ∆T respectively, due to the increase in
temperature ∆T .
∴ The condition for the effective length of suspension to remain unchanged is
L1α ∆T = L2α ∆T
L1 α 2
Or, = .
L2 α 1
Thus the lengths of the rods are to be selected such that they are inversely proportional to
their thermal expansion coefficients. In this picture, L1 > L2 and thus α 2 > α 1 . Here
the coefficient of thermal expansion for CD rod is greater than that of AB rod.
Compensated Balance Wheel:
There is a balance wheel inside a wrist watch or small clocks instead of pendulums. The
rotational oscillation of such a wheel regulates the clock. The time period of oscillation of
such a wheel depends on the radius of it. The radius is increased due to increase in
temperature so the time period increases. Thus the watch goes slow. On the other hand,
when the radius is decreased due to decrease in temperature the time period is decreased.
Thus the watch runs faster. The compensated balance wheel is used in order to keep the
radius unchanged in all seasons.
The compensated balance wheel is divided into three parts as shown in the Fig. **. Each
part is made of a bimetallic strip. The outer side of the bimetallic strip is brass and the
inner side is of stainless steel. One end of each part is attached to the centre of the wheel
with a spoke and the other part carries a heavy screw. The lengths of the spokes are
increased as the temperature is raised. As a result the radius of the balance wheel is
increased and the screws go away from the centre. The effective radius of the wheel is
thus increased. At the same time the bimetallic strips bend inwards and the screws move
towards the centre. As a result the effective wheel radius decreases. The two effects
compensate and finally the effective radius remains unchanged due to temperature
variation. Thus the time period does not change and the clock gives correct time in all
seasons.
Fig. to be included
Example# 1. The gap between two segments of a rail line is 0.5 inch at 10 0 C . If the
length of each segment is 66 ft then at what temperature the gap will be closed?
α = 11 × 10 −6 / 0C . [H.S.]
Solution:
The gap will be closed when the increase in length of each segment will be equal to the
size of the gap.
0.5
The increase in length, ∆L = L − L0 = 0.5 in = ft, and the increase in temperature,
12
∆T = T − T0 , L0 = 66 ft, T0 = 10 0 C , T = ?
We know, ∆L = α L0 (T − T0 )
0.5
Or, = 66 × 11 × 10 −6 (T − T0 )
12
0.5 × 10 6
Or, T − T0 = = 57.39 Or, T = 10 +57.39 = 67.39
12 × 66 × 11
∴ The gap will be closed at 67.39 0 C .
Example# 2. The difference of lengths of two metal rods is always 25 cm. The
coefficients of linear expansion of them are 1.28 × 10 −5 / 0C and 1.92 × 10 −5 / 0C . Find their
lengths at 0 0 C . [H.S. ‘01]
Solution:
Let us assume, the lengths of the two rods at 0 0 C are L1 and L2 .
We also assume L1 > L2 .
∴ According to question, we have L1 − L2 = 25.
The coefficients of linear expansion for the materials of the two rods are
α 1 = 1.28 × 10 −5 / 0C and α 2 = 1.92 × 10 −5 / 0C respectively.
If the temperature is increased by ∆T , then the expansion in two rods has to be the same
so as to keep the difference of lengths unchanged.
∴ L1 × 1.28 × 10 −5 × ∆T = L2 × 1.92 × 10 −5 × ∆T
L1 1.92 3 3
Or, = = ⇒ L1 = L2
L2 1.28 2 2
3 3
∴ L2 − L2 = 25 ⇒ L2 = 50 cm. , L1 = × 50 = 75 cm.
2 2
∴ The lengths of the two rods at C are 75 cm and 50 cm, respectively.
0
Example# 3. The length difference between an iron and a copper rod at 50 0 C is 2 cm.
The same difference is observed when the two rods are at a temperature, 450 0 C . What
will be the length difference at 0 0C ? Given, α = 12 × 10 −6 / 0C (iron) and
α = 17 × 10 −6 / 0C (copper). [J.E.E.]
Solution:
Suppose the lengths of iron rod and copper rod at 50 0 C are x cm and y cm,
respectively. Since the difference in lengths of the two rods remains unchanged when the
temperature is raised to 450 0 C , the expansions in the two rods should be equal.
Expansion in iron rod = x × 12 × 10 −6 × (450 − 50) = x × 12 × 10 −6 × 400 cm.

Expansion in copper rod = y × 17 × 10 −6 × (450 − 50) = y × 17 × 10 −6 × 400 cm.
∴ According to question,
x × 12 × 10 −6 × 400 = y × 17 × 10 −6 × 400
17
Or, x= y.
12
Looking at the values of the linear expansion coefficients, we can say that the iron rod is
bigger than the copper rod. Thus we have, x > y .
17
∴ x − y = 2 Or, y−y=2
12
24
Or, y = = 4.8 cm ∴ x = 2 + 4.8 = 6.8 cm.
5
Suppose, the lengths are x0 and y 0 respectively, at 0 0 C .
∴ 6.8 = x0 {1 + 12 × 10 −6 × 50} Or, x0 = 6.796 cm
∴ y 0 = 6.796 − 2 = 4.796 cm.
Example# 4. A steel scale gives correct reading at 15 0C . A distance measured by this

scale at 30 0C is 2000 ft. What is the possible error in measuring the distance? The
coefficient of linear expansion for steel is 0.000011 / 0 C . [H.S. ‘94]
Solution:
If the steel scale measures 1 ft at 30 0C then the actual reading should be =
1 × [1 + 0.000011 × (30 − 15)]] = 1 + 0.000011 × 15 = 1.000165 ft.
∴ The actual reading for 2000 ft would be = 2000 × 1.000165 = 2000.33 ft.
∴ The scale now measures (2000.33 − 2000) ft. = 0.33 ft less; this is the error involved.
Example# 5. A steel scale gives correct reading at 0 0C . The length of a rod is

measured to be 50 cm by this scale at 50 0C . What will be the correct length of the rod?
[The coefficient of linear expansion for steel, α = 12 × 10 −6 / 0C ] [H.S. ’92, ‘95]
Solution:
If the steel scale measures 1 cm at 15 0 C then the actual reading should be =
1 × [1 + 0.000012 × (15 − 0)]] = 1 + 0.000012 × 15 = 1.00018 cm.
∴ The actual reading corresponding to 50 cm is = 50 × 1.00018 = 50.009 cm.
Example# 6. A metal scale gives correct reading at 25 0C . If the length of a rod is
measured to be 80 cm by this scale at 15 0C , find the correct length of the rod at this
temperature. Given, α = 15 × 10 −6 / 0C [H.S. ‘97]
Solution:
If the reading is 1 cm. by the metal scale at 15 0 C , then the actual reading should be =
1 × [1 + 0.000015 × (15 − 25)]] = 1 − 0.000015 × 10 = 0.99985 cm.
∴ The correct length corresponding to a reading of 80 cm is = 0.99985 × 80 = 79.988 cm.
Example# 7. A steel scale is errorless at 50 0 F . The length of a brass rod is measured to

be 1.5 m by the scale at 50 0 C . What will be the actual length of the rod at 100 0C ? [ The
coefficient of linear expansion for steel is = 11.2 × 10 −6 / 0C and that for brass is =
18 × 10 −6 / 0C .] [H.S. ‘00]
Solution:
C F − 32
The relation between the Fahrenheit and the Celsius scale is = .
5 9
C 50 − 32
∴ = Or, C = 10 .
5 9
∴ The temperature of 50 0 F measured in Fahrenheit scale is 10 0C in Celsius scale. The
steel scale is thus errorless at 10 0 C .
If the reading by this scale is 1 m at 50 0C , the actual reading should be
1 × [1 + 0.0000112 × (50 − 10)]] = 1 + 0.0000112 × 40 = 1.000448 m.
∴ The actual reading corresponding to 1.5 m is = 1.5 × 1.000448 = 1.5007 m.
∴ The actual length of the brass rod at 50 0C is = 1.5007 m.
∴ The actual length of the brass rod at 100 0C is = 1.5007 × [1 + 0.000018 × (100 − 50)] =
1.5007 × (1 + 0.000018 × 50) = 1.502 m.
Example# 8. A brass scale attached to a barometer is errorless at 0 0 C . The coefficient,

