From Captives to Slaves: Commodifying Indian Women in the Borderlands

Author(s): Juliana Barr

Reviewed work(s):
Source: The Journal of American History, Vol. 92, No. 1 (Jun., 2005), pp. 19-46
Published by: Organization of American Historians
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3660524 .
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F r o m
Captives
to S l aves:
Co m m o difying
I ndian W o m en
in th e Bo r der l ands
Jul iana
Bar r
On
Jul y
21, 1774,
fr ayMiguel
S anta Mar ia
y
S il va,
th e
l eading
F r anciscan
m issio nar y
statio nedinth e m issio ndistr ict o fLo s Adaes o nth e bo r der betweenTexas andLo ui-
siana,
r epo r ted
to th e
S panish vicer o y
inMexico
City
o nh is
tr ip th r o ugh
th at
r egio n
as
par t
o fa
del egatio nseeking
r enewed
peace
with
po wer ful
W ich ita andCaddo na-
tio ns. I n
1769,
inth e after m ath o fth e S evenYear s'
W ar ,
S pain
h ad
o fficial l y
establ ish ed
adm inistr ative co ntr o l o fth e fo r m er F r ench
pr o vince
o f
Lo uisiana,
andth e m issio nto
r eco nfir m W ich ita andCaddo al l iances
so ugh t
to
r epr esent
th e new
unity
o f
S pan-
iar ds andF r ench m eninLo uisiana andTexas.
Many,
h o wever ,
co ul dno t
put
aside
past
r ival r ies so
easil y,
andS anta Mar ia
y
S il va was no
exceptio n.
Rath er th andetail th is
fir st
peace
co uncil
so ugh t by
th e
S panish go ver nm ent
with
l eading
I ndian
natio ns,
th e
F r anciscan
spent page
after
page l am enting
an
"infam o us
tr affic o fth e fl esh " h e h ad
witnessed
being
car r iedo n
by
F r ench m en
l iving
inand
am o ng
Caddo anI ndian
vil l ages
al o ng
th e RedRiver . To discr edit
F r ench m en,
S anta Mar ia
y
S il va co ul dh ave
depl o r ed
th e
skyr o cketing
num ber s o fensl avedAfr icans andAfr icanAm er icans inLo uisiana
by
th e 1770s. Or ,
given
th e h o stil e r el atio ns betweenth e
S panish go ver nm ent
and
m any
independent
and
po wer ful
I ndiannatio ns inth e l o wer
Pl ains,
th e
m issio nar y
co ul dh ave
bem o anedth e fate o f
S panish
wo m enandch il dr enfr o m New Mexico wh o h adbeen
taken
captive by
I ndians ar m edwith
guns
o btainedfr o m F r ench tr ader s.
Yet,
str ikingl y,
th e tr affic inh um ans o nwh ich S anta Mar ia
y
S il va ch o se to fo cus was o ne inI ndian
wo m enandth eir ch il dr en,
captur edby
I ndianwar r io r s inth e so uth er nPl ains andTexas
andtr adedeast as sl aves to F r ench
buyer s
inLo uisiana-wo m enth us
co nsigned
to
"per -
ditio n"
by
"such cr uel
captivity," gr ieved
S anta Mar ia
y
S il va.!
Giventh e
gr o wingpr o l ifer atio n
o f studies o f I ndian
sl aver y, no tabl y
th e wo r ks o f
Jam es
E
Br o o ks andAl an
Gal l ay,
th e F r anciscan's l am ent seem s no t at al l
sur pr ising.2
I n-
Jul iana Bar r
is anassistant
pr o fesso r
at th e
Univer sity
o f F l o r ida. S h e wish es to th ank S ean
P. Adam s,
Jeanne
Bo ydsto n, Jam es E Br o o ks,
I ndr ani
Ch atter jee,
Laur a E Edwar ds, Al an
Gal l ay,
Ram 6n
A.
Guti&r r ez,
Nancy
A.
Hewitt,
Jo seph
C. Mil l er , Jennifer
M.
S pear ,
David
J.
W eber ,
th e
par ticipants
inth e 2002
Avigno n
Co nfer ence o n
F o r cedLabo ur and
S l aver y,
andth e
ano nym o us
r eader s fo r th e
Jo ur nal
o fAm er icanHisto r y
fo r th eir val uabl e co m -
m ents o near l ier dr afts o fth e
essay.
Reader s
m ay
co ntact Bar r at
<jbar r @h isto r y.ufl .edu>.
'
F r ayMiguel
S anta Mar ia
y
S il va to
Vicer o y
Anto nio Bucar el i
y
Ur suia,
Jul y
21, 1774,
inAth anase de
Mizir es
andth e Lo uisiana- Texas F r o ntier , 1768-1780, tr ans. anded. Her ber t
Eugene
Bo l to n(2 vo l s., Cl evel and, 1914),
I I , 74-75.
2
Jam es
E Br o o ks,
Captives
andCo usins:
S l aver y, Kinsh ip,
and
Co m m unity
inth e S o uth west
Bo r der l ands (Ch apel
Hil l , 2002);
Al an
Gal l ay,
Th e I ndianS l ave
Tr ade:
Th e Rise
o f
th e
Engl ish Em pir e
inth e Am er icanS o uth , 1670-1717
(New Haven, 2002);
Russel l M.
Magnagh i,
I ndian
S l aver y,
Labo r ,
Evangel izatio n,
and
Captivity
inth e Am er icas:
AnAnno tated
Bibl io gr aph y
(Lanh am , 1998).
Recent co nfer ence
pr o gr am s
o fh isto r ical
o r ganizatio ns (no tabl y
th e
June
2005 Th e
Jo ur nal
o fAm er ican
Histo r y
19
20
Th e
Jo ur nal
o fAm er ican
Histo r y
June
2005
cr easing
attentio nto th e ensl avem ent o fI ndians h as
push ed
UnitedS tates h isto r ians be-
yo nd
identificatio ns o fNo r th Am er ican
sl aver y
as
pr im ar il y
anAfr icanAm er ican
exper i-
ence ando fNo r th Am er ican
captivity
as
pr im ar il y
a wh ite
exper ience.
As Br o o ks's
study
o fNew Mexico
dem o nstr ates,
sch o l ar s al so ar e
beginning
to fo cus attentio no nwo m enas
th e victim s o fth at sl ave tr ade. Th eir
sch o l ar sh ip
is
deepeningunder standings
o fth e r o l es
o fI ndianwo m eninth eir
peo pl es'
inter actio ns with
Eur o peans.
W o m eno ftensto o din
unique po sitio ns
to l ear n
l anguages,
to act as tr ansl ato r s andem issar ies incr o ss-cul tur al
co m m unicatio ns,
andto cr eate ties betweencul tur es.3
Th o ugh
sch o l ar s h ave
r eco gnized
th at th e
co nfl ictingEur o pean
andnative
system s
o f
po wer
inwh ich native wo m en
o p-
er atedco nstr ainedth e wo m en's
o ppo r tunities,
an
em ph asis
o nwo m en's
agency
h as o b-
scur edth e m o r e co er cive tr affics inwo m enth at wer e
equal l y
centr al to
I ndian-Eur o pean
r el atio ns. I n
seeking
to r edeem th e
h um anity
o fsuch wo m enandto
r eco gnize
th eir im -
po r tant
r o l es intr ade and
dipl o m acy,
sch o l ar s h ave o ften
equatedagency
with
ch o ice,
independent
wil l ,
o r r esistance and
de-em ph asized
th e
po wer l essness, o bjectificatio n,
and
suffer ing
th at definedth e l ives o f
m any. Per h aps
th e best-kno wn
exam pl e
o fth is tr end
inAm er ican
h isto r y
and
po pul ar
cul tur e is
S acagawea,
wh o se
captur e
at th e h ands o f
r aiding
Hidatsas tur nedinto ensl avem ent wh ensh e was
pur ch asedby
th e F r ench Cana-
diantr ader To ussaint
Ch ar bo nneau-bo ndage
th at co ntinued
th r o ugh
h er tim e with th e
Lewis andCl ar k
expeditio n.
Th e vio l ence andco er cio nth at r educedh er to th e status o f
a sl ave
am o ng
Eur o -Am er icans h as beenl o st as
po pul ar pr efer ence
casts h er as Ch ar bo n-
neau's
"wife"
anda cel ebr atedm ediato r o f
I ndian-Eur o pean dipl o m acy.4
Th e
sch o l ar l y
fo cus o nm ediatio nandacco m m o datio nas wo m en's ch ar acter istic activ-
ity
in
I ndian-Eur o pean
r el atio ns o ftenl eads us to o ver l o o k th e
im po r tance
o fwo m enin
po l itical
eco no m ies o fwar and
im per ial r ival r y. Mul tipl e
co er cive tr affics inwo m enbe-
cam e essential to
Eur o pean-I ndian
inter actio n
l o ng
befo r e
S acagawea
fel l into th e h ands
o fh er
capto r s. Reco gnitio n
o fth e
diver sity
o f
tr afficking
no t
o nl y
enr ich es o ur under -
standing
o fth e
gender dynam ics
o f
Eur o pean-I ndiandipl o m acy
andco nfl ict but al so
enabl es us to m o ve
beyo nd
th e
h o m o geneo us co nceptio n
o f
sl aver ysuggestedbyusing
o nl y
Afr icanAm er ican
ensl avem ent,
specifical l y,
r acial ch attel
sl aver y
(defined
h er e as a
fo r m o f
pr o per ty
and
system
o f
co m pul so r y
l abo r
entail ingper m anent
and
h er editar y
Om o h undr o I nstitute o f
Ear l y
Am er ican
Histo r y
and
Cul tur e)
indicate th at num er o us studies o fI ndian
sl aver y
acr o ss co l o nial No r th Am er ica ar e inth e
wo r ks,
par ticul ar l y
disser tatio ns. F o r a
r ecentl yco m pl etedexam pl e,
see
Br ett H.
Rush fo r th ,
"S avage
Bo nds: I ndian
S l aver y
andAl l iance inNew F r ance"
(Ph .D. diss.,
Univer sity
o fCal i-
fo r nia, Davis, 2003).
3
S usan
S l eeper -S m ith ,
I ndianW o m en andF r ench Men:
Reth inking
Cul tur al Enco unter inth e W ester n Gr eat Lakes
(Am h er st, 2001); Jennifer
S . H.
Br o wn,
S tr anger s
inBl o o d: F ur Tr ade
Co m pany
F am il ies inI ndian
Co untr y
(Van-
co uver , 1980);
Jacquel ine
Peter so n, "Th e
Peo pl e
I nBetween: I ndian-W h ite
Mar r iage
andth e Genesis o fa M6tis
S o ciety
andCul tur e inth e Gr eat Lakes
Regio n,
1680-1830"
(Ph .D. diss.,
Univer sity
o fI l l ino is,
Ch icago ,
1981);
S yl via
VanKir k,
Many
Tender Ties: W o m enin
F ur
Tr ade
S o ciety,
1670-1870
(No r m an, 1980); Nancy
S h o em aker ,
ed.,
Nego tiato r s o fCh ange:
Histo r ical
Per spectives
o nNative Am er icanW o m en
(New Yo r k, 1995);
Tanis C.
Th o r ne,
Th e
Many
Hands
o fMy
Rel atio ns: F r ench andI ndians o nth e Lo wer Misso ur i
(Co l um bia, Mo ., 1996);
Gr eg
O'Br ien,
Ch o ctaws ina
Revo l utio nar y Age,
1750-1830
(Linco l n, 2002);
Th eda
Per due, Ch er o kee W o m en: Gender andCul tur e
Ch ange,
1700-1835 (Linco l n, 1998).
4
Onh isto r ians' definitio ns anduses o f
agency, par ticul ar l y
in
r el atio nsh ip
to
sl aver y,
see W al ter
Jo h nso n,
"On
Agency," Jo ur nal o f
S o cial
Histo r y,
37 (F al l 2003), 113-24. Onth e l im its o f
agency
fo r wo m en
caugh t
inth e ex-
ch anges
o f
m en,
see
Br o o ks,
Captives
andCo usins; andAl ber t L.
Hur tado ,
I ntim ate
F r o ntier s: S ex, Gender , and
Cul tur e inOl d
Cal ifo r nia (Al buquer que, 1999).
On
S acagawea's exper ience
with th e Lewis andCl ar k
expeditio n
as wel l as h er
escape
fr o m
sl aver y
andh er l ife after war d-l o st to
h isto r ybypast
tendencies to cast h er as a
tr agic
h er o ine wh o died
yo ung-see
Th o m as P.
S l augh ter , Expl o r ing
Lewis andCl ar k:
Refl ectio ns
o nMenandW il der ness
(New Yo r k, 2003),
86-113. Onth e
m yth o l o gizing
o f
S acagawea,
see Do nna
Bar bie,
"S acajawea:
Th e
Making
o fa
Myth ,"
in
S ifter s:
Native Am er icanW o m en' Lives, ed. Th eda Per due
(New Yo r k, 2001), 60-76.
Co m m o difying
I ndianW o m eninth e Bo r der l ands 21
S antaNF se-
ADA E
A
NUEA
A
A S
4
Al l , -
..
S Mo o cl o va o
S "
NUEVO
..
F Nasso t*
o
S KAsOADis sACHtl eS
..LEON......
E1Paso
"
TAKON HAS Natch ito ch e?
N. ,
TAW AKO.I S A\
? .
Nabgo ach es "
. 4.-
.
?-
TONKAW AS
AA
*r I S pl S
ii Natch ez
MES CALEROS
VI ZCAYA
..de
Bxato .
.
Ch ih uah ua
\
.
La Bah l a?-- .
COA
5. .
Gul f o f Mexico
.
Mo ncl o va
\ C,
8
A
I ndian
settl em ent
0 . 100 NUEVO
e"
i?3 ? F r ench o r S panish settl em ent
m il es
LEON
Majo r
I ndian,
S panish ,
andF r ench settl em ents in
S panish
Texas,
F r ench
Lo uisiana,
Apach er ia,
Co m anch er l a,
andth e ter r ito r ies o fCaddo andW itch ita
peo pl es
inth e m id-
eigh teenth centur y.
status)
to
expl o r e bo ndage
andunfr eedo m inAm er ica. I n
fact,
th e
ver yh eter o geneity
o f
I ndian
bo ndage suggests co m par iso ns
with th e
r ange
o fsl ave
pr actices
in
Afr ica, Asia,
th e
Mediter r anean,
ando th er
par ts
o fth e wo r l dwh er e at differ ent tim es and
pl aces per so ns,
pr im ar il y
wo m en,
wer e h el dandusedas no t
o nl y
eco no m ic but al so so cial and
po l iti-
cal
capital -co m par iso ns
th at r eso nate with
gr o wingsch o l ar l y
discussio ns o f
sl aver y
ina
gl o bal per spective.5
Th e
co nfl uence o f
S panish ,
F r ench ,
andI ndian
peo pl es
inth e ar eas l ater kno wnas
Co -
m anch er ia,
Apach er ia, S panish
Texas,
andF r ench Lo uisiana m akes th em anideal venue
fo r
expl o r ing
th e fo r m s th at tr affic inwo m en
m igh t
take andth e kinds o f
cur r ency
th at
wo m en
m igh t r epr esent
to I ndianand
Eur o pean
m enwh o
exch anged
th em . Distinct
system s
o f
captivity, bo ndage,
andensl avem ent
devel o ped
ina m atr ix o f
expanding
I n-
dian
ter r ito r ies,
F r ench
m er cantil ism ,
and
S panish
defensive needs
dur ing
th e
eigh teenth
centur y.
At th e endo fth e seventeenth
centur y, steadil yincr easing
num ber s o f
S paniar ds
co m ing
no r th fr o m Mexico andF r ench m en
co m ing
so uth fr o m I l l ino is andCanada be-
gan
to invade th e
r egio n
andestabl ish
neigh bo r ing, co m petingpr o vinces.
At th e sam e
5
I go r Ko pyto ff, "S l aver y,"
Annual Review
o fAnth r o po l o gy,
11
(1982), 207-30;
Jo seph
C.
Mil l er ,
"Th e Pr o bl em
o f
S l aver y
as
Histo r y," inaugur al
l ectur e o f th e DavidBr io nDavis Lectur e S er ies at th e
Gil der -Leh r m anCenter ,
Yal e
Univer sity,
F eb.
7, 2005
(in
Jo seph
C. Mil l er 's
po ssessio n); Jam es
L.
W atso n,
"S l aver y
as anI nstitutio n:
Open
andCl o sed
S ystem s,"
inAsian
andAfJicanS ystem s o fS l aver y,
ed.
Jam es
L. W atso n
(Oxfo r d, 1980),
1-15. Histo r ical
and
anth r o po l o gical
discussio no fAfr ican
sl aver y
is th r eaded
th r o ugh o ut
th e text andno tes o f
Br o o ks,
Captives
and
Co usins. Th e annual
Avigno n
Co nfer ence o nF o r cedLabo ur and
S l aver ybr ings to geth er
sch o l ar s wh o se r esear ch
r anges
o ver tim es fr o m
antiquity
to th e r ecent
past
ando ver
pl aces
acr o ss th e
gl o be
to discuss
system s
o f
sl aver y
in
co m par ative per spective.
22 Th e
Jo ur nal
o fAm er ican
Histo r y
June
2005
tim e,
th e ter r ito r ies o fbands o f
Apach es
andl ater Co m anch es andW ich itas wer e
sh ifting
to incl ude
incr easingl yl ar ge
ar eas o f
pr esent-day
no r th andno r th -centr al Texas. As th o se
gr o ups co nver ged
inth e
eigh teenth centur y, Eur o pean
andI ndianm en-as
capto r s,
br o -
ker s,
and
buyer s-usedcaptur ed
andensl avedwo m ento cr aft
r el atio nsh ips
o ftr ade and
r ecipr o city
with o ne ano th er . A
key
differ ence betweensuch
exch anges
andth o se invo l v-
inginter m ar r iage
was th at th e wo m enwh o m m en
captur ed
andensl avedwer e
str anger s
o r enem ies to th eir
kinsh ip system s.
W h enI ndianbands br o ker edm ar ital unio ns inth e
ser vice o f
dipl o m acy,
a wo m an's o wn
fam il y
o r bandl eader s
usual l ynego tiated
o nh er be-
h al f,
as inth e fur tr ade o f
Canada,
th e Gr eat Lakes
r egio n,
andth e Am er icanS o uth east.
I nco ntr ast to such
wo m en,
wh o
m ay
h ave
expanded
th eir
existing
so cial andeco no m -
ic
auth o r ityth r o ugh inter m ar r iage,
ensl avedI ndianwo m eninTexas andLo uisiana r e-
m ainedo utside th e kinr el atio ns o fth e h o useh o l ds th at m ade th em
o bjects
o f
exch ange.'
No t
o nl y
didI ndians o fano th er
gr o up
suffer th e l o ss o fth eir wo m enwh enth eir enem ies
so ugh t
to buil dtr ade ties with
Eur o peans th r o ugh captive
wo m enandch il dr en. I feffo r ts
to cem ent
dipl o m atic
andeco no m ic ties didno t succeed-as o ften
h appened
between
I ndians and
S paniar ds-m il itar y
andstate
o fficial s
m ade
punitive
war ,
seeking
o ut
cap-
tives and
h o stages
inr etr ibutio nfo r fail ed
nego tiatio ns.
Th us
h o stil ity
as m uch as acco m -
m o datio nwas th e co ntext fo r th e tr affic inwo m en. Th e
po l itical
andco m m er cial
aspects
o fth e
exch anges
al so set th em
apar t
fr o m m o st I ndian
pr actices
o f
captivity
andfr o m
Eur o peansystem s
o fensl avem ent: I ndians didno t take th e wo m ento
avenge
o r
r epl ace
th e
dead,
as
th ey
to o k m o st
captives;
no r did
Eur o peans
intendto use th em as a ser vil e
l abo r
fo r ce,
as
th ey
usedm o st sl aves.
I nstead,
th e
exch anges
inter wo ve th e
catego r ies
o f
captivity
and
sl aver y
and
th er eby
tr ansfo r m edI ndianwo m eninto val uabl e co m m o dities
o fcr o ss-cul tur al
war ,
dipl o m acy,
and
po wer .
W r iting
in
1774,
S anta Mar ia
y
S il va dem o nstr ateda cer tain
disingenuo usness
info -
cusingo nl y
o n
F r ench m en,
since
S paniar ds
h adbeen
r educing
sel ect I ndians fr o m th e r e-
gio n
to
bo ndage
fo r m uch o fth e
eigh teenth centur y.
But th at m isdir ectio n
h igh l igh ts
th e
way
th e tr ade inI ndianwo m en
m ayexpl icate geo po l itical
r el atio ns
am o ngEur o pean
and
native
po wer s
inco l o nial Am er ica. I nh is
attem pts
to accent
S panish -F r ench
differ ences,
th e F r anciscan
do wnpl ayed
th e co ntentio us r el atio ns between
S paniar ds
and
neigh bo r ing
I ndians th at h adm ade th e
dipl o m atic
m issio nto th e W ich ita andCaddo bands a neces-
sity
inth e fir st
pl ace.