α for brass is = 0.00002 / 0 C . The barometer gives reading 75 cm at 27 0C . What should
be the actual reading? [I.I.T.]
Solution:
The barometer scale is errorless at 0 0C . The scale will expand at 27 0 C . The reading of
75 cm of length at 27 0C will be = 75 × [1 + 0.00002 × (27 − 0)] = 75 × 1.00054 = 75.0405
cm.
∴ The actual reading of the barometer is = 75.0405 cm.
Example# 9. A thin steel ring is heated up to 95 0C . The ring is now exactly fitted on to
a steel cylinder at this temperature. The system is now cooled down to 20 0 C . The
diameter of the cylinder is 10 cm at 20 0 C . Find the thermal stress developed inside the
ring. The Young modulus of steel, Y = 21 × 10 5 kg / cm 2 and the coefficient of linear
expansion, α = 12 × 10 −6 / 0C. [J.E.E. ‘88]
Solution:
The thermal stress = Y α ∆T = 21 × 10 5 × 12 × 10 −6 × (95 − 20) = 1890 kg/cm 2
= 1890 × 1000 × 980 dyne/cm 2 = 1.8522 × 10 9 dyne/cm 2 .
Example# 10. A pendulum clock gives correct time at 20 0 C . Sometimes, the clock
slows down to 30 seconds a day. What is the temperature during that time? The
coefficient of linear expansion of the material of the pendulum bar is = 18 × 10 −6 / 0C.
[H.S. ‘89]
Solution:
The pendulum slows down means the time period of oscillation is increased. This
happens when the length of the bar (suspension rod) is increased. This suggests that the
temperature is increased.
Let us suppose, the length of the pendulum bar is L1 at 20 0C and it is L2 when the
temperature is increased by ∆T .
∴ We can write, L2 = L1 [1 + α ∆T ]
When the clock gives correct time, it strikes off each second for half a swing. The full
time period for each swing is then t1 = 2 s.
L1
∴ 2 = 2π (i)
g
1 day = 24 × 60 × 60 = 86400 s.
When the clock goes slow by 30 seconds, it actually strikes (86400 − 30) = 86370 times a
day which means, 86370 half swings in 86400 seconds. Thus the actual time required for
86400
one half swing now is = s.
86370
86400
∴ The time period (= one full swing), t 2 = × 2 s.
86370
L2 L1 [1 + α∆T ]
We can write, t 2 = 2π = (ii)
g g
∴ (ii) ÷ (i):
86400 L1 [1 + α∆T ]
× 2 2π g
86370 =
2 L
2π 1
g
86400
= [1 + α∆T ] = [1 + 0.000018 × ∆T ] 1 / 2
1/ 2
Or,
86370
86400 1
Or, = 1 + × 0.000018 × ∆T
86370 2
[Binomially expanding and neglecting other terms as they are very small]
 86400  2 30 × 2
Or, ∆T =  − 1 × =
 86370  0.000018 86370 × 0.000018
Or, ∆T = 38.6
∴ The required temperature is = 20 + 38.6 = 58.6 0 C .
Example# 11. A pendulum clock, made of iron, gives correct time at 20 0 C . Find out
how much time the clock runs fast or slow when the temperature is changed to 40 0 C .
Given, the coefficient of volume expansion of iron = 36 × 10 −6 / 0C . [H.S. ’92, ’03; I.I.T.]
Solution:
Let us suppose, the length of the pendulum bar is L1 at 20 0C and L2 at 40 0C , and the
corresponding time periods are t1 and t 2 respectively.
L1 L2
We can write, t1 = 2π and t 2 = 2π .
g g
t2 L2
∴ =
t1 L1
Now, we have t1 = 2 s, since the time period at 20 0C is equal to 2 strikes by the
pendulum. Also, we have L2 = L1 [1 + α (40 − 20)] = L1 (1 + 20α ) .
L1 (1 + 20α )
= 2 × (1 + 20α )
1/ 2
∴ t2 = 2
L1
γ
Or, t 2 = 2 × (1 + 20 × 12 × 10 −6 )
1/ 2
[as α = , γ being the coefficient of volume
3
expansion]
1
Or, t 2 = 2 × (1 + × 20 × 12 × 10 −6 ) [Binomially expanding and neglecting other terms]
2
Or, t 2 = 2 + 20 × 12 × 10 −6 = 2.00024 second.
Now the time period of oscillation of the pendulum becomes 2.00024 s instead of 2 s.
Thus the clock now goes (2.00024 − 2) = 0.00024 s slow in every 2 s.
1 day = 24 × 60 × 60 = 86400 s.
0.00024 × 86400
∴ In a day, that is in 86400 s, the clock goes slow by = 10.37 s.
2
Example# 12. There are 3 steel and 2 brass rods in a compensated pendulum. If the
average length of each steel rod is 90 cm, what is the average length of each brass rod?
Given, the coefficient of linear expansion for steel = 12 × 10 −6 / 0C and that for brass =
19 × 10 −6 / 0C .
Solution:
According to the working principle of compensated pendulum, we ca say
The increment of length for 3 steel rods = the increment of length for 2 brass rods.
Or, 3 × 90 × 12 × 10 −6 = 2 × L × 19 × 10 −6 [ L = length of each brass rod]
3 × 90 × 12
Or, L = Or, L = 85.26 cm.
2 × 19
Example# 13. A meter scale has to be made out of steel so that the maximum error in
measuring1 mm can be 0.0005 mm at any temperature. What can be maximum change in
temperature that can be tolerated? Given, the coefficient of linear expansion for steel =
13.22 × 10 −6 / 0C [I.I.T.]
Solution:
Suppose, the maximum change in temperature is δT for which there can be the
maximum error 0.0005 mm in measuring 1 mm.
For the increase in temperature of δT , the reading for 1 mm will be = 1.0005 mm.
∴ 1.0005 = 1 + α δT Or, 1.0005 = 1 + 13.22 × 10 −6 × δT
0.0005
Or, δT = = 37.82 0C .
13.22 × 10 −6
Example# 14. A equilateral triangle is formed by three rods at 0 0 C . One of the three
rods is made of invar (the thermal expansion of invar is negligible) and the rest two are
made of some other material. When the triangle is heated up to 100 0 C , the two rods,
made of same material, subtend an angle of ( π / 3 − θ ) between them. Show that the
coefficient of linear expansion of the material of the two rods is 3θ / 200 0 C .
[J.E.E.; H.S. ‘99]
Solution:
Suppose, the length of each rod is l at 0 0C and the coefficient of linear expansion of the
material of two rods (AD and BD, shown in the figure**) = α .
Fig. to be included
∴The length of each of the rods (AD and BD) at 100 0 C will be l1 = l (1 + 100α ). It is
assumed that the base AB is made of invar and thus it does not expand appreciably.
Now a perpendicular is drawn from the vertex of the triangle on to the base which bisects
the base (see figure). Now from the triangle ADO, we can write
l/2 l1 l l (1 + 100α )
= Or, =
sin(π / 6 − θ / 2) sin π / 2 2 sin(π / 6 − θ / 2) 1
1
Or, sin(π / 6 − θ / 2) =
2(1 + 100α )
π θ π θ 1
Or, sin cos − cos sin =
6 2 6 2 2(1 + 100α )
1 3 θ 1 θ θ θ
Or, .1 − . = [ For θ small, sin → and cos → 1]
2 2 2 2(1 + 100α ) 2 2 2
3 1
Or, θ = 1−
2 (1 + 100α )
3 100α 100α
Or, θ= = [ 100α is neglected, being small compared to 1]
2 1 + 100α 1
3
∴α= θ / 0C .
200
Note here that the original triangle was a equilateral triangle and thus the
π
value of each angle = . When two sides expand equally, the triangle
3
becomes an isosceles triangle where the angle between two equal sides
π
now has decreased to a value ( − θ ) , usually only a little less than the
3
previous value. One can thus easily think that θ is small.
Example# 15. A uniform pressure P is applied on all sides of a solid cube. How much
of its temperature has to be raised so that the volume of the cube will be unchanged?
Given, the coefficient of volume expansion = γ and the bulk modulus = B . [I.I.T.]
Solution:
If the initial volume of the cube is = V and the decrease in volume due to applied
pressure P is = ∆V then the bulk modulus,
P PV
B= Or, ∆V = .
∆V B
V
Suppose, the increase of temperature has to be ∆T to keep the volume unchanged.
Then we have, ∆V = γ V ∆T
PV P
∴ γ V ∆T = Or, ∆T = .
B Bγ
Example# 16. A 100 cm long rod is clamped at one end. A screw is attached to the free
end of the rod. The pitch of the screw is 0.5 mm. The screw can go back and forth along
the length of the rod when rotated. A circular scale with 100 divisions is attached with
this. The screw moves one smallest division on the linear pitch scale for one full rotation
of the circular scale. One smallest division on the linear scale is 0.5 mm. At 20 0 C , the
linear scale reads something little more than 0 and the circular scale reads 92. If the
temperature of the rod is raised to 100 0C , the linear scale shows a little above 4 and the
circular scale reads 72. Find the coefficient of linear expansion for the material of the rod.
[I.I.T.]
Solution:
Screw pitch = 0.5 mm. Total divisions of the circular scale = 100.
0.5
The least count of the screw = = 0.005 mm. One division in the circular scale is
100
equal to 0.005 mm in the linear scale.
Thus the total scale reading for 20 0 C is = 0 × 0.5 + 0.005 × 92 = 0.46 mm.
The total scale reading for 100 0C is = 4 × 0.5 + 0.005 × 72 = 2.36 mm.
∴ The increase in length = 2.36 − 0.46 = 1.9 mm = 0.19 cm.
Thus we can write, 0.19 = α × 100 × (100 − 20)
0.19
∴ α= = 23.75 × 10 −6 / 0C .
100 × 80
Example# 17. Two rods of equal cross-section are joined fact to face. The joint rod is 1
m long at 25 0C and one in the composition is a 30 cm long copper rod. The joint rod is
expanded by 1.91 mm at 125 0 C . If the joint rod is kept between two rigid walls, it does
not expand even when the temperature is increased. What is the Young modulus and the
thermal coefficient of linear expansion for the material of the other rod? For copper, the
coefficient of linear expansion = 1.7 × 10 −5 / 0C and Young modulus, Y = 1.3 × 1011 N / m 2 .
[I.I.T.; J.E.E.]
Solution:
At 25 0C , the length of the copper rod = 30 cm and the length of the other rod =
100 − 30 = 70 cm.
At 125 0C , the increase in length of the copper rod = 30 × 1.7 × 10 −5 × (125 − 25) = 0.051
cm = 0.51 mm.
∴ The increase in length of the other rod = 1.91 − 0.51 = 1.4 mm.
If the coefficient of linear expansion of the material of the other rod is α ,
0.14
0.14 = 70 × α × (125 − 25) Or, α = = 2.0 × 10 −5 / 0C
70 × 100
Thermal stress due to change in temperature ∆T is = Y α ∆T .
Thermal stress in copper rod = 1.3 × 1011 × 1.7 × 10 −5 × ∆T
Thermal stress in the other rod = Y × 2 × 10 −5 × ∆T
Since the cross-sectional area of the two rods is same, the thermal stress in two rods is
also same.
∴ Y × 2 × 10 −5 × ∆T = 1.3 × 1011 × 1.7 × 10 −5 × ∆T
1.3 × 1011 × 1.7 × 10 −5
Or, Y = −5
= 1.105 × 1011 N/m 2 .
2 × 10
Example# 18. An aluminium sphere is immersed in oil at 20 0 C and at 1 atm pressure.

How much has the pressure to be increased at 35 0C so that the sphere will not expand?
Given, the coefficient of linear expansion of aluminium = 23 × 10 −6 / 0C and the bulk

modulus (coefficient of volume deformation), K = 7.7 × 1010 N / m 2 .
Solution:
Suppose, the volume of sphere at 20 0C = V0 and the volume at 35 0C = V .
[
∴ V = V0 [1 + γ (35 − 20)] = V0 [1 + 3α × 15] = V0 1 + 3 × 23 × 10 −6 × 15]
V V
Or, = 1 + 1035 × 10 −6 Or, − 1 = 1035 × 10 −6
V0 V0
V − V0 ∆V
Or, = = 1035 × 10 −6
V0 V0
P
If we now assume that the pressure is increased to P , then K = .
∆V
V0
∆V
∴P=K = 7.7 × 1010 × 1035 × 10 −6 N/m 2
V0
7.7 × 1035 × 10 4
= atm = 786.7 atm. [ 101.3 × 10 3 N/m 2 = 1 atm]
101300
∴The pressure is to be increased by 785.7 atm above the standard atmospheric pressure
of 1 atm.
Example# 19. A solid brass cylinder, having mass 500 gm and radius 3 cm, is placed
on a frictionless bearing. At 20 0 C , the angular speed of this cylinder around its axis is 60
radian/sec. Will there be any change in the angular speed, angular momentum and
rotational kinetic energy of the cylinder when the temperature of it is increased to
100 0C ? If so, then determine the percentage change in the above mentioned quantities.
Given, α for brass = 2 × 10 −5 / 0C . [J.E.E.]
Solution:
1
The moment of inertia of the solid cylinder, I = MR 2 .
2
0
The radius, R at 20 C is 3 cm.
1 1
∴ The moment of inertial at 20 0 C is I 1 = M (3) 2 = M × 9 gm cm 2 .
2 2
When the temperature is raised to 100 C , the radius = 3 × [1 + 2 × 10 −5 × (100 − 20)] =
0
3.0048 cm.
1 1
∴The moment of inertial at 100 0 C is I 2 = M (3.0048) 2 = M × 9.029 gm cm 2 .
2 2
The angular momentum remains constant. The angular speed changes.
1
M × 9 × 60
I 1ω1 2 9 × 60
∴ I 1ω1 = I 2ω 2 ⇒ ω 2 = = = = 59.808 radian/sec.
I2 1 9.029
M × 9.029
2
ω 2 − ω1
The percentage change in angular speed is = × 100
ω1
59.808 − 60
= × 100 = −0.32% . [Negative sign is due to the decrease in angular speed]
60
1
The rotational kinetic energy at 20 0C , E1 = I 1ω1 .
2
2
1
The rotational kinetic energy at 100 0C , E 2 = I 2ω 2 .
2
2
E − E1
∴ The percentage change in rotational kinetic energy is = 2 × 100 =
E1
I 2ω 2 − I 1ω1
2 2
9.029 × (59.808) 2 − 9 × (60) 2
× 100 = × 100 = -0.32%.
I 1ω1
2
9 × (60) 2
Example# 20. Two rods of different materials are joined end to end and the two other
ends of the rods are clamped at two opposite and parallel walls. The area of cross-section
of both the rods is A . The length, the coefficient of linear expansion and the Young
modulus of one rod are l1 , α 1 and Y1 whereas for the other rod they are l 2 , α 2 and Y2 .
The temperature of the rods are increased by T 0C . Determine the aggregate force
developed and the lengths of the rods in this situation. [I.I.T.]
Solution:
Total thermal expansion in the two rods is = l1α 1T + l 2α 2T .
Due to the clamping at two opposite walls, there will be a thermal stress developed inside
the two rods. The contraction in the two rods will then balance the thermal expansion.
Let us say, the force developed inside each rod be F .
If the contraction in the first rod is ∆l1 and that in the second rod is ∆l 2 , we can write
from the definition of Young modulus,
F/A Fl
Y1 = Or, ∆l1 = 1 and
∆l1 / l1 AY1
F/A Fl
Y2 = Or, ∆l 2 = 2 .
∆l 2 / l 2 AY2
Fl Fl 2
The total contraction in the two rods is = ∆l1 + ∆l 2 = 1 + .
AY1 AY2
Fl1 Fl 2 l l 
∴ l1α 1T + l 2α 2T = + Or, AT (l1α 1 + l 2α 2 ) = F  1 + 2 
AY1 AY2  Y1 Y2 
ATY1Y2 (l1α 1 + l 2α 2 )
Or, F = .
l1Y2 + l 2Y1
The length of the first rod when the temperature is increased by T 0C = Initial length +
Fl l ATY1Y2 (l1α 1 + l 2α 2 )
expansion – contraction = l1 + l1α 1T − 1 = l1 + l1α 1T − 1 ×
AY1 AY1 l1Y2 + l 2Y1
l TY (l α + l α ) T (Y1α 1 − Y2α 2 )
= l1 + l1α 1T − 1 2 1 1 2 2 = l1 +
l1Y2 + l 2Y1 Y2 Y1
+
l 2 l1
T (Y2α 2 − Y1α 1 )
Similarly, the present length of the second rod = l 2 + .
Y2 Y1
+
l 2 l1
Example# 21. Two rods of same coefficient of linear expansion α 2 and of equal length
l 2 and another of coefficient α 1 and length l1 are freely jointed to form an isosceles
triangle. The base of the triangle l1 is nailed at the middle. What can be the relation
between l1 and l 2 so that the distance between the vertex and the mid point of the base
remains unchanged even if the temperature is changed?
Solution:
ABC is an isosceles triangle and D is the mid point of the base BC which is nailed (as
shown in the Figure**).
Fig. to be included
2
2 l 
According to the figure, AD = l2 −  1  = x (say,)
2
2
l 
2
∴ x = l2 −  1 
2
2
As the temperature is changed by ∆T = t , the lengths of the rods are changed to
′ ′
l 2 = l 2 (1 + α 2 t ) and l1 = l1 (1 + α 1t ) . If now the length AD = y , then we can write
2
l ′ 
′2 1 2
y = l 2 −  1  = l 2 (1 + α 2 t ) 2 − l1 (1 + α 1t ) 2
2 2
2 4
 