I nsuch a
wo r l d,
I ndianwo m eninth e h ands o f
enem y
I ndianm en
becam e
keyo bjects
o f
captive r aiding
and
h o stage exch ange
as th e wo m en's I ndian
capto r s
so ugh t
eco no m ic and
dipl o m atic gain
with bo th native and
Eur o pean
al l ies. I nth e h ands
o f
S panish
andF r ench
buyer s
and
ensl aver s,
wo m enfacedfates fr o m sexual ser vitude to
co nsignm ent
to l abo r
cam ps
to use as
po l itical capital
in
attem pts
to wino r
im po se
al l i-
ances o r to
signal
th e fail ur e o fth o se effo r ts. Th e
m ul tipl icity
o f
exper iences
r efl ectedno t
o nl y
differ ences o fcul tur e o r r ace but al so differ ent
under standings
o fh o w to
go ver n,
h o w
to
expr ess po wer ,
andh o w to seek andbuil d
po l itical r el atio nsh ips
with o th er m enandth e
natio ns
th eyr epr esented,
wh eth er native o r
Eur o pean. Tl h is,
th en, is th e
sto r y
I wo ul dl ike
to
expl o r e:
th e
ways S panish , F r ench , andI ndianm en
so ugh t
to
fo r ge
o r co er ce bo nds o f
6
Discussing
Cl aude Levi-S tr auss's
th eo r y
o f
m ar r iage
as a fo r m o f
gift exch ange, Gayl e
Rubin
expl ained,
"I f
it
is wo m enwh o ar e
being
tr ansacted,
th enit is th e m enwh o
give
andtake th em wh o ar e
l inked, th e wo m an
being
a
co nduit o fa
r el atio nsh ip
r ath er th ana
par tner
to it." S ee
Gayl e
Rubin,
"Th e Tr affic inW o m en: No tes o nth e 'Po -
l itical
Eco no m y'
o f
S ex,"
inTo war dan
Anth r o po l o gyo f
W o m en,
ed.
Rayna
R. Reiter
(New Yo r k, 1975),
174.
Jane
F ish bur ne
Co l l ier ,
Mar r iage
and
I nequal ity
inCl assl ess S o cieties
(S tanfo r d, 1988).
Co m m o difying
I ndian
W o m en
inth e Bo r der l ands 23
o bl igatio nth r o ugh
a tr ade infem al e
pawns.
Th e diver se co nditio ns to wh ich such wo m en
wer e r educedr eveal new
ways
o f
under standingbo ndage
andunfr eedo m .
Our
sto r ybegins
with F r ench -I ndian
captive
tr ade acr o ss th e Pl ains and
al o ng
th e Texas-
Lo uisiana bo r der . I nitial
Eur o pean
o bser vatio ns at th e endo fth e seventeenth
centur y
suggest
th at natives inth e so uth er nPl ains andth e RedRiver
val l ey
didno t m aintain
captives
as a so ur ce o fl abo r .
I nstead,
I ndian
peo pl es
to o k a few
captives
inwar far e
o nl y
fo r r itual izedcer em o nies o f
r evenge
o r ,
l ess
o ften,
fo r
ado ptio n.
Men
r ar el y
al l o wedth em -
sel ves to be
captur ed, pr efer r ing
death o nth e
battl efiel d;
th o se
captur ed
m o st o ftenwer e
destinedfo r
to r tur e,
wh ich fur nish edth e
o ppo r tunity
fo r th e h o no r abl e war r io r 's death
deniedth em inbattl e
(th e
h o no r
acquir edbyendur ingpain).
I n
co ntr ast,
capto r s
deem ed
wo m enandch il dr eneasier to
inco r po r ate
into th eir
co m m unities,
th o ugh ado ptio n
was
no t
al ways
th eir fate eith er . An
ear l y
F r ench
o bser ver ,
Henr i
Jo utel ,
a sur vivo r o f
Ren&-
Ro ber t
Cavel ier ,
sieur de La S al l e's il l -fated
expeditio n
o f
1684-1687,
r eco r dedth at dur -
ing
h is visit to Hasinai Caddo s in
1687,
war r io r s r etur nedfr o m a battl e with
scal ps
and
two
captives
fo r
victo r y
cel ebr atio ns. Ofth e two
captives,
bo th
wo m en,
o ne was tur ned
o ver to Caddo wo m ento be to r tur edand
kil l ed,
th e o th er was
scal ped
but no t
kil l ed,
given
a bul l et and
po wder ,
andsent back to h er
peo pl e
as a
war ning.
Outside th e r eal m
o f
war ,
exch anges
o fwo m enandch il dr enm o r e o ftento o k a
peaceful
fo r m ,
par ticul ar l y
inth e ser vice o f
dipl o m atic
al l iance.
I nter m ar r iage
o ftenunitedbands in
po l itical
and
eco no m ic
r el atio nsh ips,
such as th e
Hasinai, Natch ito ch es,
andKado h adach o co nfeder a-
cies cr eated
by
th e al l iance o fvar io us Caddo bands
by
th e endo fth e seventeenth
centur y.
Ch il dr en
m igh t
al so be
exch angedam o ng
W ich ita andCaddo anbands and
ado pted
into
th eir co m m unities as
signs
o fal l iance andinsur ance o f
peace.7
Th r ee
year s
after
Jo utel 's
enco unter s with
Caddo s,
Henr i de To nti andsever al o th er
F r ench m enar r ivedinCaddo l ands insear ch o fsur vivo r s o fLa S al l e's
expeditio n,
and
Kado h adach o war r io r s tr iedto
per suade
th e F r ench m ento
acco m pany
th em into war
against S paniar ds
to th e so uth west o fth eir l ands. As
enticem ent,
th e war r io r s
pr o m ised
th e F r ench m en
anym o ney
fo und,
but "as fo r
th em sel ves,"
To nti
r eco r ded,
"th eyo nl y
wish edto take th e wo m enandch il dr enas sl aves." Th e F r ench m en
decl ined,
tr ying
to
m ake cl ear th at th e decisio nder ivedfr o m a r el uctance to take Ch r istian
captives,
since
th e wo m enandch il dr en
tar geted
wer e in
S panish
settl em ents. Th e Caddo m enco ul dno t
be bl am edfo r
pr esum ing
F r ench inter est in
sl aves, h o wever ,
since th e F r ench m ensh o wed
no r el uctance to tr ade inensl avedo r
captive
I ndians. I n
fact, To nti
h ad
br o ugh t
with h im
two Kado h adach o wo m enwh o m h e h ad
pur ch ased
fr o m Ar kansas I ndians at h is I l l ino is
tr adingpo st
o nth e
Mississippi
River . Th e F r ench m an
h o ped
th at
r etur ning
th e wo m en
7
W il l iam C. F o ster , ed., Jo h anna
S . W ar r en, tr ans.,
Th e
La S al l e
Expeditio n
to Texas: Th e
Jo ur nal
o fHenr iJo u-
tel , 1684-1687 (Austin, 1998), 227-29;
F r ay
F r ancisco Casatias de
Jesuis
Mar ia to th e
Vicer o y
o f
Mexico ,
Aug.
15, 1691,
in
"Descr iptio ns
o fth e
Tejas
o r Asinai
I ndians, 1691-1722,"
tr ans. Mattie AustinHatch er , S o uth wester n
Histo r ical
Quar ter l y,
30
(Jan. 1927), 217;
Ral ph
A.
S m ith ,
tr ans. anded.,
"Acco unt o f th e
Jo ur ney
o f
B&nar d
de
l a
Har pe: Disco ver y
Made
by
Him o f S ever al Natio ns S ituatedinth e W est," ibid.,
62
(Jul y
1958), 75-86;
ibid.
(Oct. 1958), 246-59; ibid. (Jan. 1959), 371-85;
ibid.
(Apr il
1959), 525-41;
DavidLa
Ver e,
Th e
Caddo
Ch iefdo m s:
Caddo
Eco no m ics andPo l itics, 700-1835 (Linco l n, 1998), 1-14, 33-35;
Tim o th y
K.
Per ttul a,
"Th e
Caddo
Natio n".
Ar ch aeo l o gical
and
Eth no h isto r ic
Per spectives
(Austin, 1992), 85, 217-20; Kar l S ch m itt andI va Osanai S ch m itt,
W ich ita
Kinsh ip:
Past andPr esent
(No r m an, n.d.), 23;
Go r do nM.
S ayr e,
Les
S auvages
Am er icains:
Repr esentatio ns o f
Native Am er icans inF r ench and
Engl ish
Co l o nial Liter atur e
(Ch apel
Hil l , 1997), 14, 266.
24
Th e
Jo ur nal
o fAm er ican
Histo r y
June
2005
to th eir
peo pl e
wo ul d
put
h im inth e Caddo s'
go o dgr aces-and
h e was
r igh t;
it did. I t
m ay
al so h ave
h el ped
establ ish an
im age
o fF r ench m enas
pur veyo r s
o fI ndiansl aves in
th e m inds o fCaddo an
peo pl es.8
After th e F r ench
pr o vince
o fLo uisiana was establ ish edin
1699,
F r ench
o fficial s,
fo l -
l o wing
th ese ear l ier
pr o m ising
co ntacts,
decidedto o r ient th eir tr ade inter ests to th e
west andno r th . I n1706 th e
S panish expeditio n
l eader
Juan
de Ul ibar r i
r epo r ted
to New
Mexicano fficial s th at W ich itas inth e so uth er nPl ains h ad
begun
to sel l
captive Apach e
wo m enandch il dr ento th e F r ench
(wh o m
th e W ich itas th enidentifiedas th e
"S pan-
ish inth e
east").
Attem pts
to findr o utes to New Mexico
put
th e F r ench inco ntact with
I ndianbands wh o se r eactio ns to th e F r ench newco m er s fur th er
signal ed
th eir
spr eading
r eputatio n
as sl ave r aider s. I n
1719,
fo r
instance,
wh enth e F r ench tr ader Cl aude-Ch ar l es
Dutisnd
fir st
appr o ach ed
a no r th er nW ich ita
vil l age
inth e
Pl ains,
war r io r s twice r aiseda
war cl ub o ver h is h eadas h e
str uggl ed
to co nvince th em th at h e h adno t co m e to ensl ave
th em . A
war ning
fr o m
neigh bo r ingOsages r egar ding
F r ench
intentio ns,
h e so o n
l ear ned,
h ad
pr eceded
h is ar r ival .'
Dutisnd's
pr o testatio ns
to th e
co ntr ar yno twith standing,
th e F r ench
pr esence quickl y
intr o duceda co m m er cial el em ent into native
captive taking
inth e so uth er nPl ains and
RedRiver
val l ey
inth e
ear l yeigh teenth centur y.
Th e sam e
year
h e faceddeath o nth e
no r th er n
Pl ains,
Dutisnd
al so r eco r dedth at a Mento
(W ich ita)
ch iefh advisitedh im at
a new F r ench
po st al o ng
th e RedRiver to sel l I ndiansl aves
(m o st
l ikel y
Pl ains
Apach es).
Ano th er F r ench
tr ader ,
JeanBaptiste
Benar dde
l a
Har pe, r epo r ted
a m ix o fo l dandnew
ways
o f
tr eatingcaptives
inW ich ita
vil l ages
h e visited. At a Tawako ni
(W ich ita)
vil l age
o nth e S o uth Canadian
River ,
a W ich ita ch ief
gave
B6nar dde l a
Har pe
an
eigh t-year -o l d
Apach e bo y
inan
exch ange
o fcer em o nial
speech es
and
gifts.
I nth e sam e
br eath ,
th e ch ief
addedth at h ad
B&nar d
de l a
Har pe
ar r iveda m o nth
ear l ier ,
h e co ul dh ave
given
(o r so l d)
h im seventeenm o r e
Apach es,
but, al as,
th ey
h adbeenkil l edina
publ ic
festival ."'
F r ench m ennext
attem pted
to
o pen
tr ade with
Apach es,
th e
ver ypeo pl e
wh o wer e
l o sing
r el atives to F r ench ensl avem ent. I n1724 Etienne de
Bo ur gm o nt
sent a
twenty-
two -year -o l d
wo m ananda
teenage bo y
o fsixteenwh o m h e h ad
pur ch ased
fr o m Kansas
I ndians back to th eir
vil l age am o ng
Pl ains
Apach es.
Th r ee m o nth s
l ater ,
h e tr avel edth er e
andtr iedto buil do nth is
gestur e
in
seeking
tr ade r el atio ns with
Apach e
l eader s.
S tanding
inth e m idst o ftr ade
go o ds
h e h ad
car eful l y
l aido ut fo r
displ ay-r ifl es,
saber s,
pickaxes,
gunpo wder ,
bul l ets,
r ed
cl o th ,
bl ue
cl o th , m ir r o r s, knives, sh ir ts, scisso r s, co m bs,
gun-
fl ints, ver m il io n, awl s, needl es, kettl es, bel l s, beads,
br ass
wir e,
and
r ings-Bo ur gm o nt
bo th
sym bo l ical l y
and
r h eto r ical l y
m ade th e case th at th e
Apach es
wo ul dder ive advan-
tage
fr o m tr ade with F r ench m en.
Apach e
l eader s,
th o ugh ,
saw
quite
a differ ent
gain
to
be h adand
quickl ygr abbed
th e
o ppo r tunity.
"W e wil l
go
to visit th e
F r ench ,
andwe wil l
8
Henr i de
To nti,
"Mem o ir S ent in
1693,
o nth e
Disco ver y
o f th e
Mississippi
andth e
Neigh bo r ing
Natio ns
by
M. D. La
S al l e,
fr o m th e
year
1678 to th e Tim e o fh is Death , and
by
th e S ieur de
To nty
to th e
year
1691,"
in
Th e
Jo ur neys o fRene
Ro ber t Cavel ier , S ieur de l a S al l e, ed. I saac
Jo sl in
Co x
(2 vo l s.,
New
Yo r k, 1973), I , 41-44, 46,
esp.
42.
9
Juan
de
Ul ibar r i, "Th e
Diar y
o f
Juan
de Ul ibar r i to El
Cuar tel ejo ,
1706,"
in
After Co r o nado :
S panish Expl o r a-
tio nNo r th east
o fNew
Mexico , 1696-1727, tr ans. Al fr ed
Bar naby
Th o m as
(No r m an, 1935), 59-77;
Ch ar l es W il so n
Hackett, tr ans.,
Pich ar do 's Tr eatise o nth e
Lim its
o fLo uisiana
andTexas
(4 vo l s., Austin, 1931), I I , 179-87; Mil dr ed
Mo tt
W edel , Th e W ich ita I ndians, 1541-1750: Eth no h isto r ical
Essays
(Linco l n, 1988), 101; Kate L.
Gr egg,
"Th e
Misso ur i Reader :
Expl o r er s
inth e
Val l ey,
Par t
I I ,"
Misso ur i Histo r ical Review, 39
(Jul y1945),
511.
10 Gr egg,
"Misso ur i
Reader ," 512; S m ith , tr ans. and
ed., "Acco unt o fth e
Jo ur ney
o fB6nar dde l a
Har pe,"
529;
W edel ,
"Cl aude-Ch ar l es
Dutisnd,"
102,
106.
Co m m o difying
I ndianW o m eninth e Bo r der l ands 25
br ing
h o r ses to tr ade with
th em ,"
an
Apach e
ch ieffir st info r m ed
Bo ur gm o nt.
Th e next
day,
as
nego tiatio ns
co ntinued,
h e
neatl y
and
publ icl y
co m m ittedth e F r ench to
suppl y-
ing
m uch m o r e th anth e
go o ds
so
car eful l y
adver tised
byBo ur gm o nt. S tanding
befo r e
m o r e th antwo h undr edwar r io r s andan
equal
num ber o fwo m enandch il dr enwh o
ser vedas audience to th e cer em o nial
m eetings,
th e
Apach e
l eader anno unced: "Yo u see
h er e th e F r ench m anwh o m th e Gr eat
S pir it
h as sent to o ur
vil l age
to m ake
peace
with
us. ... Hencefo r th we sh al l be abl e to h unt in
peace.
...
Th ey
wil l r etur nto us o ur wo m -
enandch il dr enwh o m
th ey
h ave takenfr o m us andwh o ar e sl aves inth eir
co untr y
in
exch ange
fo r h o r ses th at we wil l
give
th em . Th e
gr eat
F r ench ch iefh as
pr o m ised
th is to
us." But bo th m en's m ach inatio ns wo ul dbe invain."
Despite Bo ur gm o nt's peaceful
intentio ns andth e
Apach e
ch ief's
per suasive
r h eto r ic,
F r ench
po sts
inwester nLo uisiana h ad
al r eady
beco m e,
andwo ul dr em ain
th r o ugh o ut
th e
eigh teenth centur y,
nucl ei o fa sl ave tr ade in
Apach e captives br o ugh t by
Caddo s,
W ich itas,
andl ater Co m anch es.
Having
identifiedth e num er o us and
pr o sper o us
Cad-
do an
peo pl es al o ng
th e RedRiver as cr ucial
tar gets
fo r effo r ts to establ ish
pr o fitabl e
tr ade
al l iances,
F r ench m enh adestabl ish eda
m il itar ypo st
near a
vil l age
o fNatch ito ch es
I ndians in
1716,
nam ing
it F o r t S t.
JeanBaptiste
aux Natch ito ch es.
Th ey
buil t a sub-
sidiar ytr adingpo st
fur th er
upr iver am o ng
Naso nis,
ano th er Caddo
band,
in1719
(fo l -
l o wedl ater
bypo sts al o ng
th e RedRiver at
Rapides, Avo yel l es,
Ouach ita,
Opel o usas,
and
Atakapas).
A 1720
r epo r t
o fth e F r ench
go ver nm ent addr essing
th e co m m er cial
po tential
o fth e Natch ito ch es
po st
andits h inter l ands asser tedth at th e m o st
pr o fitabl e
tr ade with
I ndians th er e was in
sl aves, h o r ses, deer skins,
andbiso nh ides. I n1726 S ieur
Jean-Bap-
tiste Le
Mo yne
de Bienvil l e r eiter ated
th at,
al th o ugh
few F r ench m enh ad
yet pur sued
it,
"tr ade
wo ul dbe
ver ygo o d"
with W ich ita
bands,
andh e
im pl icitl y
co nnectedth e val ue
o fth at tr ade to W ich itas'
pr o wess
as a
"tr ul y
war l ike"
peo pl e
wh o
successful l y
to o k
m any
captives
fr o m
Apach es.
Once
Caddo , W ich ita,
andCo m anch e war r io r s h adascer tained
th eir o wnfam il ies'
safety
fr o m F r ench
ensl avem ent,
th eywil l ingl yo bl iged
F r ench desir es
bytr ading
to th em th e
enem y
wo m enandch il dr en
th eycaptur ed
inwar .12
Th e I ndian
peo pl es
with wh o m F r ench m en
so ugh t
tr ade
enjo yedpo wer ful po sitio ns
inth e
r egio n,
andal m o st al l o fth em usedth e
Eur o peanpr esence
to m aintainandeven
str ength en
th o se
po sitio ns.
Caddo , W ich ita,
andCo m anch e
wil l ingness
to tr ade war
"
Etienne de
Bo ur gm o nt
identifiedth e I ndians as "Pado ucas"-a F r ench
eth no nym
th at so m e sch o l ar s h ave as-
ser tedr efer r edto Co m anch es. But Th o m as
W .
Kavanagh
ando th er Pl ains h isto r ians h ave
co nvincingl yar gued
th at
until 1750 it descr ibed
Apach es.
F r ank
No r al l , tr ans., "Jo ur nal
o fth e
Vo yage
o fMo nsieur de
Bo ur gm o nt, Knigh t
o fth e
Mil itar y
Or der o fS aint Lo uis,
Co m m andant o f th e Misso ur i River
[wh ich is]
abo ve Th at o fth e Ar kansas,
ando f th e Misso ur i
[Co untr y],
to th e
Pado ucas,"
in
Bo ur gm o nt, Expl o r er o f
th e Misso ur i, 1698-1725,
by
F r ank
No r al l
(Linco l n, 1988), 125-61,
esp.
152 and154-55;
Henr i F o l m er ,
"De
Bo ur gm o nt's Expeditio n
to th e Pado u-
cas in
1724,
th e F ir st F r ench
Appr o ach
to Co l o r ado ,"
Co l o r ado
Magazine,
14
(Jul y
1937), 124-27;
Henr i
F o l m er ,
"Etienne
VW niar d
de
Bo ur gm o nt
inth e Misso ur i
Co untr y,"
Misso ur i Histo r ical Review, 36
(Apr il
1942), 279-98;
Th o m as
W . Kavanagh ,
Th e
Co m anch es: A
Histo r y,
1706-1875 (Linco l n, 1996), 65-66.
12
Pier r e
F r anco is
Xavier de Ch ar l evo ix,
Histo r y
and
Gener al Descr iptio no fNew
F r ance,
tr ans.
Jo h nGil m ar y
S h ea
(6 vo l s.,
New Yo r k, 1872), VI , 32-38;
Daniel H. Usner
Jr .,
I ndians, S ettl er s, and
S l aves
ina F r o ntier
Exch ange
Eco no -
m y:
Th e Lo wer
Mississippi Val l eybefo r e
1783
(Ch apel
Hil l , 1992);
ar ch ival m ater ial fr o m
Co r r espo ndence
Gener al e,
F r ench Do m inio n,
Mississippi
Pr o vincial Ar ch ives,
vo l . I X, 111,
citedinAl m o nW h eel er Lauber ,
I ndian
S l aver y
in
Co l o nial Tim es with inth e Pr esent Lim its
o f
th e UnitedS tates
(New Yo r k, 1913), 75;
S ieur
Jean-Baptiste
Le
Mo yne
de Bienvil l e,
"Mem o ir o nLo uisiana,
th e I ndians andth e Co m m er ce th at CanBe Car r iedo nwith Th em ," 1726,
in
Mississippi
Pr o vincial Ar ch ives,
F r ench Do m inio n, vo l .
I I I :
1704-1743, ed. Dunbar Ro wl andandA. G. S ander s
(Jackso n, 1932), 532;
Russel l
Magnagh i, "Ch anging
Mater ial Cul tur e andth e Hasinai o f East Texas," S o uth er n
S tudies,
20
(W inter 1981); W .