1 2
= l 2 (1 + 2α 2 t ) − l1 (1 + 2α 1t )
2
[neglecting square terms, as they are small]
4
According to question, x 2 = y 2
2
l  1 2
−  1  = l 2 (1 + 2α 2 t ) − l1 (1 + 2α 1t )
2 2
Or, l 2
2 4
1 2 l 1 α1
Or, 2l 2 α 2 t = l1 α 1t Or, 2 =
2
This is the required relation.
2 l1 2 α 2
Example# 22. Two metal strips of length l 0 and width x are riveted at a temperature t
such that the ends of them coincide. The coefficients of linear expansion of the materials
of the rods are α 1 and α 2 ( α 1 > α 2 ). This bimetallic strip bends like an arc of a circle
when the temperature is raised to (t + δt ) . Find the radius of curvature of the bent strip.
Solution:
Let us suppose, the lengths of the strips, AB and CD at higher temperature are l1 and l 2
and their radii of curvatures are r1 and r2 where θ is the angle subtended at the centre as
shown in the Fig.**.
∴ l1 = l 0 (1 + α 1δt ) = r1θ ……………(i) and
l 2 = l 0 (1 + α 2δt ) = r2θ ……………..(ii)
Subtracting (ii) from (i),
l (α − α 2 )δt l (α − α 2 )δt
θ (r1 − r2 ) = l 0 (α 1 − α 2 )δt ∴ θ = 0 1 = 0 1 [ Q r1 − r2 = x ]
r1 − r2 x
Now, adding up (i) and (ii),
2l + l (α + α 2 )δt 2l + l (α + α 2 )δt
r1 + r2 = 0 0 1 = 0 0 1
θ θ
2l + l (α + α 2 )δt {2l 0 + l 0 (α 1 + α 2 )δt}x
= 0 0 1 ×x = .
l 0 (α 1 − α 2 )δt l 0 (α 1 − α 2 )δt
Fig. to be included
Example# 23. A 600 cm steel rod is clamped firmly at one end and the other end of it is
kept at 10 cm away from the suspension point of a lever. If the temperature of the rod is
increased by 50 0 C , the lever is rotated by an angle of 2 0 . Find the increment in length of
the rod and the coefficient of linear expansion.
Solution:
The increment in length of the rod,
π
∆l = rθ [Here, r = 10 cm, θ = 2 × radian.]
180
π π
= 10 × 2 × == 0.349 cm.
180 9
The coefficient of linear expansion of the material of the rod,
∆l
α= [Here, l 0 = 600 cm (initial length), ∆T = 50 0 C ]
l 0 × ∆T
0.349
= = 11.6 × 10 −6 / 0C .
600 × 50
Example# 24. Three rods of equal length at 0 0 C form an equilateral triangle, ABC (as
shown in Figure**). The coefficient of linear expansion for the material of the rod AB is
α and that for other two rods is β . How much will be the increase in angle C at t 0C ?
[J.E.E. ‘98]
Solution:
π
At 0 0 C , the angle ∠C = 60 0 C = .
3
π
Let us now assume, ∠C = 2φ , where φ = − θ ( θ very small)
6
[Note that the angle C may decrease or increase according to the amount of expansions of the
rods. Here, in the figure, it is shown to decrease.]
If l be the length of each rod at 0 0 C , we can write for the extended triangle,
l / 2(1 + αt ) l (1 + β t ) l / 2(1 + αt )
= Or, sin φ =
sin φ sin 90 0
l (1 + β t )
π  1 + αt π π 1 + αt
Or, sin  − θ  = Or, sin cos θ − cos sin θ =
6  2(1 + βt ) 6 6 2(1 + βt )
1 3 1  1 + αt 
Or, cos θ − sin θ =  
2 2 2  1 + β t 
1 + αt
Or, 1 − 3θ = [Q θ small ∴ sin θ = θ , cos θ = 1 ]
1 + βt
1  1 + αt  ( β − α )t
Or, θ = 1 −  =
3  1 + βt  3 (1 + β t )
2( β − α )t
∴ The total increase in the angle C at t 0 C is = 2θ = .
3 (1 + β t )
Fig. to be included
--------------------Discussions on some Questions-------------------------
Q.1 Is it possible for the difference in length of a brass rod and a steel rod to remain
same at all temperatures? [I.I.T.]
Ans.
This is possible only when the amount of expansion (or contraction) of the brass rod is
equal to that of the steel rod for the same increase (or decrease) in temperature.
Let us suppose, the coefficient of linear expansion for brass = α B , the coefficient for steel
= α S and at a particular temperature, the length of the brass rod = LB , the length of the
steel rod = LS .
According to question, the increment in length in the two rods will be the same for an
increase in temperature, ∆T .
LB α S
∴ LBα B ∆T = LS α S ∆T Or, =
LS α B
Thus the ratio of lengths of the two rods has to be equal to the inverse of the ratio of the
coefficients of their materials.
Q.2 A brass disc sits tight inside a hole in steel. Will you heat up this to remove the disc
out of the hole? Given, α for brass = 19 × 10 −6 / 0 C and α for steel = 12 × 10 −6 / 0 C .
[I.I.T.]
Ans.
We have to cool this place to remove the brass disc out of the steel hole.
The diameter of the brass disc is equal to the inner diameter of the steel hole at the initial
stage. The value of the coefficient of linear expansion of brass is bigger than the
coefficient of linear expansion of steel. Thus for the same amount of heating, the
expansion of the diameter of brass disc will be more than the expansion of the inner
diameter of the steel hole. For this the brass disc will sit there more tightly. On the other
hand, when we cool this place, the decrease in the diameter of brass disc will be more
than the decrease in the diameter of the steel hole. Hence the brass disc will get loose and
come out.
Q.3 An isosceles triangle is formed by three zinc rods. Will the base angles of the
triangle change due to a change in temperature? Explain. [H.S. ‘88]
Ans.
Let us suppose, the initial length of two equal arms of the triangle is = a and the initial
length of the base is = b . Thus the ratio of the lengths of the arms = a : a : b .
If the coefficient of linear expansion for zinc is α , then due to increase in temperature t ,
the ratio of the lengths of the arms is now a(1 + αt ) : a(1 + αt ) : b(1 + αt ) = a : a : b .
Hence the ratio of the lengths of the arms of the triangle remains the same and so we can
conclude that the angles also remain unchanged.
Q.4 A copper strip and an iron strip of same size are riveted together. Explain what
happens when such a combination is heated. [J.E.E. ‘87]
Ans.
The bimetallic strip made of copper and iron bends when it is heated. The coefficient of
linear expansion for iron and the coefficient for copper are not same. Otherwise it would
remain straight. The coefficient of linear expansion for copper is more than that for iron.
Thus the expansion in copper strip will be more than that in iron strip. The combination
will thus be bent because of unequal expansion. The copper strip will be on the outer side
as it expands more and the iron strip will be on the inner side when bent.
Q.5 An iron rod is inserted in a circular iron ring along its diameter. Explain whether the
ring to remain circular when the combination is heated. [J.E.E. ‘85]
Ans.
The ring remains circular when the combination is heated.
Let us suppose, the initial diameter of the ring is d and the coefficient of linear
expansion is α .
∴ The perimeter of the ring = π d and the length of the rod = d .

πd
∴ The ratio of the perimeter of the ring and the length of the rod = =π .
d
If now the temperature of the combination is increased by ∆T , the perimeter of the ring =
πd (1 + α∆T ) and the length of the rod = d (1 + α∆T ) .
πd (1 + α∆T )
∴ The ratio of the perimeter of the ring and the length of the rod = =π .
d (1 + α∆T )
Thus it shows that the ring will remain circular.
Q.6 The area of cross-section and the length of two rods are same. But the materials of
the rods are not same; the elastic and thermal properties are different. The two rods are
fixed in two rigid walls along their lengths. What can be the relation between their
Young modulus and coefficient of linear expansion so that the meeting point of the two
rods may not change even when they are heated? [J.E.E. ‘89]
Ans.
Two rods are fixed rigidly. If the thermal stresses in them are equal, when heated, the
meeting point of the rods does not change.
Suppose, the Young modulus and the coefficient of linear expansion for the first rod are
Y1 and α 1 and those for the second rod are Y2 and α 2 respectively. If the temperature is
increased by ∆T , the thermal stress developed in first rod = Y1α 1 ∆T and the thermal
stress developed in the second rod = Y2α 2 ∆T .
Therefore, the condition for the meeting point of the rods to remain unchanged is
Y α
Y1α 1 ∆T = Y2α 2 ∆T Or, 1 = 2 .
Y2 α 1
Q.7 Does the volume expansion of a solid body due to heating differ if it contains a hole
in it? Justify your answer. [J.E.E.]
Ans.
The change in volume of a solid body due to the change in temperature does not depend
on whether the body contains a hole in it. If the hole would be filled up with solid of
same material, it would expand (or contract) at the same rate. Thus the volume of the hole
will expand (or contract) with the same rate as that of the solid body. There will be no
effect.
Q.8 A solid and a hollow cylinder of same size and made of same material are taken.
Explain if the expansions in them be same when they are heated. [H.S. ‘90]
Ans.
The volume expansions in the solid and in the hollow cylinders of same size and same
material will be the same if their temperatures are raised to same amount.
Suppose, the length and radius of the two cylinders be l1 and r1 . The initial volume of
both the cylinders, V1 = πr1 l1 .
2
As the temperature is increased by ∆T , we consider the changes in the hollow cylinder:

The length, l 2 = l1 (1 + α∆T ) and the radius, r2 = r1 (1 + α∆T ) .
∴ The new volume of the hollow cylinder,

V2 = πr2 l 2 = πr1 (1 + α∆T ) 2 × l1 (1 + α∆T ) = πr1 l1 (1 + α∆T ) 3
2 2 2
= V1 (1 + 3α∆T ) [As α∆T is small, other terms are neglected.]

= V1 (1 + γ∆T ) [Since, γ = 3α , the coefficient of volume expansion]
For the solid cylinder we can write, the new volume,

′
V2 = V1 (1 + γ∆T ) [In this case we consider the volume expansion altogether.]
′
∴ V2 = V2 , the volume expansion in both the cylinders is same.
Q.9 A pendulum has length l , time period T and the coefficient of linear expansion α .
1
Show that the change in time period due to the change in temperature ∆t is = αT∆t
2
1
and the rate of change of time period is = αT . [J.E.E. ‘94]
2
Ans.
l
The time period of the pendulum at the initial stage is T = 2π .
g
If the temperature is increased by ∆t , the length is changed to l (1 + α∆t ) .
l (1 + α∆t ) l
∴The new time period, T ′ = 2π = 2π (1 + α∆t )1 / 2
g g
 1 
= T 1 + α∆t  [Neglecting other terms of the Binomial expansion]
 2 
∴ The increase in time period in the time interval ∆t is
 1  1
= T ′ − T = T 1 + α∆t  − T = αT∆t .
 2  2
1
αT∆t
2 1
∴The rate of increase in time period = = αT .
∆t 2
-----------------------------Questionnaire--------------------------------
Very brief questions: Marks: 1

Answer in a few words
1. What is the unit of the coefficient of linear expansion? [/ C 0 or often written

as / 0 C or 0 C −1 ]
2. What is the relation between the coefficients of linear expansion and volume
expansion? [ γ = 3α ]
3. A bimetallic strip made of brass and iron remains straight at 20 0 C . If the

temperature brought down to 0 0 C the strip bends,. Which metal will be on the
convex side of the bent strip? [iron]
4. In Celsius scale, the coefficient of linear expansion of platinum is 9 × 10 −6 / 0C .
What is this value in Fahrenheit scale? [ 5 × 10 −6 / 0F ]
Fill in the blanks
1. Due to increase in temperature, each side of a copper cube is increased by 0.1%.

The volume of the cube is increased by ------------. [0.3%]
2. If the temperature is increased, the density of a solid -------------. [decreases]
3. A pendulum clock keeps correct time at 20 0 C . If the room temperature is 40 0 C ,
the clock goes -----------. [slow]
4. The thermal expansion of invar is -------- than that of other metals or alloys. [less]
Multiple answer type
1. When a hollow metal sphere is heated, the volume of the cavity inside
(a) remains same, (b) decreases, (c) increases [(c)]
2. Which of the following has highest percentage increase when a solid metal sphere
is heated?
(a) length, (b) area, (c) volume, (d) density [(c)]
0
3. A steel scale gives correct reading at 10 C . When this is used to measure a rod at
30 0 C , the measured length will be
(a) equal to correct length, (b) less than the correct length, (c) more than the
correct length [(b)]
4. Platinum wire can be sealed with a glass wall because platinum and glass have
(a) equal density, (b) equal melting point, (c) equal specific heat, (d) equal
coefficient of linear expansion [(d)]
5. The ratio of lengths of two iron rods is 1:2 and the ratio of cross-section of them
is 2:3. The ratio of volume expansion of the two rods due to same temperature
increase is
(a) 1:2, (b) 1:3, (c) 2:3, (d) 1:6 [(b)]
6. A brass disc is tightly sitting inside an iron hole. What is the most useful
technique to pull the disc out of the hole? [The coefficient of linear expansion of
brass is more than that of iron.]
(a) The combination has to be heated, (b) The combination has to be cooled, (c)
Hitting is required than cooling or heating, (d) Has to be heated first and then to
immerse in water for cooling. [(b)]
7. An isosceles triangle is formed by three iron rods. What will be the change in
angles when the triangle is heated?
(a) No change, (b) The base angles increase but the vertex angle decreases, (c)
The base angles decrease but the vertex angle increases, (d) Nothing can be said
[(a)]
8. At 0 0 C , an aluminium rod (coefficient of linear expansion α 1 ) of length l1 and an