W .
Newco m b and
W .
T. F iel d,
"AnEth no h isto r ic
I nvestigatio n
o fth e W ich ita I ndi-
ans inth e S o uth er nPl ains,"
inW ich ita I ndian
Ar ch aeo l o gy
and
Eth no l o gy:
A Pil o t
S tudy,
ed. Ro ber t E.
Bel l , Edwar d
B.
Jel ks,
and
W . W .
Newco m b
(New Yo r k, 1974).
26 Th e
Jo ur nal
o fAm er ican
Histo r y June
2005
captives
to F r ench m enin
exch ange
fo r
Eur o pean
m ater ial
go o ds
indicates th at th e th r ee
gr o ups-displ aying
a
r ange
o fso cio eco no m ic
system s-did
no t secur e
captives
with th e
intentio no f
keeping
th em inth eir o wnco m m unities fo r l abo r o r o th er
pur po ses.
Cad-
do an
peo pl es
m aintainedth r ee affil iatedco nfeder acies
spr eadth ickl y
o ver h undr eds o f
squar e
m il es in
pr esent-day
Lo uisiana, Texas, Ar kansas,
andOkl ah o m a. Th e
m ul tipl e
co m m unities inth o se co nfeder acies r ested
eco no m ical l y
o n
steadil yintensifyingagr i-
cul tur al
pr o ductio n
anda
far -r each ing
co m m er cial
exch ange system , invo l ving
tr ade
in
h ides, sal t,
tur quo ise, co pper ,
m ar ine
sh el l s, bo ws,
and
po tter y
with New
Mexico ,
th e Gul f
Co ast,
andth e Gr eat
Lakes.13
By
th e endo f th e seventeenth
centur y,
W ich ita-
speakingpeo pl es
h adm o vedinto th e l o wer so uth er nPl ains to establ ish fifteento
twenty
co nso l idated,
o ften
pal isaded, vil l ages
scatter edacr o ss th e no r th er n
r egio ns
o f
pr esent-
day
Texas,
m o st infer til e l ands
al o ng
r iver s wh er e
th ey
co ul d
successful l y
far m with o ut
jeo par dizing
th eir defensive
capabil ities.
Th e
tr ade co nnectio ns W ich itas th en
devel o ped
o ver th e fir st h al fo fth e
eigh teenth centur y
with F r ench m enandCaddo s to th e east and
newl y
al l iedCo m anch es to th e west secur eda
steadysuppl y
o f
guns
andh o r ses as wel l
as cr itical al l iances neededto defendth eir
po pul o us
and
pr o ductive
co m m unities
against
Osage
and
Apach e r aids.'4
Like
W ich itas,
Co m anch es h adm o vedo nto th e so uth er n
Pl ains
by
th e
ear l yeigh teenth centur y, o per ating
as
independent, biso n-h untinggr o ups
l o o sel y
tiedto o ne ano th er indefensive andeco no m ic al l iances."
Bym idcentur y
Co -
m anch e, W ich ita,
andCaddo bands h adfo r m ed
m utual l y
beneficial tr ade
r el atio nsh ips
th at
br o ugh t Eur o pean
m ater ial
go o ds,
Pl ains
h ides,
and
S panish
h o r ses
to geth er
fo r
exch ange.
Al l th r ee al so sh ar edco m m o n
enem ies-m ul tipl e
bands o f
Apach es l iving
in
m o bil e
encam pm ents
acr o ss centr al Texas andwester nNew Mexico -and al l th r ee to o k
incr easing
num ber s o f
Apach e captives
fo r tr ade inLo uisiana.
13 Twenty
m em ber bands o fth ese co nfeder acies andat l east th r ee o th er
independent
Caddo bands cl uster edin
fer til e
val l eys al o ng
th e
Angel ina,
Nech es, S abine, andRedr iver s. To wn
center s, sur r o unded
bytem pl e
m o unds
buil t
by
th e Caddo ans'
ancesto r s,
stil l ser vedas th e r esidence o f
par am o unt
ch iefs andth e l o cus fo r
publ ic gath er -
ings
and
cer em o ny. Peo pl e
inth e
r anked, m atr il ineal so cieties,
with
wel l -devel o pedpo l itical
andcer em o nial
go v-
er ning
str uctur es,
l ivedinkin-basedh am l ets l o catednear th e
agr icul tur al
fiel ds
r adiating
o ut fr o m th e to wncenter s.
La
Ver e,
Caddo
Ch iefdo m s;
Per ttul a,
"Caddo Natio n. "
14 Agr icul tur e pl ayed
a centr al r o l e inW ich itas' so cio eco no m ics andtiedth em to th eir
gr ass-l o dge vil l ages
m uch
o fth e
year ,
but
th eyspent
th e fal l andwinter inm o bil e
cam ps
wh il e m enh unteddeer andbiso n. Th eir extensive
cr o p
cul tivatio nandcentr al izedr o l e inF r ench -I ndianm ar ket
exch ange
cr eatedsubsistence andeco no m ic
pr ac-
tices m o r e
sedentar y
th anth o se o fth eir Co m anch e
neigh bo r s.
W ich ita bands active inTexas incl uded
Tawako nis,
Tao vayas,
I scanis, W aco s,
andW ich itas
pr o per . Ear l y
F r ench identificatio no fW ich itas as "Panis
Piques"
o r "Pani-
piquets"
inr efer ence to th eir tatto o s and
l inguistic
sim il ar ities to Pawnees l ater co nfuseddistinctio ns between
W ich itas andPawnees
(kno wn
sim pl y
as
"Panis"). Pawnees,
unl ike
W ich itas, co nstituteda
significant
num ber o f
th e Pl ains I ndians so l dno r th into
sl aver y
inNew F r ance. W . W Newco m b
Jr .,
Th e
Peo pl e
Cal l edW ich ita
(Ph o enix,
1976);
El izabeth A. H.
Jo h n,
"A W ich ita
Migr atio n
Tal e," Am er icanI ndian
Quar ter l y,
7
(F al l 1983), 57-63;
S usan
C.
Veh ik, "W ich ita Cul tur e
Histo r y,"
Pl ains
Anth r o po l o gist,
37 (No v. 1992), 311-32;
E To dd
S m ith ,
Th e
W ich ita
I ndians: Tr ader s
o f
Texas andth e S o uth er nPl ains, 1540-1845
(Co l l ege
S tatio n, 2000).
15 Co m anch es wer e a br anch o fno r th er nS h o sh o nes o fth e Gr eat Basin
r egio n
wh o se
acquisitio n
o fh o r ses h ad
l edto th eir
r apid
evo l utio ninto a
m o unted, m o bil e,
m il itar ypo wer . Dur ing
th e seventeenth
centur y,
Co m anch es
h adm o vedinto th e
pl ains
o f easter nCo l o r ado andwester nKansas andth entur ned
so uth ,
pul l edby
abundant
biso n
h er ds,
S panish
h o r ses
r eady
fo r th e
taking,
andF r ench tr ade
go o ds r eady
fo r th e
bar ter ing.
I dentifiedas east-
er n-dwel l ing
bands o fKo tso tekas and
wester n-dwel l ing
bands
o fJupes
and
Yam par icas,
Co m anch es
o per ated
as in-
dependent,
kin-based
h unting
and
gath er inggr o ups
r ath er th anas unitedco nfeder acies l ike th o se o fCaddo bands
o f east Texas andW ich ita bands o fno r th er nTexas. Th o m as
W . Kavanagh ,
Co m anch e Po l itical
Histo r y:
AnEth no -
h isto r ical
Per spective,
1706-1875 (Linco l n, 1996);
Mo r r is
F o ster ,
Being
Co m anch e: A S o cial
Histo r yo fan
Am er ican
I ndian
Co m m unity
(Tucso n, 1991);
Ger al d
Betty,
Co m anch e
S o ciety: Befo r e
th e Reser vatio n
(Co l l ege
S tatio n, 2002);
D. B.
S h im kin, "S h o sh o ne-Co m anch e
Or igins
and
Migr atio ns,"
in
Pr o ceedings o f
th e S ixth
Pacific
S cience
Co ngr ess
o f
th e
Pacific
S cience Asso ciatio n
(Ber kel ey, 1940), 17-25.
Co m m o difying
I ndianW o m eninth e Bo r der l ands 27
........
......??' qL~Yl k
I 'N
t2! 4p
~iS ~caar 4"t
L Y. e~:
iI L . q.
vz AN,
S U
I LQ~
l it.
CdOL-it-
.i; 6 ~: ?i-~?i. i
u,
- *
" ;-t~.Y tRV 1f?;k
2.50
ito i..
- ---S A,
S t.
JeanBaptiste
aux
Natch ito ch es,
c. 1722. I n1716 th e F r ench h adestabl ish edth is
m il itar y
andtr ade
po st
near a
vil l age
o f
Natch ito ch es
I ndians.
Th r o ugh
th is
po st
I ndiansl aves
cap-
tur edinTexas andth e so uth er nPl ains enter edwester nLo uisiana.
Map byJ.
F . Br o utin. Co ur -
tesy
No r th wester n S tate
Univer sityo fLo uisiana,
W atso nMem o r ial
Libr ar y,
Cam m ie G.
Henr y
Resear ch Center .
Th e eco no m ic visio ns o f F r ench m eninLo uisiana do vetail edwith th o se o f native
gr o ups,
as th e F r ench extendedth eir invo l vem ent inth e native tr ade netwo r ks th at cr iss-
cr o ssedth e so uth er nPl ains andl o wer
Mississippi Val l ey. Th o ugh pl antatio nagr icul tur e
incr easingl ygar ner ed
th e attentio no f F r ench m eninso uth andcentr al
Lo uisiana,
th e
I ndianh ide tr ade r em ainedan
im po r tant co m po nent
o f th e
pr o vince's eco no m y
to th e
endo fth e
eigh teenth centur y.
Th us,
a satel l ite
system
o f
tr adingpo sts gr adual l ybegan
to
l ine th e wester nandno r th er nr each es o f th e F r ench
pr o vince
with a m andate to estab-
l ish andm aintainth e eco no m ic and
dipl o m atic
r el atio ns th at under wr o te th at tr ade. Th e
F r ench m eno fth e
o utl yingpo sts
didno t h ave th e num ber s o r fo r ce to
subjugate
I ndians
o r
dispo ssess
th em o f th eir
l ands,
no r did
th ey
wish to .
Rath er ,
th eyso ugh t
to establ ish
pr o fitabl e exch ange,
andas a
r esul t,
th ey
enter edinto
egal itar ian
r el atio ns with do m inant
Caddo , W ich ita, and,
by
extensio n,
Co m anch e
peo pl es.
F r ench m eno ffer ed
Eur o pean
tr ade
go o ds
th at th e
S paniar ds
inTexas wo ul d
no t,
th us
steal ing
a m ar ch o nth eir r ival s to
th e west. F r ench
dem o gr aph ic
andsettl em ent
patter ns
fur th er co ntr ibutedto th eir success
as tr ader s. I nth e Lo uisiana
h inter l ands,
F r ench so cial andfam il ial
inter m ixing
with I ndi-
ans was
widespr ead,
as th e F r ench buil t th eir
tr ading
and
m il itar ypo sts
ino r near native
vil l ages
and
co nsequentl yjo ined
with I ndians no t
o nl y
fo r tr ade but al so fo r
subsistence,
fam il ybuil ding,
and
dail y
l ife.
Co m m unity
ties,
in
tur n,
br o ugh t
F r ench m eninto th e
h ear t o fI ndian
po l itical
eco no m ies ando ffer edfo undatio ns fo r
l o ng-l asting
al l iances.16
16
Usner , I ndians, S ettl er s, andS l aves ina F r o ntier
Exch ange Eco no m y,
116-22, 244-75;
Jo seph Zito m er sky,
"Th e
F o r m andF unctio no f F r ench -Native Am er icanRel atio ns in
Ear l yEigh teenth -Centur y
F r ench Co l o nial Lo uisi-
ana,"
in
Pr o ceedings o f
th e
F ifteenth Meetingo f
th e F r ench Co l o nial Histo r ical
S o ciety, Mar tinique
and
Guadel o upe,
May
1989, ed. Patr icia
Gal l o way
and
Ph il ip
P.
Bo uch er
(New Yo r k, 1992).
28 Th e
Jo ur nal
o fAm er ican
Histo r y
June
2005
As such ties
devel o ped,
bands o f
Caddo s, W ich itas,
andCo m anch es fo undfem al e
I ndian
captives
to be as val uabl e as h ides andh o r ses inF r ench m ar kets inNatch ito ch es
ando th er wester nLo uisiana
po sts.
I n
exch ange,
F r ench tr ade o ffer ednative
gr o ups guns
andam m unitio nessential no t
o nl y
fo r
h unting
but al so fo r defense inth e co ntext o fin-
cr easingco m petitio n
andm il itar izatio n
am o ng
th e
r egio n's
native
peo pl es.
To its I ndian
par ticipants,
th e
devel o ping
sl ave tr ade
r epr esented
two sides o fnative co nventio ns o f
r ecipr o cityi.7
Caddo s, Co m anch es,
andW ich itas o btainedth eir tr ade
go o ds
fr o m a
r ange
o fso ur ces: th e h ides fr o m
h unting,
th e h o r ses fr o m r aids o n
S panish
settl em ents in
Texas,
andth e
captives
fr o m war far e with native enem ies
(pr im ar il yApach es).
One
aspect
o fna-
tive co nventio ns dictatedth at th e th r ee
gr o ups
to o k
captives o nl y
fr o m th o se
th eydesig-
natedenem ies o r
"str anger s"
to
system s
o f
kinsh ip
and
po l itical
al l iance-th us
th ey
to o k
captives o nl y
inth e co ntext o fwar . Onth e
fl ip
side,
o nce
captive
wo m enbecam e desir -
abl e co m m o dities in
Lo uisiana,
th ey
al so ser vedas to o l s
Co m anch e, W ich ita,
andCaddo
m enco ul duse to buil dtr ade r el atio ns with F r ench m en. I nth e
eigh teenth centur y,
th er e-
fo r e,
th e F r ench m ar kets
gave
new val ue to ano l d
by-pr o duct
o fwar far e.
Th e tr ade inwo m en
fo l l o wing
th eir
captur e
r esul tedinm o r e th anindividual benefit
o r
pr o fit,
h o wever . Like
dipl o m atic exch anges,
th e I ndiansl ave tr ade
br o ugh t to geth er
m eno fF r ench andI ndiannatio ns inan
exch ange
th at ser vedbo th util itar ianand
pr es-
tige pur po ses. Recipr o cal
r el atio ns bo th
r equir ed
andcr eated
kinsh ip
affil iatio n. Par tici-
patio n
in
exch anges
m ade
gr o ups
l ess
l ikel y
to
engage
inco nfr o ntatio nandvio l ence and
br o ugh t
th em into
m etaph o r ical ,
ifno t
r eal ,
r el atio ns o f
kinsh ip.
Caddo , Co m anch e,
and
W ich ita m encast tr ade al l iances inter m s o ffictive
kinsh ip catego r ies
o f"br o th er h o o d"
andm al e so dal ities. Th e wo m enwh o wer e th e
o bjects
o fth e
exch ange
didno t cr eate o r
co nstitute th e tie o f
per so nal
o r eco no m ic
o bl igatio n.
Th e
exch ange pr o cess
itsel fcr eated
r el atio nsh ips, binding
m ento each o th er inth e act o f
giving
and
r eceiving.
Pr actices o f
inter m ar r iage, ado ptio n,
and
sym bo l ic kinsh ip
r el atio ns
am o ng
differ ent I ndian
peo pl es
and
am o ngEur o peans
andI ndians m eant th at
"kinsh ip" expanded
to incl ude r el atio ns
beyo nd
th o se o f
o nl y
fam il ial
(bio l o gical )
descent. Eco no m ic ties co ul dno t be
separ ated
fr o m
po l itical
o nes,
and
tr adingpar tner s
wer e al so
m il itar y
and
po l itical
al l ies.
Quite
sim pl y,
o ne didno t
figh t
with
br o th er s,
just
as o ne didno t tr ade with enem ies. Co n-
ver sel y,
th e
pr edo m inance
o f
"Canneci"
(Apach e)
wo m eninth e ensl avedI ndian
po pul a-
tio ninLo uisiana becam e so
pr o no uncedbym idcentur y
th at th e
go ver no r
o f
Lo uisiana,
Lo uis Bil l o uar t de
Ker l 6r ec,
identifiedit as th e
pr im ar y
h indr ance to
anyh o pe
o f
adding
Apach e
natio ns to th e l ist o fLo uisiana's native tr ade al l ies. S ince successful tr ade with
so m e
gr o ups
m ade tr ade with o th er s
im po ssibl e,
th e sl ave tr ade
put
its o wnl im its o n
F r ench co m m er cial
expansio n.18
"7
Cl ar ence H. W ebb andHir am F .
Gr ego r y,
Th e Caddo I ndians
o f
Lo uisiana
(1978; Bato n
Ro uge,
1986);
Hi-
r am F o r d
Gr ego r y, "Eigh teenth Centur y
Caddo an
Ar ch aeo l o gy:
A
S tudy
inMo del s and
I nter pr etatio n" (Ph .D.
diss., S o uth er nMeth o dist
Univer sity, 1973);
Dayna
Bo wker Lee, "I ndian
S l aver y
inLo wer Lo uisiana
dur ing
th e
Co l o nial
Per io d, 1699-1803" (M.A. th esis, No r th wester nS tate
Univer sity
o f
Lo uisiana, 1989).
On
r ecipr o city
and
po l itical
eco no m ies, see Patr icia C.
Al ber s,
"S ym bio sis, Mer ger ,
andW ar :
Co ntr asting
F o r m s o f
I nter tr ibal
Rel a-
tio nsh ip am o ng
Histo r ic Pl ains
I ndians,"
in
Th e
Po l itical
Eco no m yo fNo r th
Am er ican
I ndians, ed.
Jo h n
Mo o r e
(Lin-
co l n, 1993), 94-132; Mar cel
Mauss,
Th e
Gift: Th e
F o r m andReaso n
fo r Exch ange
inAr ch aic
S o cieties, tr ans.
W .
D.
Hal l s
(1924;
New
Yo r k, 1954);
Mar sh al l
S ah l ins,
S to ne
Age
Eco no m ics
(Ch icago ,
1972);
andCl aude
L'vi-S tr auss,
Th e El em entar y
S tr uctur es
o fKinsh ip,
tr ans.
Jam es
Har l e Bel l and
Jo h n
Rich ar dvo n
S tur m er , ed.
Ro dney
Needh am
(1949; Bo sto n, 1969).
La Ver e, Caddo
Ch iefdo m s;
Daniel A.
Hicker so n, "Tr ade, Mediatio n, andPo l itical S tatus in
th e Hasinai
Co nfeder acy,"
Resear ch inEco no m ic
Anth r o po l o gy,
17
(1996),
149-68.
"8
Br o o ks,
Captives
and
Co usins, 177-97; Lo uis
Bil l o uar t
de
Ker l r ec, "Pr o jet
de
paix
et d'al l iance avec l es Can-
necis et l es
avantages qui
en
peuvent
r dsul ter ,
envo ys par Ker l ir ec, go uver neur
de l a
pr o vince
de
l a Lo uisianne,
en
Co m m o difying
I ndianW o m eninth e Bo r der l ands 29
Th o ugh
th e r el atio ns fo r m ed
by
th e tr ade wer e between
m en,
th e fem al e sex o fth e
m ajo r ity
o fensl avedI ndians deter m inedth e
suppl y,
th e
dem and,
andth us th e
ver y
ex-
istence o fth e tr ade netwo r k. W o m enwer e wh at F r ench m en
wanted,
andwo m enwer e
wh at I ndianwar r io r s h adfo r
exch ange.
Caddo , Co m anch e,
andW ich ita m entr aded
o nl ycaptive
I ndianwo m enandch il dr ento F r ench m en
(captive
m enwer e to r tur edand
kil l ed).
I n
tur n,
th e F r ench m ar ket fo r fem al e
captives
was no t
m er el y
a
r espo nse
to th e
avail abil ity
o fsuch co m m o dities innative so cieties but
r epr esented
th e needs o fso l dier s
andtr ader s insuch F r ench fr o ntier settl em ents as Natch ito ch es. Unl ike settl er s inth e
Br itish co l o nies andNew F r ance
(Canada),
th o se inF r ench Lo uisiana m ade l ittl e
system -
atic
attem pt
to
expl o it
ensl avedI ndians as a l abo r fo r ce. Lo uisiana co l o nists didh o l das
sl aves so m e I ndians wh o m F r ench fo r ces h addefeatedin
war s-no tabl y
th e Ch itim ach as
inth e
1710s
andth e Natch ez inth e 1730s-but such ensl avem ent was aniso l ated
pr ac-
tice
bel o nging
to th e
ear l yper io d
o fF r ench invasio nandco l o nizatio n. As
ear l y
as
1706,
F r ench o fficial s inLo uisiana
beganl o bbying
th eir
im per ial super io r s
fo r
per m issio n
to
tr ade th o se I ndiansl aves fo r ensl avedAfr icanAm er icans fr o m th e W est I ndies. A 1726
Lo uisiana census l istedensl avedAfr icans as
o utnum ber ing
ensl aved
I ndians, 1,385
to
159,
andth e differ ence co ntinuedto
expand
due to an
ever -incr easing
Afr ican
po pul a-
tio n,
especial l y
inth e 1780s wh enth e
S panish go ver nm ent's
r enewal and
l egal izatio n
o f
th e Afr icansl ave tr ade l edto a "r e-Afr icanizatio n" o fLo uisiana. Yet
despite
th e
gr o wth
in
th e ensl avedAfr ican
po pul atio n,
th e num ber o fensl avedI ndians h el d
steady, indicating
th at th e size o fth e two
po pul atio ns
bo r e l ittl e r el atio nto o ne
ano th er ."9
Mo r e
specifical l y,
evenas th e
im po r tatio n
o fAfr icanAm er icansl ave l abo r er s
r epl aced
I ndiansl aves andth e
im po r tatio n
o fF r ench wo m enm ade I ndian
co ncubinage
and
inter m ar r iage unnecessar y
in
r egio ns
o fLo uisiana with a
l ar ger Eur o peanpo pul atio n,
ensl avedI ndianwo m enr e-
m ainedfixtur es o fI ndiantr ade andF r ench
fam il y
l ife in
o utpo st
settl em ents inth e west.