iron rod (coefficient of linear expansion α 2 ) of length l 2 are joined together to
form a single rod of length l1 + l 2 . If the expansion in the two rods is same for the
l1
temperature increase of t 0 C , the value of will be
l1 + l 2
α1 α α1 α2
(a) , (b) 2 , (c) , (d) [I.I.T.-J.E.E. ‘03]
α2 α1 α1 + α 2 α1 + α 2
[(d)]
−6 0
9. The coefficient of linear expansion for brass is 19 × 10 / C . A brass circular disc
has area 25 cm 2 at 0 0 C . The area at 80 0 C is
(a) 25.038 cm 2 , (b) 25.076 cm 2 , (c) 25.114 cm 2 , (d) 25.38 cm 2 [(b)]
0
10. At 10 C , the length of each rail segment is 25 m. How much gap has to be kept
between two such segments such that there will not be any deformation up to a
temperature, 50 0 C ? [For steel, α = 11 × 10 −6 / 0C .]
(a) 5.5 mm, (b) 8.25 mm, (c) 1.1 mm, (d) 1.65 mm [(c)]
11. Two plain strips of equal area made of iron and copper are kept one on top of the
other and riveted. What will be the nature of the curvature of this bimetallic strip
at 0 0 C and at 100 0 C ? [The coefficient of linear expansion for copper is more
than that of iron.]
(a) The copper strip will be on the convex side at both the temperatures, (b) The
iron strip will be on the convex side at both the temperatures, (c) The copper strip
will be on the convex side at 0 0 C , and on the concave side at 100 0 C , (d) The
iron strip will be on the convex side at 0 0 C , and on the concave side at 100 0 C
[(d)]
12. In which of the following the bimetallic strip is not used?
(a) A metal wire is sealed inside a glass, (b) Thermostat, (c) Fire alarm, (d)
Compensated balance wheel of a watch [(a)]
13. The length of a brass rod has to be measured at different temperatures. Which of
the following materials should be chosen to make a scale?
(a) wood, (b) steel, (c) brass, (d) platinum [(a)]
0
14. A pendulum clock keeps correct time at t C . When the temperature is increased
(a) The clock always keeps correct time. (b) The clock runs fast, (c) The clock
goes slow, (d) Whether the clock goes fast or slow depends on the material of the
pendulum bar. [(c)]
15. The material of a rod has Young modulus Y and the coefficient of linear
expansion, α . If such a rod of length l and cross-section A is fixed firmly
between two rigid walls and then temperature is increased by t 0 C , what will be
thermal stress developed?
(a) lAYα t , (b) AYα t , (c) lYα t , (d) Yα t [(b)]
16. Two rods of same length are kept rigidly fixed between two unmovable walls and
the temperatures of them are increased by the same amount. What will be the
relation between the Young modulus and the coefficient of linear expansion of the
materials of the two rods when the thermal stress in them are equal?
Y α Y α1 Y α Y α2
(a) 1 = 1 , (b) 1 = , (c) 1 = 2 , (d) 1 = [(c)]
Y2 α 2 Y2 α2 Y2 α 1 Y2 α1
17. A bimetallic strip is made of two exactly similar strips of copper and brass. The
coefficients of linear expansion for the two materials are α C and α B . If now the
temperature is raised by ∆T , the bimetallic strip bends like an arc for which the
radius of curvature is R . Which of the following is correct?
1 1
(a) R ∝ ∆T , (b) R ∝ , (c) R ∝ α B − α C , (d) R ∝ [I.I.T. ‘99]
(∆T ) 2
α B −αC
[(d)]
Short questions: Marks: 2
1. There is an expansion in solid due to heating – how can it be shown by an

experiment?
2. Describe an experiment to show that different materials undergo different expansions
due to same increase in temperature.
3. Define coefficient of linear expansion for solid. [H.S.’97]
4. ‘All solids expand in length due to increase in temperature. In some cases this
expansion has advantages and in some cases this expansion causes disadvantages.’ –
Establish this with examples. [H.S.’91]
5. ‘Metal scale does not give correct reading at all temperatures’.- Explain this.
[H.S.’97]
6. What is bimetallic strip? How is it used to measure temperature? [H.S. ‘03]
−6 0
7. The coefficient of linear expansion of iron is 12 × 10 / C - Explain this. [H.S. ‘03]
8. Is the value of α same in Celsius and Fahrenheit scales?
9. The coefficient of linear expansion for brass is19 × 10 −6 / 0C . What is this value in
Fahrenheit scale? [H.S.’95]
10. Why does a bimetallic strip bend due to heating or cooling?
11. How does a bimetallic strip work as an automatic switch in an electrical circuit?
[H.S. ‘93]
12. A bimetallic strip can be used as an alarm – explain.
13. What is invar? Write any usage of this.
14. An isosceles triangle is formed by three zinc rods. Do the base angles change due to
the rise in temperature? Explain with logic.
15. It is claimed that the difference in length of a brass rod and a steel rod is same at all
temperatures. Is it possible?
16. An iron rod is fixed along the diameter of a circular iron ring. Explain if the ring
remains circular even when the combination is heated.
17. A copper strip and an iron strip of same size are riveted. Explain what happens when
this is heated.
18. A brass disc is struck inside a steel hole. What will you do to pull the disc out of the
hole? Will you heat this place? Given, α for brass = 19 × 10 −6 / 0C and α for steel
= 12 × 10 −6 / 0C .
19. Does the volume change due to temperature depend on whether there are pores inside
a material (when other things remain the same)? Explain logically.
20. A hollow cylinder and a solid cylinder of same size are heated to same degree. Do
they have same expansion? Answer with reasons. [H.S.’90]
21. Why iron rods and not other rods are used for building construction? [H.S. ‘95]
22. Platinum wire is easily sealed inside a glass and not copper wire. Why? [H.S. ‘92]
23. Why does a thick glass tumbler break when hot water is poured in it?
24. Why thin glass beaked is used to heat water in laboratory?
25. The tight lid of glass bottle opens up due to little heating – why?
26. A gap is kept between two rail pieces – why?
27. How do the shapes change for an equilateral triangle and a square made of metal rods
when they are heated?
28. A metal pipe is heated. What will be the changes in (i) volume, (ii) density, (iii)
internal diameter and (iv) external diameter of this pipe?
29. Why both the ends of a big steel bridge are not inserted into cement foundation?
30. Why are the holes made in elliptical shape in a fishplate for inserting the bolts
through it while joining two rail segments?
31. Give three examples where thermal expansion of solid is utilized.
32. Two rods of length l and width d are riveted. What will be the mean radius of
curvature when the temperature of this riveted combination is raised by θ 0 C ? The
materials of two rods have coefficient of linear expansion α 1 and α 2 . [H.S. ‘05]
33. Find out the expression for thermal stress. [H.S. ‘05]
34. Two rods have same cross-section and same length but they are made of different
materials. The rods are fixed in two unmovable walls along their lengths. The elastic
constant and the thermal coefficients of the materials of the two rods are different.
What will be the relation between the coefficient of linear expansion and Young
modulus of the two rods so that the joining position of the two rods remains
unchanged when heated.
Medium questions: Marks: 4
1. Define coefficient of linear expansion. Show that the unit of coefficient of linear
expansion does not depend on the unit of length but it depends on the unit of
temperature. [2+2] [H.S. ’96, ‘99]
2. Establish the relation between the coefficient of linear expansion and the coefficient
of surface expansion of solid. [4] [H.S. ‘99]
3. Establish the relation between the coefficient of linear expansion and the coefficient
of volume expansion of solid. [4]
[H.S. ’91, ’95, ’97, ’01, ’03, ’05; J.E.E. ‘98]
4. Find a relation of how density of solid changes with temp change and discuss. [2+2]
[H.S. ’94, ’98, ‘01]
5. Explain the working principles of (i) thermostat, (ii) compensated balance wheel.
[2+2]
6. Why does a common pendulum clock run fast in winter and go slow in summer?
What can be the arrangement so that it may keep correct time in all seasons? [2+2]
7. What is compensated pendulum? Explain its principle. [2+2]
8. Prove by an experiment where force is developed due to thermal expansion. [4]
9. What is thermal stress? Determine thermal stress inside a rod. [2+2]
10. Define coefficient of linear expansion. Show that the unit of it does not depend on the
unit of length. A metal rod is fixed at two ends inside a circular metal ring along its
diameter. Show that the ring remains circular when the combination is heated. [2+2]
[H.S.(XI) ‘06]
Short problems: Marks: 2
1. The coefficient of linear expansion for iron is 0.0000067/ 0 F . What is the value of the
coefficient in per degree Celsius? [Ans. 0.000012/ 0 C ]
2. Temperature of a 2 m long rod is increased by 100 0 C . What will be the increase in
length? Given, α = 0.000012/ 0C . [Ans. 0.24 cm]
3. The temperature of a 3 m long iron rod is raised from 0 C to 200 0 C . The length
0
increases by 7.2 mm. Calculate the coefficient of linear expansion of iron.

[Ans. 0.000012/ 0 C ]
4. The length of a brass rod is increased by 0.5 cm when the temperature is increased by
100 0 C . What was the initial length of the rod? For brass, α = 19 × 10 −6 / 0C .
[Ans. 263.157 cm]
0 0
5. A zinc rod is 2 m at 30 C . What will be its length at 60 C ? For zinc,
α = 0.00003/ 0C . [Ans. 200.18 cm]
0
6. The lengths of an iron rod and a zinc rod at 0 C are 25.55 cm and 25.5 cm,
respectively. At what temperature the lengths of them will be equal? The coefficients
of linear expansion for iron and zinc are 10 × 10 −6 and 30 × 10 −6 per 0 C , respectively.
[98 0 C ]
7. A railway line is made by a 15 m long steel rail segment. How much gap has to be
kept between two such segments so as to tolerate maximum 40 0 C temperature
increase? For steel, α = 11 × 10 −6 / 0C . [0.66 cm]
0
8. At 10 C , there are gaps of 0.5 inches between two rail segments. At what
temperature will the gaps vanish when each segment is 66 ft long? α = 11 × 10 −6 / 0C
[Ans. 67.4 0 C ]
9. The height of Eiffel tower is 335 m. The minimum temperature in winter is 0 0 F and
the maximum temperature is 100 0 F . The tower is made of steel. The coefficient of
linear expansion of steel is 12 × 10 −6 / 0C . What will be the maximum change in height
in two seasons? [Ans. 22.3 cm]
10. The distance between Allahabad and Delhi is 390 mile by railroad. The mean
temperature in winter is 38 0 F and the mean temperature in summer is 119 0 F . How
much total gap has to be kept in the rail lines? For iron, α = 0.000012/ 0C . [Ans.
0.2106 mile]
11. The diameter of a wooden wheel is 50 inches. An iron rim of inner perimeter 156.1
inches has to be fitted on this. How much temperature of the rim has to be increased
for this purpose? For iron, α = 12 × 10 −6 / 0C . [Ans. 522.97 0 C ]
12. At 30 0 C , a metal ball has diameter 4.02 cm and a circular hole in a brass sheet has
diameter 4 cm. How much temperature of the brass sheet has to be increased so that
the ball at 30 0 C just passes through this hole? For brass, α = 18 × 10 −6 / 0C . [Ans.
307.8 0 C ]
13. A steel spherical bob has to be inserted through a brass ring. The bob has diameter 25
cm and the ring has inner diameter 24.9 cm at 20 0 C . If the brass and the ring are
heated together, find the temperature at which the bob just passes through the ring.
For steel, α = 12 × 10 −6 / 0C and for brass, α = 2 × 10 −5 / 0C . [Ans. 525 0 C ]
14. A steel made scale is errorless at 15 0 C . Find out the error when a distance is
measured to be 200 cm at 30 0 C ? The coefficient of linear expansion for steel =
0.000012/ 0 C . [Ans. 0.036 cm less]
0
15. The diameter of a brass disc is 10 cm at 30 C . What will be the increase in area at
70 0 C ? For brass, α = 18 × 10 −6 / 0C . [Ans. 0.113 sq. cm]
16. There is a to and fro motion of a piston of diameter 4 inches. How much gap has to be
kept between the cylinder and piston so that they just touch? The coefficients of linear
expansion for the materials of piston and cylinder are 1.36 × 10 −5 / 0F and
0.62 × 10 −5 / 0F . [Ans. 0.01296 inches]
17. The difference in length of two rods is 25 cm at all times irrespective of temperature.
If the coefficient of linear expansion for the rod A is 1.28 × 10 −5 / 0C and that for the
rod B is 1.92 × 10 −5 / 0C , find the lengths of the rods at 0 0 C . [Ans. 75 cm, 50 cm]
18. A brass scale is correct at 20 0 C . A length is measured to be 50 cm at 40 0 C . What is
the correct length? For brass, α = 18 × 10 −6 / 0C . [Ans. 50.018 cm]
0
19. The length of a brass rod is 1.5 m at 50 C , measured by a steel scale which gives
correct reading at 68 0 F . Find the correct length of the rod at 50 0 C . For steel,
α = 11.2 × 10 −6 / 0C [Ans. 1.5005 m]
20. What is the density of brass at 100 C if the density is 7.8 gm/cc at 0 0 C ? For brass,
0
α = 18 × 10 −6 / 0C . [Ans. 7.76 gm/cc]