Th e m inim al use o fI ndiansl aves inth e establ ish m ent o fF r ench
pl antatio nagr icul tur e
andth e F r ench
pr efer ence
fo r ensl avedAfr icanAm er icans as a ser vil e l abo r fo r ce indi-
catedth at th e
co ntinuing
I ndiansl ave tr ade h el d
im po r tance pr im ar il y
fo r m al e do m estic
dem ands inth e h inter l ands o fF r ench settl em ent.
F r ench settl er s andtr ader s
by
and
l ar ge
cam e fr o m Canada r ath er th anF r ance and
br o ugh t
with th em a so cial andcul tur al
h er itage
o fintim ate asso ciatio nwith I ndian
peo -
pl es.
I ntim ate unio ns with wo m eno fal l iednatio ns andl ater with fem al e sl aves
acquir ed
fo r sexual
expl o itatio n
wer e th us no t new to th e F r ench m enwh o
em igr ated
to Lo uisiana.
Because
singl e
m al e tr ader s and
agents,
wh o o ftenl ived
am o ng
th eir native
tr adingpar t-
ner s,
o r iginal l ypr edo m inated
inth e F r ench
o ccupatio n
o f
Lo uisiana,
F r ench m enneeded
1753,"
in"UnMem o ir e
Po l itique
du
XVI I I
S idcl e
Rel atifau Texas"
(An
eigh teenth -centur ypo l itical
m em o ir r el at-
ing
to
Texas), by
M. Le Bar o nMar c de Vil l ier s du
Ter r age, Jo ur nal
de
l a S o cidtd
des
Am dr icanistes
de Par is, 3
(1906),
67-76.
'
J.
Leitch
W r igh t,
Th e
Onl y
Land
Th ey
Knew:
Th e
Tr agic S to r yo f
th e Am er icanI ndianinth e Ol dS o uth
(New
Yo r k, 1981);
Mar cel Tr udel ,
L'escl avage
au Canada
F r anfais:
Histo ir e et co nditio ns de
l 'escl avage (S l aver y
inF r ench
Canada:
Histo r y
andco nditio ns o f
sl aver y) (Quebec, 1960);
Br ett Rush fo r th ,
"'A Littl e F l esh W e Offer Yo u':
Th e
Or igins
o fI ndian
S l aver y
inNew F r ance," W il l iam
andMar yQuar ter l y,
60
(Oct. 2003), 777-808;
Daniel H. Us-
ner
Jr .,
"F r o m Afr ican
Captivity
to Am er ican
S l aver y:
Th e I ntr o ductio no fBl ack Labo r er s to Co l o nial
Lo uisiana,"
Lo uisiana
Histo r y,
20
(W inter 1979), 25-48; Jam es
T. McGo wan,
"Pl anter s with o ut S l aves:
Or igins
o f a New
W o r l dLabo r
S ystem ,"
S o uth er nS tudies,
16
(S pr ing
1977), 5-26;
Gwendo l yn
Midl o Hal l ,
Afr icans
inCo l o nial
Lo uisiana: Th e
Devel o pm ent o fAfr o -Cr eo l e
Cul tur e inth e
Eigh teenth Centur y(Bato nRo uge,
1992); Kim ber l y
S .
Hanger ,
Bo undedLives, Bo undedPl aces: F r ee Bl ack
S o ciety
inCo l o nial New Or l eans, 1769-1803 (Dur h am , 1997);
Gil ber t C. Din,
S paniar ds,
Pl anter s, andS l aves: Th e
S panish Regul atio no fS l aver y
inLo uisiana, 1763-1803
(Co l l ege
S tatio n, 1999),
3-17.
30 Th e
Jo ur nal
o fAm er ican
Histo r y
June
2005
to
inter m ar r y
if
th ey
wer e to h ave wives andfam il ies. Abbe Guil l aum e-Th o m as-F r an-
?o is
de
Raynal , wr iting
inth e 1770s and
l o o king
back o ver th e
centur y, ar gued
th at th e
F r ench h ad
br o ugh t
to Lo uisiana "th e custo m o f
l iving
with th e
savages,
wh ich
th ey
h ad
ado pted
inCanada" andwh ich o fteninvo l ved
m ar r ying
I ndianwo m enwith th e
"h appi-
est r esul ts." "Th er e was never o bser vedth e l east co o l ness inth e
fr iendsh ip
betweenth ese
two so diver se natio ns wh o m
m atr im o ny
h ad
united,"
Raynal
co ntinued,
because
"th ey
h ave l ivedinth is inter co ur se and
r ecipr o city
o fm utual
go o d-wil l ,
wh ich m ade
up
fo r th e
vicissitudes o fevents
br o ugh t by
th e
passage
o f
tim e."20
I nth is
spir it,
F r ench m enat
po sts
such as F o r t S t.
JeanBaptiste
aux Natch ito ch es
fo r m edm ar ital unio ns with th eir Caddo
tr adingpar tner s
andsexual unio ns with th e
captive Apach e
wo m enwh o wer e th e
o bjects
o fF r ench -Caddo tr ade. S exual andm ar ital
r el atio ns so l idifiedF r ench
r el atio nsh ips
with Caddo an
peo pl es
as dem o nstr abl e acts o f
per m anence
andco m m itm ent. Th e sl ave tr ade
pl ayed
a cr ucial r o l e in
suppl em enting
th e
fem al e
po pul atio n
at Natch ito ch es
th r o ugh o ut
th e
eigh teenth centur y.
F r ench co l o nial
o fficial s l inkedth e I ndiansl ave tr ade
dir ectl y
with a "l icentio us" m o de o f
l iving
th at
th ey
co nsider eda
ch al l enge
to th e co l o nizatio nand
devel o pm ent
o fLo uisiana. Th e F r ench
m issio nar y
F r ango is
l e Mair e bem o anedth e tr ade in
"savage
fem al e sl aves"
wh o ,
th o ugh
r eputedl ybo ugh t
to
per fo r m
do m estic
ser vices,
in
actual ity
becam e co ncubines. S uch
pr actice
"h adbeco m e establ ish ed
usage am o ng
th e F r ench at al l
l evel s,
fr o m
go ver no r
LUpinay
to a
co m pany
o fficer ,
andfr o m o ne o fCr o zat's
[tr ade]
agents
to a
pr ivate
so l -
dier ,"
acco r ding
to th e h isto r ianMar cel Gir aud. S exual r el atio ns betweenF r ench m enand
ensl avednative wo m enfur th er
m er ged
co m m er cial and
m ar r iage pr actices.
Th e
tr affic in
wo m envia th e sl ave
tr ade,
l ike F r ench -Caddo
inter m ar r iage, devel o ped
o ut o fth e F r ench -
I ndiantr ade andsettl em ent nexus and
str ength ened
th e ties o f
inter dependency.
Th e co n-
sequent
sexual
r el atio nsh ips,
wh eth er l icit o r
il l icit,
becam e
widespr ead
and
significant
eno ugh
to
inspir e
h eated
co m pl aints
fr o m F r ench
im per ial
andeccl esiastical o fficial s th at
degener acy
m ar kedso cial andfam il ial r el atio ns inLo uisiana.
Th eyh el ped
fuel
escal ating
dem ands fo r
gr eater im m igr atio n
o fF r ench wo m enas th e
eigh teenth centur ypr o gr essed
andl edto o fficial sur veil l ance o finter r acial co h abitatio nandsexual inter co ur se.
Despite
such co ncer ns at th e
im per ial
and
pr o vincial
l evel s o fch ur ch and
state, h o wever ,
th e num -
ber o f
Apach e
wo m en
am o ng
ensl aved
po pul atio ns
andinLo uisiana h o useh o l ds
steadil y
incr easedas tr ade netwo r ks in
h ides, h o r ses,
and
captives gr ew
betweenth e F r ench and
Caddo s
and,
th r o ugh
Caddo s,
extendedto W ich itas andCo m anch es.21
Onth e o th er side o fth e Texas-Lo uisiana
bo r der ,
I ndianensl avem ent exer ted
quite
a dif-
fer ent infl uence o nth e
ear l y
invasio nandsettl em ent o fth e
S panish pr o vince
o fTexas.
20
S l eeper -S m ith ,
I ndianW o m enandF r ench
Men; Br o wn,
S tr anger s
in
Bl o o d; Peter so n,
"Peo pl e
I n
Between";
Van
Kir k,
Many
Tender
Ties; Jennifer
M.
S pear , "'Th ey
NeedW ives':
M&tissage
andth e
Regul atio n
o f
S exual ity
inF r ench
Lo uisiana, 1699-1730,"
inS ex, Lo ve, Race:
Cr o ssing
Bo undar ies inNo r th Am er ican
Histo r y,
ed. Mar th a
Ho des
(New Yo r k, 1999).
F o r th e statem ent o fabbe
Raynal ,
see
Hackett, tr ans., Pich ar do 's Tr eatise o nth e Lim its
o f
Lo uisiana andTexas, I , 258.
21
Mar cel
Gir aud,
A
Histo r yo f
F r ench Lo uisiana, vo l .
I I :
Year s
o f
Tr ansitio n, 1715-1717, tr ans. Br ianPear ce
(Bato n
Ro uge,
1993), 129; Jennifer
M.
S pear ,
"Co l o nial I ntim acies:
Legisl ating
S ex inF r ench
Lo uisiana," W il l iam
and
Mar yQuar ter l y,
60
(Jan. 2003), 75-98; Car l A.
Br asseaux, "Th e Mo r al Cl im ate o fF r ench Co l o nial
Lo uisiana,
1699-1763," Lo uisiana
Histo r y,
27
(W inter 1986);
Car l A.
Br asseaux,
"Th e Adm inistr atio no fS l ave
Regul atio ns
in
F r ench
Lo uisiana, 1724-1766," ibid.,
21
(S pr ing
1980);
Ch ar l es Edwar d
O'Neil l , Ch ur ch andS tate inF r ench Co -
l o nial Lo uisiana:
Po l icy
andPo l itics to 1732
(New Haven, 1966);
Math s
Al l ain, "Mano nLescaut et S es Co nso eur s:
Co m m o difying
I ndianW o m eninth e Bo r der l ands 31
Th e
advance o fth e
S panish
fr o ntier no r th war do ver th e sixteenth andseventeenth cen-
tur ies into th e
r egio ns
cl aim edas th e
pr o vinces
o fNueva
Vizcaya,
Co ah uil a,
andNuevo
Le6n(so uth
o fwh at becam e th e
pr o vince
o f
Texas)
h ad
br o ugh t
with it th e
spr ead
o f
Eur o pean
diseases andth e intr usio no f
sl ave-r aidingexpeditio ns seeking
fo r cedl abo r
fo r
S panish
m ines andr anch es-inexo r abl e fo r ces th at
pr eceded
m uch o fth e co l o niza-
tio no fth o se
r egio ns. Epidem ics
th at
began
inth e 1550s h ad,
by
th e
1700s,
scyth ed
90
per cent
o fth e native
po pul atio n
o fth o se no r th er n
r egio ns
o fMexico . Under
l aw,
m o r eo ver ,
th e Cr o wn
m igh t assign
to
S paniar ds
th e l abo r andtr ibute o fa
specific
I ndian
co m m unity
inan
ar r angem ent
ter m edanenco m ienda.
Co nsequent S panish
dem ands
fo r l abo r o nfar m s andr anch es andinm ines
br o ugh t
th eir o wnbr ando fannih il atio n.
By
1600
tr afficking
inensl avedI ndians h adbeco m e anestabl ish ed
way
o fl ife inNuevo
Le6n.
Once th e
S paniar ds
th er e h adkil l edo ffal l th e
near by
I ndian
peo pl es byco ngr e-
gating
th em in
cr o wded,
unsanitar y
wo r k
cam ps
wh er e disease o r o ver wo r k devastated
th eir
num ber s,
th ey
extendedth e r el entl ess r each o fth eir sl ave r aids ever no r th war d. A
1672
r o yal
cedul a r eiter atedth e
r o yal pr o h ibitio ns against
th e ensl avem ent o fI ndians
fir st
expr essed
inth e New Laws in1542-r eco nfir m edinth e 1680
Reco m pil atio n
o f
th e Laws o fth e I ndies-and
r equir ed
th eir Ch r istianco nver sio ninstead. But
S paniar ds
inth e
r egio nm er el y
r enam edth eir
enco m iendas,
cal l ing
th em
co ngr egacio nes
(I ndian
co m m unities
no m inal l yco ngr egated
fo r accul tur atio nand
r el igio us
instr uctio n)
and
co ntinuedth eir r aids into th e
m id-eigh teenth centur y
insear ch o fI ndianbo dies fo r
l abo r ,
no t so ul s fo r sal vatio n.22
Just
as I ndian
gr o ups
h addo ne wh en
th ey
enco unter edth e
ear l y
F r ench tr ader s o nth e
Pl ains,
I ndians inTexas
quickl y
l ear nedwh at wo ul dbe o fval ue to th e
S paniar ds
wh o se
expeditio ns
h ad
tar geted
th e
r egio n
evenbefo r e
per m anent S panish
settl em ent was at-
tem pted
inth e 1690s. F o r so m e tim e r um o r s andevidence h adbeen
r each ing
th em th at
th e
Eur o peans
fr o m Mexico andNew Mexico wer e bo th
buyer s
andactual ensl aver s o f
I ndians.
Jum ano s,
wh o l ivedin
pr esent-day
so uth west Texas andactedas m iddl em enin
tr ade netwo r ks
l inking
Caddo
gr o ups al o ng
th e RedRiver to
peo pl es
inNew Mexico
and
Co ah uil a,
spr ead
news o f
S panish sl avingpr actices.
No t
sur pr isingl y,
wh en
S paniar ds
fir st m ade co ntact with Caddo
peo pl es al o ng
th e Texas-Lo uisiana bo r der inth e
1690s,
th eir
r eputatio n
as sl aver s h ad
appar entl ypr eceded
th em .
W h en
F r anciscanm issio nar -
ies askedth at a Hasinai Caddo ch iefal l o w h is
br o th er ,
neph ew,
andtwo o th er r el atives
to r etur nwith th e
S paniar ds
to Mexico to r eceive
gifts
to
br ing
back to th e
ch ief,
th e
l eader fear edfo r th eir r etur n. He
gave per m issio no nl y
after
adm o nish ingfr ay
Dam iain
W o m eninth e
Ear l y
F r ench
Per io d, 1700-1731,"
in
Pr o ceedings o f
th e
F ifth
Meetingo f
th e F r ench Co l o nial Histo r i-
cal
S o ciety,
ed.
Jam es J.
Co o ke
(Lanh am , 1980);
El izabeth S h o wn
Mil l s, Natch ito ch es, 1729-1803:
Abstr acts o f
th e
Cath o l ic Ch ur ch
Register s o f
th e F r ench and
S panish
Po st
o f
S t.
JeanBaptiste
des Natch ito ch es inLo uisiana
(New
Or -
l eans, 1977); Bo l to n,
tr ans. anded.,
Ath anase de Mezih r es
andth e Lo uisiana-Texas F r o ntier , I , 48, 64, 90, 91, 162,
168, I I , 76; Lee,
"I ndian
S l aver y
inLo wer Lo uisiana
dur ing
th e Co l o nial Per io d," 87, 92.
22
Peter Ger h ar d,
Th e No r th F r o ntier
o fNew S pain
(Pr inceto n, 1982), 328, 344-48;
Daniel T. Reff, Disease,
De-
po pul atio n,
andCul tur al
Ch ange
inNo r th wester nNew
S pain,
1518-1764 (S al t
Lake
City,
1991); Jo se
Cuel l o ,
"Th e
Per sistence o fI ndian
S l aver y
andEnco m ienda inth e No r th east o fCo l o nial Mexico , 1577-1723," Jo ur nal o f
S o cial
Histo r y,
21
(S um m er 1988), 683-700;
S usanM.
Deeds,
"Rur al W o r k inNueva
Vizcaya:
F o r m s o fLabo r Co er cio n
o nth e
Per iph er y," HispanicAm er ican
Histo r ical Review, 69
(Aug.
1989), 425-49;
Peter Bakewel l , S il ver
Mining
and
S o ciety
inCo l o nial Mexico : Zacatecas, 1546-1700
(Cam br idge, Eng.,
1971);
Vito Al essio Ro bl es, Co ah uil a y
Texas
en
l a
I po ca
co l o nial
(Co ah uil a
andTexas inth e co l o nial
per io d)
(Mexico City,
1978);
S il vio Zaval a,
Lo s Escl avo s I n-
dio s enNueva
Espania
(I ndian
S l aves inNew
S pain)
(Mexico City,
1967),
179-349.
32
Th e
Jo ur nal
o fAm er ican
Histo r y
June
2005
Mazanet: "Do no t
per m it anyo ne
to dem andser vice fr o m th ese m enwh o
yo u
take with
yo u,
no r to m ake th em wo r k."23
Oth er s
so ugh t
th eir o wn
advantage
in
S panish
l abo r
system s
and
th er ebypul l ed
na-
tive
peo pl es
fr o m th e so uth er nPl ains into an
incr easingl y
co m m er cial ized
exch ange sys-
tem to th e west inNew Mexico .
Many
easter n
Apach e gr o ups,
wh o h adbeenvictim s o f
S panish
sl ave
r aiding
inNew
Mexico ,
began
to
br ing
th eir o wn
captives
to New Mexi-
canm ar kets. As
ear l y
as th e
1650s,
th e F r anciscan
m issio nar y
Al o nso de Po sada
r epo r ted
th at inadditio nto h ides andch am o is
skins,
so m e
Apach es
no w
so ugh t
"to sel l fo r h o r ses
so m e I ndianm enand
wo m en,
gir l s
and
bo ys"
takenfr o m W ich ita bands fr o m th e l ands
o fF r ancisco
Visquez
de Co r o nado 's fabl ed
Quivir a (th e
so uth er n
Pl ains).
S uch W ich ita
wo m enandch il dr enbecam e m em ber s o fa
po pul atio n
o fdetr ibal izedandensl avedI n-
dians kno wnas
genizar o s
th at
gr ew
to be a
significant
el em ent inth e New Mexico settl e-
m ents. Genizar o s aidedth e
expansio n
anddefense o fNew Mexico 's bo r der s as m em ber s
o fsl ave m il itias andfr o ntier co m m unities.24
To th e
east,
as
S paniar ds so ugh t
a to eh o l dinTexas inth e
1710s,
th ey
fo cusedo n
buil ding
a co r do no f
m issio n-pr esidio co m pl exes
as bul war k to
pr o tect
th e sil ver m ines
o fNew
S pain's
no r th er n
pr o vinces against
F r ench
aggr esso r s. Having
fail edto establ ish
settl em ents
am o ng
Caddo s inth e
1690s,
S paniar ds
fo cusedinsteado nso uth -centr al
Texas. Th er e r em nants o finnum er abl e I ndianbands fr o m so uth o fth e Rio Gr ande h ad
gath er ed
after
fl eeing
no r th to
escape
th e r each o fbo th
S panish
sl ave
r aiding
andEur o -
pean
diseases. I nso uth -centr al Texas
th ey
cl uster ed
to geth er
with kinandal l ies
and,
in
th e
eigh teenth centur y, so ugh t
a new fo r m o fal l iance with
S paniar ds th r o ugh jo int
settl e-
m ent in
newl y
establ ish ed
pr esidio -m issio nco m pl exes
at S anAnto nio de
B&xar
andLa
Bah ia.
Th r o ugh o ut
th e
eigh teenth centur y,
h o wever ,
th e
S panish go ver nm ent
facedser i-
o us
pr o bl em s attr acting
settl er s, so l dier s,
andnative co nver ts to
po pul ate
co l o nial cen-
ter s so far no r th . Th e
S panish po pul atio n
o fth e Texas
pr o vince
at its
h eigh t
in1790 was
o nl y
3,169.
S panish
co l o nial
devel o pm ent
al so r em ained
r igidl y
h em m edin
by
far m o r e
po pul o us
and
po wer ful
I ndiannatio ns-bo th
indigeno us
to th e
r egio n
(such
as
Caddo s)
and
newl y
ar r ived
(such
as
LipanApach es
andl ater Co m anch es and
W ich itas).
S paniar ds
th us fo undth at eveninth e l im itedar eas cl aim ed
byS panish
settl em ent,
th eir
im per ial
po l icies r egar ding
I ndians
invo l ved,
no t
im po sing
r ul e o n
o th er s,
but
defending
th em -
sel ves
against super io r
native r ival s. Th e
r esul ting
weakness o fNew
S pain's po sitio n
in
th e
r egio n
m ade it cr ucial fo r
pr o vincial
auth o r ities to secur e
peace
andal l iances with th e
independent
anddo m inant native
peo pl es
th at sur r o undedth em . Yet th eir effo r ts wo ul d
be
fr augh t
with
difficul ty.