21. The density of glass is 2.6 gm/cc and 2.596 gm/cc at 10 C and 60 0 C , respectively.
0
What is the mean value of coefficient of linear expansion for glass in this temperature
range? [Ans. 10.27 × 10 −6 / 0C ]
22. Each side of a square plate is 100 cm at 0 0 C and there is a circular hole of diameter
40 cm at the centre of the square. At what temperature, each side of the square plate
will be 101 cm and what will be the diameter of the hole at that temperature? Given,
α for the metal = 12.5 × 10 −6 / 0C [Ans. 800 0 C , 40.4 cm]
23. The length of a steel structure of a bridge is 0.5 km. The maximum and minimum
temperatures can be 116 0 F and 44 0 F , respectively. What is the gap that has to be
kept to allow thermal expansion? [For steel, α = 1 × 10 −5 / 0C ] [J.E.E. ‘92]
[Ans. 20 cm]
24. An isosceles triangle is formed by three brass rods. The base of the triangle is 3
inches and the height 12 inches. What will be change in base angles when the
temperature rise is by 50 0 C ? Given, α = 19 × 10 −6 / 0C . [Ans. no change]
Medium level problems: Marks: 4
1. A steel scale gives correct result at 10 0 C . What is the distance between two cm
marks on that scale at 30 0 C and at 60 0 F ?
A brass rod is found to be 5 m measured by that scale. What will be the correct length
of the rod at 10 0 C ? (For brass, α = 0.000018/ 0C , for steel, α = 0.000012/ 0C )
[Ans. 1.00024 cm, 1.000067 cm, 4.9994 m]
2. A pendulum clock keeps correct time at 25 0 C . How much fast or slow the clock will
run when the temperature is 0 0 C ? The coefficient of linear expansion for brass is
19 × 10 −6 / 0C . [Ans. 20.52 second fast]
0
3. A pendulum clock keeps correct time at 20 C . Sometimes, the clock goes 10 seconds
fast in a day. What is the temperature of the day? For the material of the pendulum
bar, α = 18 × 10 −6 / 0C . [Ans. 7.3 0C ]
4. A pendulum clock completes 86405 half oscillations. The clock goes 15 s slow at the
end of the day although it runs fast at the beginning of the day. Find the maximum
and minimum temperature of the day. For the material of the pendulum bar,
α = 16 × 10 −6 / 0C . [Ans. 28.94 0 C ]
5. There are three iron rods and two brass rods in a compensated pendulum. The
coefficients of linear expansion for iron and brass are 12 × 10 −6 / 0C and 19 × 10 −6 / 0C ,
respectively and the length of each iron rod is 50 cm. Find the average length of brass
rods. [Ans. 63.16 cm]
0
6. If the density of mercury is 13.56 gm/cc at 15 C , what is the mass of 600 cc mercury
at 130 0C ? What will be the volume of 600 gm mercury at that temperature? [For
mercury, γ = 18 × 10 −5 / 0C ] [Ans. 7.968 kg, 45.18 cc]
7. The difference between the lengths of an iron and a copper rod is 2 cm at 50 0 C and at
450 0C . What are the lengths of the rods at 0 0 C ? [ α FE = 12 × 10 −6 / 0C and
α Cu = 17 × 10 −6 / 0C ] [Ans. 6.796 cm and 4.796 cm]
8. Volume can be measured accurately at 10 0C by a measuring cylinder made of glass.
Find the percentage error when this is used at 70 0 C . The coefficient of linear
expansion for glass = 9 × 10 −6 / 0C . [Ans. 0.162%]
9. Prove that if the temperature change is ∆T , the change in density is ∆ρ = −3αρ∆T .
α = Coefficient of linear expansion.
10. Prove that the expansion in volume V due to rise in temperature, ∆T is
∆V = 3αV ⋅ ∆T , where α = coefficient of linear expansion.
Advanced level problems:
1. The area of cross-section of a 25 cm long steel rod is 0.8 sq. cm. What is the tension
required to increase an amount of length which can be found from increasing the
temperature of the rod by 10 0C ? For steel, Y = 2 × 1012 dyne/cm 2 and α = 10 −5 / 0C .
[Ans. 16 × 10 7 dyne]
2. The temperature of a steel rod is increased by 15 0 C . What is the thermal stress
required to stop the expansion along the length? For steel, Y = 2 × 1012 dyne/cm 2 and
α = 1.2 × 10 −5 / 0C . [Ans. 36 × 10 7 dyne/cm 2 ]
3. Four rods of equal length are used to form a square ABCD. The coefficient of linear
expansion for AB and CD rods is α and the coefficient of linear expansion for the
other rod is β . Prove that , when the temperature of the rods is increased by t 0 , the
1
angles between the diagonals are changed by (α − β )t.
2
4. The temperature of a brass weight is raised from 20 0 C to 100 0C . The density of
brass is 8.4 gm/cc at 20 0 C . How much will be the increase in volume due to the rise
in temperature? [ α = 19 × 10 −6 / 0C ] [Ans. 0.54 cc]
5. The internal perimeter of a steel wheel is 157 cm. This has to be fitted on a ring
whose diameter is 50 cm. How much increase in temperature is required for this
purpose? What will be force per unit area on the ring due to the wheel when cooled?
For steel, Y = 2.1 × 1012 dyne/cm 2 and α = 12 × 10 −6 / 0C .
[Ans. 50.03 0C , 1.261 × 10 9 dyne.]
6. Two strips of different materials are riveted to form a single strip of width 0.1 cm.
What will be the radius of curvature when the temperature is increased by 100 0C ?
Given, α for the two metals, 18 × 10 −6 / 0C and 12 × 10 −6 / 0C . [Ans. 167.2 cm]
7. Two equal rods of copper and an aluminium rod are joined to form an isosceles
triangle ABC. Another rod AD of some unknown material is joined from the vertex A
to the mid point of base (made of aluminium). For a small change in temperature, the
rods don’t bend. In this situation, find the coefficient of linear expansion for material
of the rod AD. For copper, α = 16 × 10 −6 / 0C ; for aluminum, α = 26 × 10 −6 / 0C .
[Ans. 12.7 × 10 −6 / 0C ]
8. The temperature of a brass sphere whose radius is10 cm is increased at the rate of
2.5 0C in a second. Find out the rate of increase of (i) diameter, (ii) surface area, (iii)
volume. The coefficient of expansion for brass, α = 18 × 10 −6 / 0C .
[Ans. (i) 0.0009 cm/s, (ii) 0.1131 cm 2 /s, (iii) 0.5655 cm 3 /s]
9. A metal rod weighs 46 gm in air. It weighs 30 gm when immersed in a liquid of
specific gravity 1.24 at 127 0 C . If the temperature of the liquid is 42 0C , the metal rod
weighs 30.5 gm. If the specific gravity of the liquid is 1.20 at 42 0C , find the
coefficient of linear expansion of the metal. [Ans. 2.31 × 10 −5 / 0C ]
10. The lengths of two rods, made of brass and iron, are 50 cm and one end of each is
joined with the other. On the other ends, a needle of diameter 1 mm is kept between
them. An index attached with this needle indicates its rotation. When the rods are
heated, the index rotates by 10 0 . Calculate the temperature change. For brass,
α = 1.8 × 10 −5 / 0C ; for iron, α = 1.2 × 10 −5 / 0C . [Ans. 29.1 0 C ]
11. A thin rod of negligible mass and of area of cross-section, 4 × 10 −6 m 2 is hanging
vertically from the top. The length of the rod is 0.5 m at 100 0C . The rod is now
cooled down to 0 0C . But a mass is attached to resist the length contraction due to
cooling. Find the (i) mass that is attached, (ii) the energy stored in the rod. Give, the
coefficient of linear expansion for the material of the rod, α = 10 −5 / K and Y = 1011
N/m 2 ; g = 10 m/s 2 . [I.I.T. ‘97]
[Ans. (i) 400 kg, (ii) 2 joule]
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Thermal Expansion

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Thermal Expansion

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Fundamental Physics I by Dr. Abhijit Kar Gupta (email: kg.abhi@gmail.

What is thermal expansion?

• Different substances expand at different rates. This depends on the physical

• Liquids expand appreciably as compared to solids, in general.

Thermal Expansion of Solids

The expansion of solids is of three types. Linear expansion of solids can be

Demonstrations of Expansion of Solids:

• Bar and Gauge Experiment

• Ball and Ring Experiment

Experiments showing that the

• Experiment with Bimetallic Strip

At the beginning, the bimetallic strip remains straight at normal room

Application of Bimetallic Strip:

Experimentally, it is seen that the amount of expansion of length of a rod is proportional

Therefore, we can write

where the proportionality constant α is called the coefficient of linear expansion.

From equation (1) we get a definition of the coefficient of linear expansion:

• The coefficient α is specific to a material. The magnitude of this depends on the

It can be analyzed from the relation (3)

• Thus we see, α depends only on temperature. Dimension of α is / C 0 [also

the length is taken to be 1 m or 1 ft, then the increments are 0.000012 m or

Below is a list of mean coefficients of expansion of several solid substances between 0 0 C

Table # 1: Coefficient of linear expansion of different solids

Numerical Examples with Solutions:

Solution: From equation (1),

200.664 − 200.166 0.498

Increase in temperature generally causes increment in surface area and volume of a

Coefficient of Surface Expansion

where β is the coefficient of surface expansion (or area expansion).

From above, can write

When we put A0 = 1 and ∆T = 1, we have β = ∆A . Thus the definition of β can be

• Dimension of β depends on temperature only and it is the inverse of temperature.

The meaning of the coefficient of surface expansion for steel to be 24 × 10 −6 C 0 (=

Coefficient of Volume Expansion:

If the volume of a material is increased from V0 to V due to the increase of temperature

where γ is the coefficient of volume expansion.

From equation (9), we can write

When in expression (12) we put V0 = 1 and ∆T = 1, we have γ = ∆V . Thus the

The meaning of the coefficient of volume expansion for steel to be 36 × 10 −6 C 0 (=

The Relation among the three Coefficients of Expansion:

The relation between α and β

where α is the coefficient of linear expansion.

Therefore, the present area of the sheet is

Hence we have an approximate relationship

Comparing (13) and (14), we have

The relation between β and γ

We write the increase in temperature,

If the linear expansion coefficient be α then

The present volume of the cube is

Comparing equations (16) and (17),

Now from (15) and (18) we get

Derivation of the relationship among α , β and γ by Calculus:

The differential form of the expression of linear coefficient of expansion is

Differentiating the area A = L2 with respect to temperature T , we get

Again differentiating the volume V = L3 with respect to T , we get

∴ From (19) and (20) we have

---------------------Numerical Examples with Solutions--------------------------

∴ ∆A = 2 × 18 × 10 −6 × 16 × 3.1416 × (80 − 30)

Example #3 The volume of a lead bullet is 25 c.c. at 0 0 C . At 98 0 C , its volume increases

Here, V0 = 25 c.c., ∆V =0.021 c.c., ∆T = T − T0 = 98 – 0 = 98 C 0 .

Therefore, the coefficient of volume expansion is

1  15.5 1.24  1  19.22 

Change in Density of a Solid due to Change in Temperature:

Suppose, the density of a material is D0 and the volume is V0 at an initial temperature T0 .