Th e Cr o wn's
pr o h ibitio nagainst
tr ade with indio s
bar bdr o s (in-
dependent
I ndian
peo pl es)
sh ackl edl o cal
S paniar ds' abil ity
to m ake
dipl o m atic
o ver tur es
l ike th o se o fth e
F r ench ,
wh il e th e h o r se h er ds o f
m issio n, civil ian,
and
pr esidial
settl e-
m ents attr actednative r aider s
against wh o m
S panish fo r ces co ul do ffer l ittl e defense.
Over th e
eigh teenth centur y, th en,
S paniar ds str uggl ed
to m aintainth eir sm al l fo o th o l d
inth e ar ea
against vyingApach e, Caddo , Co m anch e, andW ich ita
po wer s.25
23
Br o o ks, Captives and
Co usins;
L. R.
Bail ey,
Th e I ndianS l ave Tr ade inth e S o uth west
(Lo s
Angel es,
1966);
Nancy
Par r o tt
Hicker so n, Th e
Jum ano s:
Hunter s andTr ader s
o f
th e S o uth Pl ains
(Austin, 1994), 32-33, 48, 80, 103-4,
113-14;
F r ay
Dam iainMazanet to Do nCar l o s de
S igiienza,
1690,
in
S panish Expl o r atio n
inth e
S o uth west, 1542-
1706, ed. Her ber t
Eugene
Bo l to n
(New Yo r k, 1916),
282.
24
Al fr ed
Bar naby
Th o m as, tr ans.,
Al o nso de Po sada
Repo r t, 1686:
A
Descr iptio no fth e
Ar ea
o f
th e Pr esent S o uth er n
UnitedS tates inth e Late S eventeenth
Centur y
(Pensaco l a, 1982), 36-37; Br o o ks,
Captives
and
Co usins, 121-42.
25 Th o m as
R.
Hester ,
"Texas andNo r th easter nMexico : An
Over view,"
inCo l um bian
Co nsequences,
vo l .
I :
Co m m o difying
I ndianW o m eninth e Bo r der l ands 33
MAPA DLPRE&iDI o 1)
&, ANJOo nio E
D)BEXAR. i' VS MI MnNE Mo ES OD- PW 'S La DTEXs s
F ifo
EN *4
I DE.
F i.
D
MARZO
iJ7'64.POl
ELCAPiTAN
DON
LVS Ar r o TTONio
MENCHACAqW VE
LOES D
DHO
-0l o
.... .. . ...
. .
,4.,4,
...-
, ..
`I *~F ) ?I I r A
Mj l tA&I " C
LL
4<,-- u u ~nl
S anAnto nio de
Bexar , 1764. Establ ish edin
1718,
S anAnto nio de Bexar
bym idcentur y
co m -
bineda civil ian
co m m unity,
a
m il itar ygar r iso n,
andfive m issio ns andwas th e
l ar gest
settl e-
m ent in
S panish
Texas. I t becam e th e
capital
o fth e
pr o vince
in1773. I t ser vedas a
key
site fo r
S panish dipl o m atic nego tiatio ns
with
LipanApach e,
Co m anch e, Caddo ,
andW ich ita l eader s.
Map by
th e
pr esidio
co m m ander Luis Anto nio Mench aca.
Co ur tesyJo h n
Car ter Br o wn
Libr ar y,
Br o wn
Univer sity.
Of th e fo ur native
po wer s, LipanApach es
wer e th e fir st to
ch al l enge
th e
S panish pr es-
ence in
Texas;
as a r esul t
S panish -I ndian
r el atio ns th er e to o k a differ ent
path
th andid
th e r el atio ns
enjo yedby
th e F r ench to th e
east,
andth e
path
l edto a differ ent fo r m o f
bo ndage--o ne
defined
bypunitive
war .
Th o ugh
no w l ess wel l -kno wnth anth eir wester n
r el atives,
LipanApach es r epr esented
a
widespr ead
andfo r m idabl e
po wer th r o ugh o ut
th e
eigh teenth centur y.
Easter n
Apach es l iving
inwh at is no w Texas h ad
gained
an
ear l y
ad-
vantage am o ng
I ndians th er e with h o r ses
acquir ed
inth e seventeenth
centur yth r o ugh
tr ading
and
r aiding
inNew Mexico .
By
th e
1740s,
"Lipan"
h adbeco m e th e
designa-
tio nused
byS paniar ds
to r efer to th e easter nm o st Pl ains
Apach e gr o ups.
Th eir
eco no m y
center edo n
h unting
and
r aiding
fo r biso nand
h o r ses,
wh ich didno t al l o w
per m anent
settl em ent,
th o ugh th ey
did
pr actice
sem icul tivatio n.
S o cial units far m edandh untedin
r anch er fas
(a
S panish
ter m fo r I ndian
encam pm ents)
th at
m igh t
cl uster
to geth er
fo r de-
fense andcer em o nial r itual .
Usual l ynum ber ing
ar o undfo ur h undr ed
peo pl e,
such units
Ar ch aeo l o gical
andHisto r ical
Per spectives
o nth e
S panish
Bo r der l ands W est, ed. DavidHur st Th o m as
(W ash ingto n,
1989), 191-211; Th e I ndians
o fS o uth er n
Texas andNo r th easter nMexico : S el ected
W r itings o f
Th o m as No l an
Cam pbel l
(Austin, 1988);
Do nal d
Ch ipm an, S panish
Texas, 1519-1821 (Austin, 1992), 182-83, 205-7, 249-50.
34 Th e
Jo ur nal
o fAm er ican
Histo r y
June
2005
aggr egated
tento
th ir ty
extendedfam il ies r el ated
by
bl o o do r
m ar r iage
th at
per io dical l y
jo inedto geth er
fo r h o r se
r aids,
biso n
h unts,
andco o r dinated
m il itar y
actio n. No centr al
l eader sh ip
existed,
and
gr o up
l eader s m ade decisio ns inco nsul tatio nwith extended-fam i-
l y
h eadm en,
but
unity
o f
l anguage,
dr ess,
andcusto m s m aintainedco l l ective
identity
and
inter nal
peace.
Anestim atedtwel ve
gr o ups
o f
LipanApach es,
each
inco r po r ating
sever al
r anch er ias,
l ivedincentr al Texas andusedh o r ses to
expand
th eir
r ange
andco ntr o l o ver
biso nter r ito r ies andto secur e th eir individual r anch er fas fr o m attack
dur ing
th e
agr icul -
tur al
cycl es
th at al ter natedwith biso n
h unting
o ver th e
year .
As h o r ses r o se in
im po r -
tance,
so to o didth e
r aiding
th at m aintainedth eir h er ds andsustainedth eir
eco no m y.26
Apach e
eco no m ies cam e under attack inth e
ear l yeigh teenth centur y,
h o wever ,
as
Co m anch es andW ich itas
m igr ated
so uth to
ch al l enge Apach e
bands fo r th e r ich biso n
ter r ito r ies o f no r th er nandno r th -centr al Texas. Ho stil ities
quickl yer upted
th at
pitted
Apach es against
Co m anch es andW ich itas as wel l as
S paniar ds,
andth e tr ebl e em battl e-
m ent
gr adual l y
weakened
Apach es'
defenses,
m aking
th em
incr easingl y
vul ner abl e to al l
th r ee
o ppo nents. Apach e
wo m enandch il dr enth us becam e th e fo cus no t
o nl y
o f r aids
by
Co m anch e andW ich ita war r io r s
seekingcaptives
fo r F r ench m ar kets inLo uisiana but
al so o f
S panish m il itar ycam paigns seekingpr iso ner s
wh o m
S paniar ds
co ul duse to co er ce
o r
punish
th eir
Apach e
fo es.
Th r o ugh o ut
th e
1720s, 1730s,
and
1740s,
LipanApach es
m o untedr aids o nth e h o r se h er ds o f S anAnto nio de B&xar m issio ns,
civil ian
r anch es,
and
pr esidio
to sustaina
suppl y
o f h o r ses cr ucial to th e
m o bil ity
anddefense o f th eir
fam il y
bands am id
m o unting
co nfl icts. I n
tur n,
S panish
fear andfr ustr atio nescal ated
wh en
pr esidial
fo r ces
pr o ved
unabl e to
sto p
th e war r io r s' attacks andl edto
desper ate
bids
byS paniar ds
to stem th e r aids.
S panish
o fficial s,
m aking
war to ach ieve
peace,
o r der ed
Apach e
wo m enandch il dr ento be taken
captive
to fo r ce
dipl o m acy, ar guing
th at th e best
way
to
m anipul ate
native
gr o ups
was
th r o ugh
th eir
captive
kinsm en
o r ,
m o r e
accur atel y,
kinswo m en. S o m etim es
S paniar ds
went so far as to
singl e
o ut as
po l itical h o stages
th e
wives,
daugh ter s,
sister s,
andm o th er s o f
l eading
ch iefs andwar r io r s.27
S panish captive po l icy
devastated
m anyLipanApach e
bands
bypr eying
o nth eir
wo m enandch il dr en. I ndian
captive taking
invo l vedsm al l num ber s o f
individual s;
S pan-
iar ds intr o duced
captive taking
o na scal e
unim aginabl e
to m o st I ndiannatio ns. To use
captives
fo r
po l itical
co er cio n
m ay
h ave seem eda
l o gical
tactic to
S panish
o fficial s,
wh o
co ul dr efer to
l o ng
tr aditio ns o f
pr iso ner
and
h o stage exch ange
in
Eur o pean
war far e.
Yet,
wh en
S panish
fo r ces attacked
Apach e
r anch er ias,
to o k
captives,
andth entr iedto fo r ce
peace
with th e bands
th ey
h ad
attacked,
th eyso ugh t
to
fo r ge
al l iance
th r o ugh
anact o f
h o stil ity.
Mo r eo ver ,
even
byS panish
ter m s o f
h o stage exch ange,
th eir
captive po l icy
was
fundam ental l yunequal
because it never
r epr esented
an
exch ange
o f I ndianwo m enfo r
S panish
wo m en. Unl ike th e Co m anch e war r io r s inNew Mexico wh o to o k
S panish
wo m -
26 Mo r r is Edwar d
Opl er ,
"Th e
Kinsh ip S ystem s
o f th e S o uth er n
Ath abaskan-S peaking
Tr ibes," Am er icanAn-
th r o po l o gist,
38
(Oct. 1936), 620-33;
Mo r r is E.
Opl er , "LipanApach e,"
inHandbo o k
o f
No r th Am er icanI ndi-
ans, ed. W il l iam C.
S tur tevant, vo l .
XI I I : Pl ains, ed.
Raym o ndJ.
DeMal l ie
(W ash ingto n,
2001),
par t
2, 941-52;
Th o m as
E S ch il z,
LipanApach es
inTexas
(El Paso , 1987);
Do l o r es A.
Gunner so n, Th e
icar il l a Appach es:
A
S tudy
in
S ur vival
(DeKal b, 1974);
Gar yCl ayto n
Ander so n, Th e
I ndian
S o uth west, 1580-1830:
Eth no genesis
andReinven-
tio n
(No r m an, 1999), 105-44;
Jo se
Co r tes, Viewsfr o m
th e
Apach e
F r o ntier :
Repo r t
o nth e No r th er nPr o vinces
o fNew
S pain,
ed. El izabeth A. H.
Jo h n,
tr ans.
Jo h n
W h eat
(No r m an, 1989).
27
W il l iam Edwar d
Dunn,
"Apach e
Rel atio ns in
Texas, 1718-1750,"
Quar ter l yo f
th e Texas S tate Histo r ical As-
so ciatio n, 14
(Jan. 1911), 198-274.
Co m m o difying
I ndianW o m eninth e Bo r der l ands 35
i5,
c~
s~~tc
LipanApach e
I ndians No r th o fth e Rio
Gr ande,
c. 1834-1836. W ater co l o r
by
Lino
S inch ez
yTapia
after th e
o r iginal
sketch
byJo se
Mar ia S anch ez
yTapia. LipanApach es
wer e th e m ainvictim s o fbo th
punitive S panish po l icies
andth e
r eady
m ar ket fo r en-
sl avedI ndians inF r ench Lo uisiana.
Co ur tesy
Gil cr ease Museum , Tul sa,
Okl ah o m a.
enandch il dr enas wel l as h o r ses as th e
bo o ty
o fth eir
r aids,
Apach e
m eninTexas fo cused
th eir
r aiding
o nh o r se
h er ds.28
No t
sur pr isingl y, S panish
actio ns
br o ugh t o nl y
m o r e h o stil ities with
Apach es.
F o r th e
Apach e
wo m enandch il dr enh el d
pr iso ner
inS anAnto nio de
Bexar ,
th e situatio nwo r s-
ened. As
captivities l ength ened
fr o m m o nth s into
year s,
o fficial s distr ibutedth e
Apach e
wo m enandch il dr enas "ser vants"
am o ng
so l dier s andcivil ians inTexas ando th er
pr o v-
inces to th e so uth .
S paniar ds,
wh o h ad
l o ng
fo und
ways
ar o undth e Cr o wn's
l egal pr o -
h ibitio ns
against
th e ensl avem ent o f
I ndians,
no w r atio nal izedth eir decisio nto
keep
such wo m enandch il dr enin
bo ndage bycl aim ing
th e necessities o f defense.
Bysl eigh t
o f
inter pr etatio n, th ey
deem edth e
o nl y
cautivo s inNew
S pain's
no r th er n
pr o vinces
to be
S paniar ds captur edbyI ndians-Apach e
wo m enandch il dr en
captur edbyS panish
fo r ces
wer e
pr isio ner o s (pr iso ner s
o f
war ). Cr itics, h o wever ,
cl ear l y
saw th at o fficial s andcivil ians
al ike
so ugh t pr o fit
r ath er th an
peace th r o ugh
such ensl avem ent.
F r ay
Benito
F er nindez
de S anta
Ana,
fo r
instance,
ar gued
in1740 th at r aids
against Apach e
r anch er fas
o nl y
in-
cr eased
Apach e
h atr ed;
it was "r idicul o us" th at so l dier s andcitizens
pl edged
to ser ve th e
king
instead
so ugh t
th eir o wn
gainth r o ugh
th e
"captur e
o f
h o r ses, h ides,
andI ndianm en
andwo m ento ser ve th em ." He co ncl udedth at with such vil e
intentio ns,
th eir actio ns
wo ul dr esul t inan
equal l y
vil e o utco m e.29
28
Jam es W il l iam Br o dm an, Ranso m ingCaptives
inCr usader
S pain: Th e
Or der
o fMer ced
o nth e Ch r istian-I sl am ic
F r o ntier
(Ph il adel ph ia,
1986); Jar bel Ro dr iguez, "F inancing
a
Captive's
Ranso m inLate Medieval
Ar ago n,"
Medi-
eval
Enco unter s: Jewish ,
Ch r istian, andMusl im Cul tur e in
Co nfl uence
and
Dial o gue,
9
(Apr il
2003), 164-81; Br o o ks,
Captives
and
Co usins; Dunn,
"Apach e
Rel atio ns in
Texas"; Jul iana Bar r ,
"'Tr aces o fCh r istians': A
S pectr um
o fI n-
dian
Bo ndage
in
S panish
Texas,"
inI ndian
S l aver y
inCo l o nial Am er ica, ed. Al an
Gal l ay
(Linco l n,
fo r th co m ing).
29
Ana Mar ia Al o nso , Th r ead
o fBl o o d:
Co l o nial ism , Revo l utio n, andGender o nMexico 's No r th er nF r o ntier
(Tuc-
so n, 1995), 37;
F r ay
Benito F er nandez de S anta Ana to
F r ay
Guar dianPedr o del Bar co ,
F eb.
20, 1740,
inTh e
36 Th e
Jo ur nal
o fAm er ican
Histo r y
June
2005
S o m e o fth e
Apach e
wo m endistr ibuted
byS panish
auth o r ities
m ay
h ave r em ainedas
sl aves in
S panish
co m m unities and
h o useh o l ds,
but unl ike I ndianwo m eninF r ench tr ad-
ingpo sts, th ey
wer e no t o fteninvo l vedinintim ate unio ns with th eir
capto r s. Al th o ugh ,
l ike th e F r ench in
Lo uisiana,
S paniar ds
neededto incr ease th eir settl er
po pul atio n,
th er e
is no indicatio nth at
th ey
inter m ar r iedwith eith er th e native
peo pl es th eyso ugh t
as al l ies
o r th e native
captives
wh o m
th eym anipul ated
inth e ser vice o f
peace. I nter m ar r iage
with
I ndians was no t unco m m o nin
S panish
Am er ica,
but
by
th e
eigh teenth centur y
it was
no
l o nger
usedas a m eans o f
dipl o m acy
andal l iance with
independent
I ndiannatio ns.
Rath er ,
S panish -I ndian
sexual r el atio ns and
inter m ar r iage
to o k
pl ace o nl y
with in
S pan-
ish
so ciety, invo l ving
I ndianindividual s wh o h adbeen
inco r po r ated
into th at
so ciety
as
subjects
o fth e
S panish
ch ur ch andstate. S o m e o fth e ensl aved
Apach e
wo m en
m ay
h ave
beco m e th e co nso r ts o f
S paniar ds
o r o f m issio nI ndians inth e l o wer r anks o f
S panish
co m m unities. Yet inco ntr ast to th e
l ar ge genizar o po pul atio n
th at
gr ew steadil y
inNew
Mexico ,
th e wo m enandch il dr enh el din
bo ndage
inTexas wer e
few,
andas war far e with
Apach e peo pl es
incr easedacr o ss th e no r th er n
pr o vinces
o ver th e
eigh teenth centur y, th ey
wer e
l ikel y
to be
depo r ted
to Mexico
City
andl ater th e
Car ibbean.30
Th e
exper iences
o f
Apach e fam il y
bands
tar getedbyS panish m il itar ypo l icy
ar e il l us-
tr atedm o st
po ignantl yby
th e
sto r y
o f o ne h eaded
by
th e ch ief Cabel l o s Co l o r ado s. I n
1737,
acco m paniedbyeigh t
m enand
eigh t
wo m en,
h e
appr o ach ed
S an
Anto nio ,
seek-
ing
tr ade with
S panish
r esidents th er e. Th e
equal
num ber o f m enandwo m en inth e
par tysuggested
th eir
peaceful
intent. Yet to find
Apach es
cl o se to to wn
just
wh en
S pan-
ish fo r ces wer e
l o o king
fo r so m eo ne to nab fo r
past
h o r se r aids and
S panish
o fficial s wer e
seeking
to r eestabl ish th e effectiveness o f th eir ar m s inth e
eyes
o f a
desper ate citizenr y
and
do ubtingvicer egal
auth o r ities was to o
pr o vidential
an
o ppo r tunity
to
pass up.
W h en
twenty-eigh t
ar m edso l dier s r o de
o ut,
Cabel l o s Co l o r ado s andh is
m en
wer e
cl ear l y
no t
expecting
a
figh t
anddidno t
put up
a
defense;
th ey
wer e th er efo r e
quickl y
sur r o unded
and
captur ed.
I nfur th er indicatio nth at
S paniar ds
h adno evidence to
pr o ve
th e
gr o up
wer e
r aider s,
th ey
insistedo n
h ear ings
to
gath er
such
evidence-so m eth ing th ey
h ad
never fel t
necessar y
befo r e.31
I n
June
1738 Pr udencio de Or o bio
y
Bazter r a,
th e
go ver no r
o f
Texas,
th us
pr o ceeded
to
gath er testim o ny
o nth e
"infidel ity"
o f
Apach es
in
vio l ating
a 1733
peace tr eaty
th at
didno t
exist,
andCabel l o s Co l o r ado s andh is
peo pl e
wer e th e
designatedsubjects
o f
th e
fr am e-up.
Th e "evidence"
against
th em am o untedto asser tio ns based
o nl y
o nco in-
cidence, r um o r ,
and
pr ejudice.
F ir st,
S paniar ds
saw it as
suspicio us
th at,
o f th e kno wn
S an
Jo si Paper s: Th e Pr im ar y
S o ur ces
fo r
th e
Histo r yo f
Missio nS an
Jo se'y
S an
Miguel
de
Aguayo fr o m
I ts
F o unding
in
1720 to th e Pr esent,
par t
I :
1719-1791, tr ans. Benedict
Leutenegger ,
ed. Mar io nA.
Habig
(S anAnto nio , 1978),
64;
Pr o ceedings co ncer ning
th e
I nfidel ity
o f th e
Apach es, June 28, 1738, Bexar Ar ch ives
(Center
fo r Am er ican
Histo r y, Univer sity
o f
Texas, Austin);
F r ay
Benito
F er nindez
de S anta Ana to
Vicer o yAr ch bish o p Juan
Anto nio
de
Vizar r o n,
June 30, 1737,
inLetter s andMem o r ial s
o f
th e F ath er Pr esidente
F r ay
Benito F er ndndez de S anta Ana,
1736-1754:
Do cum ents o nth e Missio ns
o f
Texas
fr o m
th e Ar ch ives
o f
th e
Co l l ege o f
Quer dtar o ,
ed. Benedict
Leuteneg-
ger
(S anAnto nio , 1981), 26-27.
30
Br o o ks,
Captives
andCo usins, 121-42; Gil ber to M.
Hino jo sa
andAnne A.
F o x, "I ndians and
Th eir
Cul tur e in
S anF er nando de
Bexar ,"
in
Tejano Or igins
in
Eigh teenth -Centur y
S an
Anto nio , ed. Ger al dE.
Po yo
and
Gil ber to
M.
Hino jo sa
(Austin, 1991), 109-10;
Jesis E.
de
l a
Teja,
S anAnto nio de
B&xar :
A
Co m m unity
o nNew
S pain's
No r th er n
F r o ntier
(Al buquer que,
1995), 122-23.
31
Do nPr udencio de Or o bio
y
Bazter r a, Or der fo r
I nvestigatio n
and
Questio nnair e, June 25, 1738, Pr o ceed-
ings co ncer ning
th e
I nfidel ity
o fth e
Apach es; Testim o ny
o fl ieutenant Mateo
Per ez, ch iefco nstabl e Vicente Al var ez
Tr avieso ,
captainJo se
de
Ur r utia, al f6r ez JuanGal vain, and
co r po r al JuanCo r tina, June 26-28, 1738, ibid.; Dunn,
"Apach e
Rel atio ns in
Texas," 244-45.
Co m m o difying
I ndianW o m eninth e Bo r der l ands 37
Apach e
r anch er fas,
th at o fCabel l o s Co l o r ado s andh is
peo pl e
was th e cl o sest to S anAn-
to nio .
S eco nd,
so l dier s testifiedth at no "assaul ts" h adtaken
pl ace
since th eir
captur e,
so th e r aider s m ust be th e o nes in
jail .
Th ir d,
th e
pr esidial
co m m ander
Jo se
de Ur r utia
identifiedCabel l o s Co l o r ado s as a m ano f
standing
and
r eputatio nam o ngApach es-
so
m uch so th at Ur r utia cl aim edit was r um o r edth at th e l eader h ad
br agged
to th e
capitdne
gr ande
o fth e
Apach e
natio n
(a
po sitio n
th at didno t
exist)
th at h e wo ul dr aidal l th e
pr e-
sidial h o r se h er ds o fS an
Anto nio , Co ah uil a,
S an
Juan
Bautista,
andS acr am ento
(quite
a task fo r o ne
m an),
th en
sl augh ter
al l th e inh abitants
(a
war tactic th at didno t exist
am o ngApach es). Cl ear l y,
Cabel l o s Co l o r ado s was a
po wer ful
m anwh o se do wnfal l
m igh t
po wer ful l y
enh ance th e
r eputatio n
o fth e
S paniar d
wh o
br o ugh t
h im do wn.32
I nth e
m eantim e,
Cabel l o s Co l o r ado s tr iedto
nego tiate
with h is
capto r s, r el ying
o n
fem al e
h o stages
as m ediato r s
byr equesting
th at
S paniar ds
al l o w o ne o fth e wo m ento
r etur nto h is r anch er ia to
get
h o r ses with wh ich to
buy
th eir fr eedo m . Betweenth e De-
cem ber
captur e
andth e
June h ear ings, Apach e
wo m entr avel edback andfo r th between
Apach e
and
S panish
settl em ents,
tr ying
to
exch ange
h o r ses fo r th e
captives,
but anattack
o nth eir r anch er ia
by
Caddo s wh o kil l ed
twel ve,
captur ed
two
bo ys,
andsto l e al l th eir
h o r ses
sever el y
l im itedth eir
abil ity
to
pr o duce eno ugh
h o r ses to
appease S panish
o ffi-
cial s.
I nstead,
th e wo m en
br o ugh t
biso nm eat fo r th eir
captive
kinsm enandbiso nh ides
as
go o dwil l gifts
fo r
S panish
o fficial s. I n
August
an
el der l y
m an
acco m panied
th e wo m en
and
br o ugh t
news
th at,
th o ugh th ey
co ul dno t
suppl yany
h o r ses,
h e h advisitedal l th e
Apach e
bands andaskedth em to
sto p
al l
r aids,
andh e no w o ffer edth is
peace agr eem ent
to th e o fficial s in
exch ange
fo r th e
captives.
Th e
go ver no r
r efused. Th e
el der l y
m anth en
tr iedto
exch ange
a h o r se anda m ul e fo r h is
el der l y
wife,
wh o was
am o ng
th e
captives.
Th e
go ver no r
r efused
again.33
No
peace o ffer ing
co ul do ffset th e
S paniar ds'
desir e to
punish
so m eo ne fo r th e deeds
o f
Apach e
r aider s wh o h adm ade a
m o cker y
o fth eir
pr esidial
fo r ces inth e
pr eceding
year s. Ul tim atel y,
Or o bio
co nsigned
Cabel l o s Co l o r ado s andh is entir e
fam il y
to exil e
andensl avem ent. I nh is o r der o f
F ebr uar y
16, 1739,
th e
go ver no r
r efusedto
spar e
th e
wo m eno r
even
aninfant
gir l , decl ar ing
th at "th e th ir teenI ndianm enandwo m en
pr is-
o ner s inth e said
pr esidio ,
[sh al l
be
taken]
tiedto each
o th er ,
fr o m
jur isdictio n
to
jur is-
dictio n,
to th e
pr iso n
o fth e
capital
inMexico
City,
andth at th e
two -year -o l ddaugh ter
o fch iefCabel l o s
Co l o r ado s,
Mar ia
Guadal upe,
sh al l be tr eatedinth e sam e m anner ." Th e
co l l er a o f
Apach e pr iso ner s-seven
m en,
six
wo m en,
ando ne ch il d-l eft o n
F ebr uar y
18
esco r ted
by
a m ixed
guar d
o fso l dier s and
civil ians.34
Th ey
tr avel edfo r o ne h undr edandtwo
days
o nfo o t-th e m ensh ackl edeach
nigh t
in
l eg
ir o ns, sto cks, m anacl es,
o r
r o pes-befo r e r each ing
Mexico
City
inl ate
May
wh er e
th ey
wer e incar cer atedinth e
vicer egal pr iso n,
Real Car cel de
l a
Co r te
(th e Aco r dada).
Two o fth e fo ur teendiedenr o ute to Mexico
City,
andl ess th ansix m o nth s
l ater ,
seven
m o r e h adsuccum bedinth e disease-r idden
pr iso n
o r inwo r kh o uses. W h eth er
any
o fth e
32 Testim o nyo fMateo
Per ez,
Vicente Al var ez Tr avieso , and
Jo se
de
Ur r utia,
Pr o ceedings co ncer ning
th e I nfidel -
ity
o fth e
Apach es;
Dunn,
"Apach e
Rel atio ns in
Texas," 245-47.
33 S tatem ent o fDo nPr udencio de Or o bio
y
Bazter r a,
Aug.
18, 1738,
Pr o ceedings co ncer ning
th e
I nfidel ity
o f
th e
Apach es;
Dunn,
"Apach e
Rel atio ns in
Texas," 245-46.
34
Or der o f Go ver no r Do nPr udencio de Or o bio
y
Bazter r a,
F eb.
16, 1739,
Pr o ceedings co ncer ning
th e I nfi-
del ity
o f th e
Apach es;
Benito de F er nindez de S anta Ana to
Vicer o yAr ch bish o p Juan
Anto nio de Vizar r o n,
No v.
24, 1739,
inLetter s andMem o r ial s
o f
th e F ath er Pr esidente
F r ay
Benito de F er ndndez de S anta Ana, ed.
Leutenegger ,
32.
38 Th e
Jo ur nal
o fAm er ican
Histo r y
June
2005
o th er five sur vivedis
unkno wn;
th e l ast r eco r ds indicate th at
pr iso n
o fficial s sent two
m ento a
h o spital
wh il e
co nsigning
two
wo m en,
al th o ugh ver y
il l ,
to ser vitude in
pr ivate
h o m es o f
pr o m inent S paniar ds.
Th e l ast o fth e
five,
l ittl e
Mar ia
Guadal upe,
was
separ ated
fr o m h er m o th er
(o ne
o fth e two sent into
ser vitude),
andl ater effo r ts to r etur nh er to h er
m o th er fail edwh enth e
appo intedguar dian
absco ndedwith th e wife o fCabel l o s
Co l o r a-
do s.
Th ey
wo ul dno t be th e l ast
Apach es
to suffer such a h o r r o r -fil l edfate.35
Havingpr o cl aim ed
defensive needs as th eir car te bl anch e fo r war tim e
ensl avem ents,
m il itia
gr o ups
m ade
up
o fso l dier s andcivil ians devastated
Apach e fam il y
bands,
causing
r epeated
l o ss o fkinswo m enand
ch il dr en,
and
near l ybr o ugh t
o nth eir o wndestr uctio n
at th e h ands o finfur iated
Apach e
l eader s andwar r io r s until a
peace tr eaty
in1749 ended
h o stil ities fo r
twentyyear s. Dur ing
th o se
twentyyear s, Apach e
l eader s wo ul dstr ive with -
o ut success to
r egainfam il y
m em ber s l o st inth e 1730s and1740s.
By
th e
1760s,
inten-
sifying
Co m anch e andW ich ita
pr essur es
o nbo th
Apach es
and
S paniar ds br o ugh t
th eir
br ief
exper im ent
with
peace
to anend.
By
th en,
S panish
o fficial s h addecidedto ditch
Apach es
as
al l ies,
pr efer r ing
th eir m o r e
po wer ful
Co m anch e andW ich ita enem ies.36
I t is at th is
po int,
inth e l ate
1760s,
th at o ur two sto r ies
(and
th e two sl ave
netwo r ks)
co m e
to geth er .
F r ench tr ade r el atio ns with
po wer ful
Caddo , W ich ita,
andCo m anch e
bands-r el atio ns under wr itten
by
th e tr affic inwo m en-h adbeenal l to o cl ear to watch -
ful
S panish eyes
since th e
beginning
o fth e
centur y.
F o r as
l o ng
as F r ench tr ader s h ad
been
o per ating
inth e
r egio n, S panish
m issio nar ies and
m il itar y
o fficial s inTexas h ad
been
tr ying
to effect al l iances o fth eir o wninth e
h o pe
o f
o ffseting
th e infl uence o fth eir
F r ench r ival s.
Th r o ugh o ut
th e fir st h al fo fth e
centur y,
h o wever ,
such effo r ts h adm et with
abject
fail ur e evenas th e
S paniar ds
watch edI ndian-F r ench ties
steadil ystr ength en.37
Repo r ts
fil ter edinfr o m al l acr o ss th e Pl ains andNew Mexico
detail ing
h o w F r ench m en
h ad
expanded
th eir native al l iances andth eir sl ave
tr ade.38
I m per ial S panish
o fficial s
fear edth at
gr o wing
tr ade r el atio ns
signal edm il itar y
al l iance andth e
po tential
fo r a
unitedF r ench -I ndianattack o n
S panish
ter r ito r ies. S uch l am ents r em ainedfo cal
po ints
o f
S panish
r h eto r ic as
th ey
watch edfir st
Caddo s,
th enCo m anch es and
W ich itas,
buil d
eco no m ic ties to th e F r ench
co l o ny.
Th e
ever -incr easing m il itar ypo wer
o fCo m anch e
35
Max L.
Mo o r h ead,
"S panish Depo r tatio n
o fHo stil e
Apach es:
Th e
Po l icy
andth e
Pr actice,"
Ar izo na andth e
W est, 17
(Autum n1975), 210-11, 215, 217.
36 Dunn,
"Apach e
Rel atio ns in
Texas," 248-62; El izabeth A. H.
Jo h n,
S to r m s Br ewedinOth er Men's W o r l ds:
Th e Co nfr o ntatio ns o f
ndians,
S panish ,
and
F r ench
inth e S o uth west, 1540-1795
(Co l l ege
S tatio n, 1975), 273-303,
336-405.
37
Casafl as
de
Jesis
Mar ia to th e
Vicer o y
o f
Mexico ,
Aug.
15, 1691,
in
"Descr iptio ns
o f th e
Tejas
o r Asinai
I ndians, 1691-1722,"
tr ans.
Hatch er , 208; Juan
Bautista
Ch apa,
Texas andNo r th easter n
Mexico , 1630-1690, ed.
W il l iam C.
F o ster ,
tr ans. Ned
E
Br ier l ey
(Austin, 1997); F r ay
F r ancisco
Hidal go
to th e
Vicer o y,
No v.
4, 1716,
in
"Descr iptio ns
o f th e
Tejas
o r Asinai
I ndians, 1691-1722,"
tr ans. Mattie Austin
Hatch er ,
S o uth wester nHisto r ical
Quar ter l y,
31
(Jul y
1927), 60;
F r ay
I sidr o de
Espino sa,
"Ram 6n's
Expeditio n: Espino sa's Diar y
o f
1716," tr ans. Ga-
br iel
To us,
Pr el im inar y
S tudies
o f
th e Texas Cath o l ic Histo r ical
S o ciety,
1
(Apr il
1930), 4-24;
Do n
Do m ingo
Ram 6n,
"Captain
Do n
Do m ingo
Ram 6n's Diar y
o fh is
Expeditio n
into Texas in
1716,"
tr ans. Paul
J.
F o ik, ibid.,
2
(Apr il
1933), 3-23;
F r ay
F r ancisco
Cdl iz,
Diar yo f
th e
Al ar cdn
Expeditio n
into Texas, 1718-1719, tr ans. F r itz Ho ffm ann
(Lo s
Angel es,
1935),
83.
38
Do nAnto nio Val ver de
y
Co sio , Go ver no r o fNew
Mexico , to
Mar quis
de Val er o , No v.
3, 1719,
inPich ar do 's
Tr eatise o nth e Lim its
o f
Lo uisiana andTexas, tr ans.
Hackett, I , 193, 206; Testim o nies
'o f
Luis F ebr e, Pedr o S atr en
and
Jo seph Miguel
Ribal l o befo r e Go ver no r
To m is
V6l ez
Cach upin, Apr il
13, 1749,
andMar ch
5, 1750, ibid.,
I I I ,
299-320;
testim o ny
o f
F el ipe
de
S ando val , Mar ch
1, 1750, ibid., 320-24; S tatem ent o fAnto nio
Tr evifio
to Go v-
er no r
Angel
Mar to s
y
Navar r ete,
Jul y
13, 1765, B&xar
Ar ch ives.
Co m m o difying
I ndianW o m eninth e Bo r der l ands 39
andW ich ita natio ns so o nbecam e far m o r e
daunting
th anth at o fth e
F r ench ,
h o wever .
Th e ar m am ents
acquir edth r o ugh
F r ench tr ade h ad
equipped
Co m anch e andW ich ita
bands better fo r th e r aids th at fr o m th e 1740s o n
pl under edS panish
h o r se h er ds incivil
andm issio nsettl em ents inbo th Texas andNew Mexico .
By
1758 o fficial s inMexico
City
fear edCo m anch e invasio no fth e
S panish pr o vinces
so uth o fth e Rio Gr ande.39
Yet with o ut th e finances to o ffer
co m petitive
tr ade o fth eir o wno r th e
m il itar ypo wer
to
sto p
F r ench -I ndianal l iances
by
fo r ce,
S paniar ds
inTexas fo und
th ey
co ul ddo l ittl e
to o ffset F r ench
advantage.
I t was no t until th e 1760s th at th e cessio no fLo uisiana fr o m
F r ench to
S panish
r ul e
fo l l o wing
th e S evenYear s' W ar
o penedup
new
po ssibil ities
fo r
S panish
o fficial s.
S panish
l aw
o fficial l ypr o h ibited
th e ensl avem ent andsal e o f
I ndians,
and
Al ejandr o O'Reil l y,
th en
ser ving
as
go ver no r
o f
Lo uisiana,
extendedth at
pr o h ibitio n
to th e
pr o vince
with th e fo r m al
assum ptio n
o f
S panish po wer
in1769.
S panish
o fficial s
saw an
o ppo r tunity
to cut o ffth e tr ade th at
put guns
into th e h ands o fnative
gr o ups
deem ed"h o stil e" to th e
S panish go ver nm ent.
Lo cal
im per atives
ensur edth e enfo r cem ent
o fth e baninth e RedRiver
val l eyal o ng
th e Texas-Lo uisiana
bo r der ,
par ticul ar l yam o ng
W ich itas andCo m anch es.
S panish
o fficial s
final l y
h adth e m eans to sever th e co m m er -
cial ties th at h adal l iednative bands inTexas andth e so uth er nPl ains with F r ench m en.
Th us in
r espo nse
to
O'Reil l y's
edict,
o fficial s inNatch ito ch es fo r bade th e tr ade in
h o r ses,
m ul es,
andsl aves fr o m th o se I ndian
natio ns,
and
th ey
r ecal l edfr o m th eir
subpo sts
o r
h o m es
am o ng
"h o stil e" I ndians al l l icensed
tr ader s, h unter s,
andil l icit
"vagabo nds"-
m any
o fwh o m th e Natch ito ch es co m m ander Ath anase de Mezier es descr ibedin1770
as m en"wh o
pass
th eir scandal o us l ives in
publ ic co ncubinage
with th e
captive
I ndi-
anwo m enwh o m fo r th is
pur po se th eypur ch ase am o ng
th e
h eath en,
l o aning
th o se o f
wh o m
th ey
tir e to o th er s o fl ess
po wer ,
th at
th eym ay
l abo r inth eir
ser vice,
giving
th em
no o th er
wage
th anth e
pr o m ise
o f
quieting
th eir l ascivio us
passio n.""
Once at
Natch ito ch es,
th e tr ader s andh unter s h adto answer
questio ns
abo ut th eir
native tr ade
r el atio nsh ips
andto
r egister
th eir I ndiansl aves. I nfear o f
l o sing
th eir
sl aves,
so m e F r ench m en
so ugh t
to secur e th e wo m en
by
wh atever m eans
po ssibl e. Th o ugh go v-
er nm ent o fficial s
r eco gnizedpr o visio nal o wner sh ip pending
a
r o yal
decisio no nth e sta-
tus o fensl avedI ndians inth e
pr o vince,
so m e m en
cl ear l y
ch o se no t to l et th eir fate r est
o nth e
vagar ies
o fa
r o yal
decr ee.
Many
m ar r iedth eir sl aves o r
pr o m ised
fr eedo m ifth e
wo m enswo r e to r em ainwith th em as ser vants o r co nso r ts. I ntim ate r el atio ns
th er eby
be-
cam e a m eans o f
pr o l o nging
wo m en's ser vitude.
F r anqo is
Mo r vant,
fo r
instance,
in1770
decl ar edh is
o wner sh ip
o fa
twenty-five-year -o l d Apach e
wo m annam edMar ie Anne as
wel l as th eir
so n,
age
twel ve. S o m etim e
th er eafter , h o wever ,
h er status was
tr ansfo r m ed,
as sh e was enum er atedas Mo r vant's
wife,
"Ana
Mar ia,
o f
Apach e natio nal ity,"
inl ater
S panish
censuses fo r th e
near by
settl em ent o f
Naco gdo ch es,
Texas.
Tel l ingl y, th o ugh
th eir
r el atio nsh ip
h adexistedfo r at l east th ir teen
year s,
it was no t until Mo r vant facedl o s-
39
Pedr o de River a,
"Diar y
and
I tiner ar y
o f W h at W as S eenandExam ined
Dur ing
th e Gener al
I nspectio n
o f Pr esidio s inth e I nter io r Pr o vinces o f New
S pain,"
in
I m aginar yKingdo m :
Texas as S een
by
th e River a andRubi
Mil itar yExpeditio ns,
1727 and1767, ed.
Jack Jackso n(Austin, 1995), 35;
Mar quis
de
Rubi,
"Dictam eno f
Apr il
10, 1768,"
tr ans. Ned.
E
Br ier l ey,
ibid., 182-83; Paul D. Nath an, tr ans.,
Lesl eyByr dS im pso n,
ed., Th e
S anS abd
Paper s:
A
Do cum entar y
Acco unt
o f
th e
F o unding
andDestr uctio n
o f
S anS abdMissio n
(S anF r ancisco , 1959), 71,
107-15, 136, 145.
40 Al exandr o
O'Reil l y,
Pr o cl am atio n,
Dec.
7, 1769,
in
S pain
inth e
Mississippi Val l ey,
1765-1794, ed. Lawr ence
Kinnair d
(W ash ingto n,
1949), I I , 126-27;
Al ejandr o O'Reil l y
to Ath anase de Mezi'r es,
Jan. 23, 1770,
inAth anase
de Miziir es andth e Lo uisiana-Texas F r o ntier , ed. andtr ans.
Bo l to n, I , 135-36, 152; de Mezier es to Go ver no r o f
Lo uisiana Luis
Unzaga yAm ezaga, May
20, 1770,
ibid.,
166-68,
esp.
166.
40 Th e
Jo ur nal
o fAm er ican
Histo r y
June
2005
ingo wner sh ip
o f h er th at h e m ar r iedMar ie Anne.
By
1805
th ey
h adth r ee m o r e
so ns,
a
daugh ter ,
ando ne
gr andso nl iving
with th em .
S im il ar l y,
in1774
Jacque
Ridde fr eed
an
eigh teen-year -o l dApach e gir l , Angdl ique,
wh o se
o wner sh ip
h e
cl aim ed,
but
o nl y
af-
ter sh e
pl edged
to r em aininh is
ser vice,
andPier r e Raim o ndm ar r ied
F r ango ise,
ano th er
Apach e
wo m an,
fo l l o wing
h er
m anum issio n.41
Go ver ning
o fficial s in
S pain
never r ul edo nth e status o f I ndian
sl aves,
andth e exten-
sio no f
S panish
l aw into Lo uisiana fr eedno ensl avedI ndians
except
fo r a
ver y
few wh o se
o wner s
vo l untar il y
m anum ittedth em inth e after m ath o f
O'Reil l y's
edict in1769 o r in
1787 wh enth e o r dinance was
r epubl ish ed
in
r espo nse
to a
l egal
case
invo l vingr unaway
I ndiansl aves inS t. Lo uis. Th e existence o fa l aw tel l s us
ver y
l ittl e abo ut wh eth er th e l aw
was enfo r cedo r
o beyed-and
th e r eiter atio no f
l egal pr o h ibitio ns suggests
a l ack o fco m -
pl iance.
Between1790 and
1794,
a h andful o fsl aves al so sued
successful l y
fo r m anum is-
sio nin
S panish
co ur ts o nth e
gr o unds
o f I ndian
identity
(th eir
o wno r th eir
m o th er s'),
but al l th o se cases wer e h ear dinNew
Or l eans,
andsuch
l egal o ppo r tunities
didno t exist
fo r ensl avedI ndianwo m eno r th eir ch il dr enin
o utpo st
settl em ents far fr o m ur bancen-
ter s,
such as Natch ito ch es. I nth e wake o fth e sl ave
upr ising
inS aint
Do m ingue
in
1791,
such
o ppo r tunities quickl ydisappear ed
fo r
al l ,
as
S panish
o fficial s decidedth at
any
ch al -
l enges
to th e sl ave
system
wer e
danger o us.42
Meanwh il e,
r epo r ts
fr o m Natch ito ch es indicate th at
despite
th e new tr ade
pr o h ibitio ns
o nth e
bo o ks,
th e sl ave tr affic
al o ng
th e Texas-Lo uisiana bo r der
kept up
a
steady,
if
il l icit,
fl o w o fwo m enfr o m west to east o nth e
gr o und.
As l ate as th e
1780s,
pel tr ies (pr im ar il y
deer skins)
stil l m ade
up
a
significant po r tio n
o f Lo uisiana's
expo r ts, indicating
th e co n-
tinued
im po r tance
o f I ndiantr ade andth e extensive netwo r k o f
tr adingpo sts
th at
sup-
po r tedEur o pean-I ndianexch ange. Mar r iage
and
baptism
r eco r ds inNatch ito ch es wer e
testam ent to th e co ntinuedr o l e o fensl aved
Apach e
wo m enas
co nso r ts, wives,
andm o th -
er s
th r o ugh
th e endo fth e
eigh teenth centur y.
Mar ia
Mo desta,
th e "natur al "
daugh ter
o f
Mar ie
Magdal ena,
an
Apach e
sl ave o f
Jean
Lo uis l e
Co ur t,
gr ew up
to
m ar r yJean
Lau-
r ent Bo dinandh ave a
so n,
wh il e Th er ese
Leco m pte,
th e natur al
daugh ter
o fanensl aved
Apach e
wo m anal so nam ed
Th er ese,
m ar r iedLo uis
Meto yer ,
a fr ee m ano fco l o r . Ano th er
Apach e
wo m annam edMar ie Ro sal ie m ar r iedLo uis
Guil l o r i,
an
Opel o usa
I ndian. Th e
unio ns o fth e two Lo uises indicate th at F r ench tr ader s wer e no t th e
o nl y
m eninth e m ar -
ket fo r I ndianwives. Unl ike th e bl ack
po pul atio n
inur banNew
Or l eans,
th e bl ack r esi-
dents o f
Natch ito ch es,
bo th sl ave and
fr ee,
wer e
pr edo m inantl y
m al e,
l eaving
th em with
fewer
po tential
co nso r ts
am o ng
ensl avedo r fr ee wo m en-a
dem o gr aph ic
facto r th at
m ay
h ave
enco ur aged
th eir
inter m ar r iage
with I ndianwo m en. Official censuses
o nl y
h inted
at th e
num ber s,
andsacr am ental
r eco r ds-l isting
al m o st two h undr edensl avedI ndian
wo m enandch il dr eninth e Natch ito ch es ar ea o ver th e
centur y-al so
o ffer
o nl y
a
par tial
acco unting.
Never th el ess, by
1803 al m o st
o ne-quar ter
o fth e native-bo r n
Eur o peanpo p-
' Onth e actio ns o f
F r anqo is
Mo r vant,
Jacque
Ridde,
andPier r e Raim o ndin
1770,
see
Lee,
"I ndian
S l aver y
inLo wer Lo uisiana
dur ing
th e Co l o nial Per io d," 83-85; andMil l s, Natch ito ch es, 1729-1803, entr ies
1016, 1101,
1619, 1953, 2297, 2901. F o r th e fir st andl ast
appear ances
o fth e Mo r vant
fam il y
inth e to wn
censuses, see Cen-
suses o fNuestr a S efio r a del Pil ar de
Naco gdo ch es
fo r 1784 and
1805,
B xar Ar ch ives.
42
S teph en
W ebr e, "Th e Pr o bl em o fI ndian
S l aver y
in
S panish
Lo uisiana,"
Lo uisiana
Histo r y,
25
(S pr ing
1984),
117-35;
Hans
W .
Baade,
"Th e Law o f
S l aver y
in
S panish
Lo uisiana, 1769-1803,"
inLo uisiana's
Legal Her itage,
ed.
Edwar d
E
Haas
(Pensaco l a, 1983), 43-86; W insto nde
Vil l e, ed., Natch ito ch es Do cum ents, 1732-1785: A Cal en-
dar o f
Civil Reco r ds
fr o m
F o r t S t.
JeanBaptiste
inth e F r ench and
S panish
Pr o vince
o f
Lo uisiana
(Vil l e Pl atte, 1994),
10, 17, 35.
Co m m o difying
I ndianW o m eninth e Bo r der l ands 41
ul atio ninno r th west Lo uisiana co untedI ndiansl aves inth eir
ancestr y,
and60
per cent
o f
th at num ber cl aim eddescent
dir ectl y
fr o m anensl avedI ndian
par ent
o r
gr andpar ent.43
I n1806 an
Angl o -Am er icanr epo r t discussing
th e
stil l -pr eval ent Apach e
wo m enwh o
h adbeen
"br o ugh t
to
Natch ito ch es,
andso l d
am o ngst
th e F r ench
inh abitants,
at
fo r ty
o r
fifty
do l l ar s a
h ead,"
co ncl udedth at th e wo m enh adbeco m e "ser vants in
go o d
fam i-
l ies,
and
taugh t spinning, sewing,
&c. as wel l as
m anaging
h o useh o l d
affair s,
m ar r ied
natives o f th e
co untr y
[F r ench m en
and
m itis],
andbecam e
r espectabl e,
wel l beh aved
wo m en;
andh ave
no w,
gr o wnup,
decent fam il ies o f
ch il dr en,
h ave a
l anguage pecul iar
to
th em sel ves,
andar e under sto o d
bysigns by
al l
o th er s.""44
Mo st ensl aved
wo m en,
h o w-
ever ,
appear
inr eco r ds
o nl y
as th e
subjects
o f
baptism
at th eir F r ench o wner s' beh est o r
as m o th er s o fnatur al ch il dr enwh o se fath er s
usual l y,
but no t
al ways,
went unnam edin
sacr am ental
r egister s.
Th us th e l ives o fm o st ensl avedI ndianwo m enr estedo nth e wh im s
o fth eir
o wner s,
anda wo m an
m igh t
findh er wo r l dtur ned
suddenl yupside
do wnifsh e
wer e usedto
pay
m edical
bil l s,
exch anged
fo r
h o r ses,
seizedfo r
debt,
o r enum er atedin
a
wil l .45
Th e
exper iences
o fth ese wo m en
began
in
war ,
wh en
th ey
wer e to r nfr o m th eir
co m m unities
by
br utal
fo r ce,
andcul m inatedinth eir sal e into sexual andl abo r r el atio ns
defined
by
co er cio n.
I t was in
r espo nse
to such sto r ies th at
fr ay
S anta Mar ia
y
S il va h adissuedh is denun-
ciatio no fF r ench tr ader s after th e I ndiansl ave tr ade into Lo uisiana h adbeco m e il l icit
inth e 1770s. Yet,
evenS anta Mar ia
y
S il va,
if
pr essed,
wo ul dh ave neededto ackno wl -
edge
th at as
S panish
o fficial s inTexas
so ugh t
to stem th e eastwar dfl o w o f
captive
I ndian
wo m eninto
Lo uisiana,
th ey
cr eatedinits steada m o r e
deadl y
so uth war dfl o w o fh o s-
43 Pr esent-day
Ebar b inS abine Par ish inno r th wester nLo uisiana is
po pul atedby
descendants o fensl aved
Lipan
Apach es, indigeno us
Caddo s, and
im m igr ant
Ch o ctaws,
andLo uisiana
o fficial l yr eco gnizes
th e
Ch o ctaw-Apach e
Peo pl e
o fEbar b
am o ng
th e
state's
Am er icanI ndian
gr o ups.
S ee
Official
Ho m e
Page o f
th e
Ch o ctaw-Apach e
Tr ibe
o f
Lo uisiana
<h ttp: //cate.50m egs.co m /index.h tm >
(Mar ch 24, 2005).
N. M. Mil l er
S ur r ey,
7h e Co m m er ce
o fLo uisi-
ana
dur ing
th e F r ench
Rdgim e,
1699-1763
(New Yo r k, 1916), 226-49; Usner , I ndians, S ettl er s, andS l aves ina
F r o n-
tier
Exch ange Eco no m y,
116-22, 244-75. OnMar ia
Mo desta,
see
Mil l s, Natch ito ch es, 1729-1803, entr ies
2391,
2876, 2973. On
Th er ese,
see
ibid.,
entr ies
2392, 2447, 2992, 3448. OnMar ie
Ro sal ie, see
ibid.,
entr ies
2354,
2425, 2524, 2863, 3013, 3394. S ee al so El izabeth S h o wn
Mil l s, Natch ito ch es,
1800-1826:
Tr ansl ated Abstr acts
o f
Register
Num ber F ive
o fth e
Cath o l ic Ch ur ch Par ish
o fS t. F r anfo is
des Natch ito ch es inLo uisiana
(New Or l eans, 1980),
entr y
43 fo r Mar ie
Mo desta;
andEl izabeth S h o wn
Mil l s,
Natch ito ch es Co l o nial s:
Censuses,
Mil itar y
Ro l l s, andTax
Lists, 1722-1803
(Ch icago ,
1981).
Gar y
B.
Mil l s, Th e
F o r go ttenPeo pl e:
Cane River 's Cr eo l es
o f
Co l o r
(Bato n
Ro uge,
1977), 50-51, 83-88;
H.
S o ph ie
Bur to n,
"F r ee
Peo pl e
o fCo l o r in
S panish
Co l o nial Natch ito ch es: Manum issio n
and
Dependency
o nth e Lo uisiana-Texas
F r o ntier , 1766-1803," Lo uisiana
Histo r y,
45
(S pr ing
2004), 180; Ch ar l es
R.
Maduel l ,
Th e Census Tabl es
fo r
th e F r ench
Co l o nyo f
Lo uisiana
fr o m
1699-1732
(Bal tim o r e, 1972);
El izabeth
S h o wn
Mil l s, "S o cial and
F am il y
Patter ns o nth e Co l o nial Lo uisiana
F r o ntier ,"
S o cio l o gical S pectr um ,
2
(Jul y-Dec.
1982),
238.
44
Jo h nS ibl ey,
"Histo r ical S ketch es o f th e sever al I ndiantr ibes in
Lo uisiana, so uth o fth e Ar kansas
r iver ,
and
betweenth e
Mississippi
andr iver
Gr ande," 1806,
inAm er icanS tate
Paper s,
vo l . I
(W ash ingto n,
1832), 721-31,
esp.
723;
Puebl o de Nuestr a
S efio r a
del Pil ar de
Naco gdo ch es:
List o fF am il ies inth e S aidPuebl o Taken
byCaptain
and
o m m andant,
Do n
Jo se Jo aquinUgar te," Jan. 1, 1804, B&xar Ar ch ives;
"Repo r t
o f th e Missio ns
Occupiedby
th e
Pr iest o fth e
Co l l ege
o fOur
Lady
o f
Guadal upe
de Zacatecas inS aidPr o vince
[Texas],
Th eir
Pr o gr ess
to th e End
o f 1804
...
,"
Dec.
31, 1804, ibid.;
"Puebl o o fNuestr a
S efio r a
del Pil ar de
Naco gdo ch es:
Census o f th e fam il ies
wh o l ive inth e afo r esaid
puebl o , co m pil edby
Co m m andant
Jo se Jo aquinUgar te," Jan. 1, 1805, ibid.; Jo se
Mar ia
Guadiana, "Jur isdictio n
o fth e Puebl o de Nuestr a S efio r a del Pil ar de
Naco gdo ch es:
Ho uses l o catedo nth e easter n
side o fth e S abinas River ,"
No v.
1805, ibid.; S ebastian
Ro dr iguez,
"Puebl o de Nuestr a S efio r a de Pil ar o f
Naco gdo -
ch es: Census o fth e fam il ies
l iving
insaidto wnandits
jur isdictio n," Jan. 1, 1806,
ibid.; "Repo r t
o nth e Bar bar o us
I ndians o fth e Pr o vince o f
Texas,
Dec.
27, 1819,"
in"Texas in
1820,"
tr ans. Mattie AustinHatch er , S o uth wester n
Histo r ical
Quar ter l y,
23
(Jul y1919),
47-53.
45
A few m endid
r egister
th eir
pater nity
o fch il dr enat
baptism ,
see,
fo r
exam pl e,
th e ch il dr eno fPier r e S ebastian
Pr udh o m m e andNail l o is,
"anI ndian
wo m an,"
and
JeanBaptiste
S am uel and
Jeanne,
"a wo m ano f th e
Canneci
(Apach e)
natio n,"
in
Mil l s, Natch ito ch es, 1729-1803,
entr ies
2245, 3444,
3049. F o r uses o fwo m enas
o bjects
o f
exch ange,
see Lee, "I ndian
S l aver y
inLo wer Lo uisiana
dur ing
th e Co l o nial Per io d."
42 Th e
Jo ur nal
o fAm er ican
Histo r y June
2005
tages
into Mexican
pr iso ns
andl abo r
cam ps.46 Th o ugh
F r ench tr ader s asso ciatedwith th e
Natch ito ch es andAr kansas
po sts
r em ainedactive
co ver tl y
andBr itish tr ader s so o n
began
push ing
into th e
r egio n,
Co m anch e andW ich ita eco no m ies wer e h inder ed. Th e needto
diver sify
th eir tr ade co ntacts m o r e andm o r e tur nedI ndian
eyes
to
S paniar ds
inTexas.
Th o ugh
Co m anch es andW ich itas co ntinuedth eir r aids o n
S panish
settl em ents inTexas
to m aintainth eir h o r se
suppl y,
th e
ch al l enge
o f
pickingup
th e sl ack inar m s andm ate-
r ial
go o ds fo r m er l ypr o videdby
Lo uisiana m ar kets r em ained. To so l ve th is
pr o bl em , th ey
fo undnew
ways
to benefit fr o m an
exch ange
o f
wo m en,
sel l ing
war
captives
to
S paniar ds
fo r h o r ses and
go o ds
th at
S panish
o fficial s
pr efer r ed
to ter m "r anso m " and
"r edem ptio n"
paym ents.
Th e new
dipl o m atic
tr affic wo ul d
put
evenm o r e
Apach e
wo m enandch il dr en
into
S panish bo ndage.
Yet,
it to o k
year s
befo r e eco no m ic
exch ange co m pl etel yr epl aced
battl efiel dvio l ence
am o ngS paniar ds,
W ich itas,
andCo m anch es.
Dur ing
th e tr ansitio nal
per io d
o f
al ter nating
war and
dipl o m acy,
Co m anch e and
W ich ita m enat fir st to o k
advantage
o f
S panish dipl o m atic
needs to
pur sue per so nal
r ath er th anco m m er cial ends. Th e tal es o f two I ndian
co upl es,
o ne W ich ita ando ne
Co m anch e,
il l ustr ate th e twists andtur ns th at
newl yem er gingcaptive exch anges m igh t
take in
S panish -I ndian
r el atio ns. Bo th sto r ies unfo l dedo ver th e
spr ing
andsum m er o f
1772. Th at
spr ing
wo r dr each eda
pr incipal
ch iefo fa
Tao vaya
(W ich ita)
bandth at h is
wife-wh o h adbeentakenfr o m h im
byApach e
r aider s-h adbeenso l d
by
h er
capto r s
to
a
S paniar d
inCo ah uil a. As th e ch iefwas so o nto tr avel to S anAnto nio de Bexar as
par t
o f
a
dipl o m atic par ty
sent to
r atify
th e fir st
tr eaty
betweenW ich itas andth e
S panish go ver n-
m ent,
h e
r eco gnized
th at
S panish
o fficial s'
desper atio n
fo r
peace
co ul dbe th e m eans o f
saving
h is wife incir cum stances wh er e h e h im sel fco ul dno t. As so o nas th e ch iefr each ed
S anAnto nio th at
sum m er ,
h e
expl ained
h is
pl igh t
to th e
S panish go ver no r ,
Juan
Mar ia
de
Ripper di.
"S h e
is so m uch esteem ed
by
h im ,"
Ripper di r epo r ted
to th e
vicer o y,
"th at
h e assur es m e th at sh e is th e
o nl y
o ne h e h as ever
h ad,
o r wish es to h ave until h e
dies,
and,
as sh e l eaves h im two l ittl e
o r ph ans,
h e
begs
fo r h er as
zeal o usl y
as h e co nsider s h er
del iver y
[r etur n] difficul t."47
Th e
go ver no r quickl ygr asped
th at th e fate o fth e
captive
wo m anwo ul ddeter m ine
th e fate o fth e
newl yco m pl etedpeace tr eaty
and
pr o m ised
th e
Tao vaya
ch iefh e wo ul d
use th e
"str o ngest
m eans" to secur e h er . I fh e fail edto
gr ant
th e ch ief's
r equest
fo r
h el p,
Ripper di
war nedth e
vicer o y,
"al l
th at we h ave attainedandwh ich is o fso m uch
im po r -
tance,
wo ul dbe l o st." Th us it was with exul tatio nth at
Ripper di
wr o te to th e
vicer o y
a
m o nth
l ater ,
assur ing
h is
super io r
th at,
inanswer to h is
ur gent r equests,
th e
go ver no r
o f
Co ah uil a h adfo undandr etur nedth e ch ief's wife.
I ndeed,
Ripper di
h ado r ch estr atedh er
del iver y
to h is o wnh o m e inS anAnto nio wh er e sh e was to be tur nedo ver to h er h usband
(sur el y
to co nvince th e
Tao vaya
ch iefth at it was th e Texas o fficial to wh o m h e was be-
h o l denfo r h is wife's
r etur n). Optim istical l y,
th e
go ver no r
r eiter ated"th at sh e
m ay
be th e
key
th at sh al l
o pen
th e
way
to o ur tr eaties." I nMar ch 1773
Ripper di
final l y
co ncl uded
h is
pr ivate captive exch ange, wr iting
to th e
vicer o y
th at th e
h appy
h usbandanda
del ega-
tio no f
Tao vayas
wer e in
Ripper di's
h o m e andth e
Tao vaya co upl e
h adbeenr eunited.48
46
Mo o r h ead,
"S panish Depo r tatio n
o f Ho stil e
Apach es";
Ch r isto n
I . Ar ch er ,
"Th e
Depo r tatio n
o f Bar bar ian
I ndians fr o m th e I nter nal Pr o vinces o fNew
S pain,
1789-1810," Am er icas, 29
(Jan. 1973), 376-85.
47 Bar 6n
de
Ripper di
to Bucar el i
yUr sdia, Jul y
5, 1772,
inAth anase de Mizier es andth e Lo uisiana- Texas F r o ntier ,
tr ans. anded.
Bo l to n, I , 322.
48
Ripper di
to Bucar el i
yUr suia,
Mar ch
30, 1773, Bexar
Ar ch ives;
Ripper di
to Bucar el i
y
Ur sdia, Jul y
5,
Aug.
2, 1772,
inAth anase de
Mizier es
andth e Lo uisiana-Texas F r o ntier , tr ans. anded.
Bo l to n, I , 322, 335;
Ripper di
to
Co m m o difying
I ndianW o m eninth e Bo r der l ands 43
Th e
go ver no r m igh t
wel l ch o o se to dwel l o nth at
auspicio us
m o m ent,
because h is ne-
go tiatio n
o fa sim il ar situatio nwith Co m anch es h adtakena far
r o ckier ,
l ess
pr o m ising
path .
I n
fact,
Ripper dai ver ynear l ybungl ed
th e wh o l e
th ing.
Th e seco nd
sto r ybegan
in
F ebr uar y
1772 wh ena detach m ent fr o m th e
Bdxar
pr esidio
r etur nedto th e to wno fS an
Anto nio with an
unexpectedpr ize-no t Apach e
but Co m anch e
captives-th r ee
wo m en
ando ne
gir l . Ripper dci al r eady
h adth r ee o th er Co m anch e
wo m en,
captur ed
m o nth s be-
fo r e,
wh o h adbeenh el dso
l o ng
ino ne o fth e S anAnto nio m issio ns th at al l th r ee h ad
been
baptized
andtwo m ar r iedo ffto m issio n
neo ph ytes.
Because o f th eir
baptism s,
th o se th r ee co ul dno t be r etur nedto l ive
am o ng
th eir
peo pl e
inwh at
S paniar ds
co nsid-
er ed
apo stasy,
but th e fo ur new
captives pr o vided
th e
go ver no r
an
o pening
fo r
dipl o m atic
o ver tur es to Co m anch e l eader s. S ince th e
S panish go ver nm ent
h ad
r ecentl yco m pl eted
new
peace agr eem ents
with bands o f
Tao vayas
and
Caddo s,
h e
h o ped
h e
m igh t
l ikewise
attr act
(o r co er ce)
Co m anch es to th e
nego tiating
tabl e fo r th e fir st tim e.
Ripper dai
th er e-
fo r e sent two o fth e wo m enback to th eir
vil l age
under
m il itar y
esco r t,
car r yinggo o dwil l
gifts
to
pr esent
to th eir
ch ief, Evea,
wh il e h e
kept
th e o th er wo m anandl ittl e
gir l
as h o s-
tages
to dr aw th e ch iefto S an
Anto nio .49
A m o nth
l ater ,
Evea sent a
r espo nse
to S anAnto nio inth e fo r m o fem issar ies l ed
by
a wo m an
car r ying
a cr o ss anda wh ite
fl ag.
Th e wo m anat th e h eado fth e
par ty
was o ne
o fth e fem al e
captives
fr eed
byRipper dai
andwas al so th e m o th er o fth e l ittl e
gir l
stil l
h el d
h o stage.
Oth er s inth e
par ty
incl udedth e
h o stage gir l 's
fath er ,
th e h usbando fth e
o th er
h o stage
wo m anh el d
by
th e
go ver no r ,
andth e br o th er o ftwo o fth e th r ee Co m an-
ch e wo m enh el dinth e m issio ns. Th e
go ver no r 's gam bit
h adno t dr awno ut th e
ch ief,
but h e
cer tainl y
h adattr acteda diver se
gr o up seeking
to r eco ver l o st
fam il y
m em ber s.
I nitial l y, m eetings
went wel l as th e Co m anch e visito r s r eunitedwith
Ripper d
i's two h o s-
tages
and
exch angeddipl o m atic
co ur tesies with th e
go ver no r .
As
th eydepar ted,
h o wever ,
th eyso ugh t
r etr ibutio nfo r th eir tr o ubl es
bytaking
fo ur h undr edh o r ses fr o m th e
B6xar
pr esidial
h er d.
Th ey
al so tr iedto l iber ate th e th r ee o th er Co m anch e wo m enh el dinth e
m issio n,
but
S panish
so l dier s th war tedth at r escue
o per atio n.
I n
despair
at h er fail edes-
cape,
o ne o fth e wo m enfr o m th e m issio ntr iedto kil l h er sel f
upo nr ecaptur e byS pan-
iar ds.
Unfo r tunatel y
fo r th e Co m anch e
par ty, th ey
to o fail edinth eir
getaway.
A
gr o up
o f
Apach e
war r io r s attackedth e
par ty
as it fl edth e
r egio n,
kil l edseven
m en,
captur ed
h al f
th e h o r ses andfo ur o fth e
wo m en,
and
pr o m ptl y
tur nedth em o ver to th e
S paniar ds. Rip-
per di, anger ed
at wh at h e l abel edth e Co m anch es'
"tr each er y"
fo r
using
wo m ento
feign
peace, co nsigned
al l th e wo m ento differ ent fo r m s o f
bo ndage
inCo ah uil a.
T-h e
th r ee
m issio nizedCo m anch e wo m enwer e destinedfo r Co ah uil a
m issio ns,
acco m paniedby
th eir
neo ph yte
h usbands,
wh il e th e o th er s went to l abo r
cam ps.5"
Co m anch e l eader s, h o wever , didno t
give up,
andinth e sum m er o f 1772, th eytr av-
el edto S anAnto nio (th is tim e inth e
co m pany
o fW ich ita al l ies)
to r etr ieve th e wo m en
no w evenfar th er fr o m th eir r each inCo ah uil a. Ch iefEvea h im sel f
jo ined
th e co nfer ence.
F o l l o wing
cer em o nies
r eaffir m ingpeace agr eem ents
with W ich ita bands, Ripper di
at-
tem pted
to sh am e th e Co m anch e m en
bydispl aying
th e "fal se" wh ite
fl ag
o ftr uce car -
go ver no r
o fLo uisiana
Unzaga yAm ezaga, S ept.
8, 1772,
ibid.,
348.
49
Bucar el i
yUr stia
to
Ripper dci,
Mar ch 24,
Apr il
28, 1772,
Bexar Ar ch ives;
Ripper di
to
Unzaga yAm ezaga,
May
26, 1772,
inAth anase de Mizier es andth e Lo uisiana- Texas F r o ntier , tr ans. anded. Bo l to n, I ,
273.
50
Bucar el i
y
Ur sfia
to
Ripper di,
June
16, 1772,
Bexar
Ar ch ives;
Ripper dai
to
Unzaga yAm ezaga, May
26, 1772,
inAth anase de Mzie'r es andth e Lo uisiana- Texas F r o ntier , tr ans. anded.
Bo l to n, I , 274.
44 Th e
Jo ur nal
o fAm er ican
Histo r y
June
2005
r ied
ear l ier
by
th e Co m anch e wo m an.
Th o ugh
h e cl aim edto th e
vicer o y
to h ave sent
th e Co m anch es
awayem pty-h anded,
th e m enh e
co nfr o nted-incl uding
th e h usband
o fo ne
captive wo m an-ul tim atel y
h adth e
advantage;
th e
go ver no r
co ul dno t r isk o f-
fendingr epr esentatives
o fsuch a
po wer ful
I ndiannatio n.
Tel l ingl y,
inth e sam e l etter in
wh ich h e
br agged
o f
co wing
Evea with th e fal se
fl ag, Ripper dai r epo r ted
th at h e h adad-
visedth e
go ver no r
o fCo ah uil a to ensur e th at th e Co m anch e wo m anwas no t
baptized,
so th at sh e co ul dbe r etur nedto h er h usband. Reco r ds fail to tel l wh eth er sh e was. I fsh e
was
r edeem ed,
it didno t
buy
th e
S paniar ds peace
fo r
l o ng,
since h o stil ities co ntinued
unch eckeduntil 1785 wh enth e two
peo pl es signed
th eir fir st
peace tr eaty.
Th e
po sitio n
o f
po wer enjo yedby
Co m anch es
andW ich itas sto o dinstar k co ntr ast to th at o f
Apach es,
as th e Co m anch e andW ich ita wo m enwh o fel l
pr ey
to
S panish bo ndage
wer e few and
Co m anch e andW ich ita m enm o r e
easil yr egained
th o se wh o
did.51
S panish
o fficial s
incr easingl y
ch o se to
nego tiate
tr uce andal l iance with Co m anch e
andW ich ita war r io r s
byr anso m ing
fr o m th em
anyenem ycaptives th ey
to o k inwar . I n
th e
pr o cess, S paniar ds
al so attainedfo r
th em sel ves,
by
co m m er cial r ath er th anvio l ent
m eans,
captive
I ndianwo m ento use in
dipl o m atic
r el atio ns with th e wo m en's fam i-
l ies and
peo pl es.
Mo st
co m m o nl y, th eypur ch asedApach e captives
fr o m Co m anch e and
W ich ita m en. Native
captive r aidingm ay
h ave r isenin
r espo nse
to
S panish attem pts
to
br o ker deal s with victim s'
fam il y
m em ber s.
F r ayJuan
Do m ingo
Ar r icivita asser tedth at
wh il e
Apach es m igh t
take
captives
inwar to sel l to o th er
natio ns,
th eyequal l y
to o k th em
"to
exch ange
th em fo r so m e o fth eir r el atives wh o h ave beenm ade
pr iso ner s."52 S panish
dipl o m atic
tr affic inwo m enwas no t l im itedto tr ansactio ns with Co m anch es andW ich i-
tas. F o r
instance,
wh en
eigh tyApach e
war r io r s l ed
by
sevench iefs
captur ed
a
wo m an,
o ne
gir l ,
andtwo
bo ys
ina
r evenge
r aido na To nkawa r anch er ia in
1779,
Texas
go ver no r
Do m ingo
Cabel l o o ffer ed
eigh t
h o r ses fo r th e
captives.
He cl aim edto want th e ch il dr en
because
th ey
"co ul dbeco m e Ch r istians
by
vir tue o fth eir
yo uth ,"
but h is desir e fo r th e
wo m anwas
pur el ypo l itical ,
since sh e co ul dbe r esto r edto a To nkawa bandas
"pr o o f
o f
fr iendsh ip." I nter estingl y,
th e
Apach e
m enr efusedto
give
h im
any
o fth e
captives,
no t
because
eigh t
h o r ses was anunfair
pr ice,
but because
th ey
saw l ittl e
po l itical gain
to be
h adfr o m th e
S panish go ver no r
at th at tim e. F ur th er
pr o o f
o fth e
Apach e
m en's car eful as-
sessm ent o fwh er e th eir inter ests
l ay
cam e wh ench iefEl
Jo yo so
ch o se insteadto
give
o ne
o fth e
ch il dr en,
a
ten-year -o l dMayeye gir l ,
to h is
"go o d
fr iendDo nLuis
Mench aca,"
a
S panish
m er ch ant inS anAnto nio wh o h ad
l o ng
tr adedwith
Apach e peo pl es
andsh o wn
th em
go o d
faith
(so m etim es
against
th e wish es o fth e
pr o vincial go ver nm ent).53
Caddo s andW ich itas al so fo undr em uner atio n
byr anso m ingS panish
wo m enwh o m
th ey
h ad
acquir ed
fr o m Co m anch es wh o h ad
captur ed
th em inNew Mexico . Th e
pay-
m ent r eceived
byTao vayas (W ich itas) fr o m th e tr ader
Jo s6
Guil l er m o
Esper anza
fo r a New
51 Ripper dai to Bucar el i
yUr si'a, Jul y5, 1772,
inAth anase de Mizier es andth e Lo uisiana-Texas F r o ntier , tr ans.
anded. Bo l to n, I , 321-22.
52
F r ayJuanDo m ingo Ar r icivita, Apo sto l ic
Ch r o nicl e
o ffuanDo m ingo
Ar r icivita: Th e F r anciscanMissio nF r o ntier
inth e
Eigh teenth Centur y
in
Ar izo na, Texas, andth e
Cal ifo r nias,
tr ans.
Geo r ge
P.
Ham m o ndand
Agapito Rey(2
vo l s.,
Ber kel ey, 1996), I I , 25.
53 Th o ugh l o ng
identifiedas
indigeno us
to
Texas, To nkawas, l ike Co m anch es and
W ich itas,
appear
to h ave been
Pl ains
peo pl es
wh o
m igr ated
so uth into
pr esent-day
Texas inth e l ate seventeenth
centur y. Livingup
to th eir nam e
"To nkawa"
(a
W ich ita
[W aco ]
nam e
m eaning"th ey
al l
stayto geth er "), th ey
h ad
jo ined
with o th er cul tur al andl in-
guistic gr o ups
fo r defense
by
th e l ate
eigh teenth centur y.
To nkawas andth eir new al l ies l ivedin
no nsedentar y
h unt-
ing
and
gath er ing
co m m unities th at wer e
o r ganized
into
m atr il ineal cl ans,
with
m any
cl ans
r epr esenting
o nce-au-
to no m o us
gr o ups
o f
Mayeye, Yo juane, Er vipiam e,
S ana, andTo nkawa
pr o per . Do m ingo
Cabel l o to co m m andant
Co m m o difying
I ndianW o m eninth e Bo r der l ands 45
Mexican
wo m an,
Ana Mar ia
Baca,
andh er
six-year -o l d
so n
spo ke
to th e
po ssibl e pr o fits.
F o r Ana Mar ia
Baca,
Tao vayas
r eceived: "th r ee
m uskets,
th r ee netted
cl o th s,
two
bl ankets,
fo ur
axes,
th r ee
h o es,
two
castetes
with
pipe,
o ne
po und
o f
ver m il io n,
two
po unds
o f
beads,
ten
knives,
twenty-five gunfl ints, eigh t
steel s fo r
str iking
fl ints,
six
r am r o ds,
six
awl s,
fo ur
fath o m s o fwo o l
sash ,
andth r ee h undr edbul l ets with
necessar ypo wder ."
F o r Baca's
so n,
Esper anza gave Tao vayas:
"o ne o tter
h ide,
o ne h undr edbul l ets with
necessar ypo wder ,
o ne
ax,
th r ee
castetes
with
pipe,
o ne ando ne-h al f
quar ter po unds
o f
ver m il io n,
o ne netted
cl o th ,
o ne
bl anket,
ando ne m usket."
No tabl y,
inth is
exch ange Tao vayas
wer e no t th e
o nl y
o nes wh o
pl anned
to
pr o fit
fr o m Ana Mar ia Baca's
captivity.
Th e
Naco gdo ch es
l ieutenant
Ch r ist6bel
Hil ar io de
C6r do ba,
to wh o m
Esper anza
h adr el atedh is
pur ch ase, r epo r ted
with
o utr age
th at
Esper anza
went o nto
say
th at h e
pl anned
to take th e wo m anandsel l
h er inNatch ito ch es "wh er e th er e co ul dno t but be
pl enty
o fF r ench m ento
pur ch ase
h er
andbo th er
h er ,
as is th eir
custo m ,
since sh e stil l is attr active." C6r do ba fo r estal l edth e
wo m an's
sal e into
co ncubinage bytaking
h er andh er so ninto
pr o tective custo dy.
C6r do -
ba's inter ventio n
(wh ich
S panish
o fficial s
veh em entl ysuppo r ted)
m ade cl ear h o w aber r ant
it was th at Ana Mar ia Baca's
S panish identity
h adno t excl udedh er fr o m th e
catego r y
o f
wo m enwh o m
Esper anza
fel t h e
m igh t acceptabl y
sel l into th e sex
tr ade.54
Al th o ugh S panish
o fficial s
spent
m uch tim e
bem o aning
th e l o ss o f
S panish
wo m en
to I ndian
captivity,
th e
ch ar ge
r em ainedr h eto r ical in
eigh teenth -centur y
Texas.
S panish
captives
wer e few in
num ber ,
andth e new
S panish -I ndian
tr affic in"r edeem ed"
captives
r em ained
pr im ar il y
o ne o fI ndianwo m en.
Th e
r h eto r ic abo ut
S panish
fem al e
captives
inI ndianh ands was m eant to
appeal
to
go ver nm ent super io r s
inMexico and
th er eby
to
gain
m o r e
m il itar y
m enand
suppl ies
with wh ich to defendth e
pr o vince against
indo m i-
tabl e Co m anch e andW ich ita
fo r ces,
but th at tactic o ftenfail ed. I n
r espo nse
to co m -
pl aints
fr o m th e co m m andant o fth e I nter io r Pr o vinces th at Texas o fficial s h adfail edto
co ntr ibute to th e al m s th at
S panish
l aw dem andedal l settl em ents inth e
pr o vinces
co l -
l ect fo r th e
r anso m ing
o fCh r istian
captives
h el d
by
I ndians,
Cabel l o
expl ained
th at no
captives
fr o m Texas h adbeen
taken,
th us l ittl e l o cal
im per ative
to
give
to such a fundex-
istedinTexas." I n
Texas, th en,
fictitio us
S panish
wo m enwer e
o bjects
o f
per suasio n
and
r eal I ndianwo m enwer e th e
o bjects
o f
exch ange-wh eth er
inF r ench tr ade m ar kets o r in
S panish dipl o m atic nego tiatio ns.
Th e
gr adual
stabil izatio no fr el atio ns
am o ngS paniar ds,
Co m anch es,
andW ich itas in
th e
waningyear s
o fth e
centur y
m eant
o nl y
il l fo r
Apach es,
as th e m aintenance o fth e
th r ee
gr o ups' peace agr eem ents
o fteninvo l vedth e ensl avem ent o f
Apach es
stil l deem ed
enem ies
by
th em al l . W h eth er
captur edbyS panish pr esidial
fo r ces o r r anso m edto th em
by
Co m anch e o r W ich ita war r io r s in
dipl o m atic exch ange, Apach e
wo m enandch il dr en
co ntinuedto fal l victim to
punitive S panish po l icies
th at sent
yo unger
ch il dr ento m is-
sio ns fo r co nver sio nandal l o th er s to l abo r
cam ps
o r
pr iso ns
inMexico
Cityand,
begin-
ning
inth e 1780s, inth e Car ibbean.
Many
diedintr ansit to Mexico . Mo st never saw
th eir h o m es
again. Despite
th e
im po ssibil ity
o fr etur n, back h o m e th eir h usbands andfa-
gener al
o fth e I nter io r
Pr o vinces, Teo do r o de
Cr o ix,
Mar ch
18, 1779,
Bdxar
Ar ch ives; W il l iam
W .
Newco m b
Jr .
and
Th o m as N.
Cam pbel l ,
"To nkawa,"
inHandbo o k
o f
No r th Am er icanI ndians, XI I I , ed. DeMal l ie,
par t
2, 953-64.
5
Ch r ist6bel
Hil ar io de
C6r do ba,
I nter im Lieutenant at
Naco gdo ch es, Repo r t, Aug.
26, 1786,
Bexar Ar ch ives.
F o r
S panish captives
inI ndianh ands o no th er
S panish
fr o ntier s, see Br o o ks,
Captives
andCo usins, 179-93; and
S usan
Migden
S o co l o w,
"S panish Captives
inI ndianS o cieties: Cul tur al Co ntact
al o ng
th e
Ar gentine
F r o ntier ,
1600-1835,"
Hispanic
Am er icanHisto r ical Review, 72 (F eb. 1992), 73-99.
15
Cabel l o to co m m andant
gener al F el ipe
de
Neve,
Aug.
3, 1784, B&xar
Ar ch ives.
46 Th e
Jo ur nal
o fAm er ican
Histo r y
June
2005
th er s r eceived
pr o m ises
o fth e wo m en's r etur nif
th eyagr eed
to
tr eatynego tiatio ns.
Th us
wh en,
ino ne
instance,
Apach e
m enar r ivedat a
m eeting
site anddidno t findth eir wives
am o ng
th e wo m en
br o ugh t
fo r
exch ange,
o fficial s
r espo ndedbyo ffer ing
th em th eir
pick
o f o th er wo m en
captur ed
el sewh er e. F o r th o se
S panish
o fficer s,
Apach e
wo m enh adbe-
co m e so co m m o difiedth at
th ey
wer e
inter ch angeabl e. S panish
r eco r ds
r ar el y
detail th e
suffer ing
o f wo m en
th em sel ves,
but a h andful o f incidents
give
m ute
testim o ny
to
it,
no ne m o r e
po wer ful l y
th anth e sto r ies o fwo m enwh o tr iedto take th eir o wnl ives r ath er
th anr em ain
captive.
Th e Co m anch e wo m anwh o tr iedto kil l h er sel f
upo nr ecaptur e
af-
ter sh e
escaped
fr o m th e S anAnto nio m issio nin1772 was no t al o ne in
pr efer r ing
death
to ensl avem ent.
Jean
Lo uis Ber l andier r eco r dedth at ano th er Co m anch e wo m an
captur ed
ear l y
inth e nineteenth
centur y
"asked
fo r a knife to r em o ve a th o r nsh e saidwas
h ur ting
h er
fo o t,
but wh en
th eygave
it to h er sh e
pl unged
it into h er h ear t." Th e fate o f th ese
captive
andensl avedI ndianwo m en
signified
ir r em ediabl e m o m ents o f
S panish -I ndian
inter ch ange
in
eigh teenth -centur y
Texas. Th eir s is th e
sto r y
th at r em ains to be
wr itten.56
Beyo ndtel l ing
o fwar far e andits
spo il s,
th e sto r ies o fensl aved
Apach e
wo m enandch il -
dr endo cum ent th e
ways Eur o pean
andI ndianm enusedth em as so cial and
po l itical
capital
ineffo r ts to co er ce andacco m m o date o ne ano th er .
Lo o king
at h o w bands and
em pir es
o r tr ader s and
dipl o m ats
tr ansfo r m edwo m eninto
cur r ency
al l o ws o ne to see
m ul tipl e
so ur ces andfo r m s o f
bo ndage:
fr o m
pr e-Co l um bianindigeno us
war far e th at
cr eated
captivity
as anal ter native to battl efiel d
death s,
to
captive r aiding
andco m m er cial
tr ade th at cr eatedh um an
co m m o dities,
to
h o stage taking
and
depo r tatio n
th at cr eated
pr iso n
l abo r . Pr essedinto
ser vice,
wo m enbecam e
o bjects
fo r
sex,
fam il ial
r epr o ductio n,
and
r ecipr o cal
tr ade
r el atio ns;
gifts
th at m ade
peaceful
co existence
po ssibl e
fo r th eir
cap-
to r s;
o r victim s wh o
paid
th e
pr ice
fo r th eir
capto r s' h o stil ity.
Th is
diver sity
o fsl aver ies
unfo l dedfr o m th e co nfr o ntatio ns andco l l usio ns o f
Eur o pean
andnative
po l itical system s
th at str uctur edeco no m ic
beh avio r ,
battl efiel d
enm ity,
and
dipl o m atic m aneuver ing.
Put-
ting
standar dized
catego r ies
o f
sl aver y
andunfr eedo m to th e test in
co m pl icated
bo r der -
l ands wh er e two
im per ial po wer s so ugh t
to
nego tiate m ul tipl e co nfigur atio ns
o f I ndian
so cial and
po l itical o r ganizatio n
sh o ws h o w
wanting
th o se
catego r ies
canbe.
S l aver y
in
No r th Am er ica h as beencast as a
m o no l ith ic,
ch attel -o r iented
system
o fco er ced
l abo r ,
th us
m aking
it a distinctive andano m al o us m o del wh en
co m par ed
to fo r m s o f
bo ndage
institutedino th er tim es and
pl aces.
Meanwh il e th e fo r m s o f
captivity
and
exch anges
o f
wo m eninvo l vedin
Eur o pean-I ndian
r el atio ns inth e Am er icas h ave fal l eninto
catego r ies
o ften
per ceived
to be m o r e
benign.
I f
bo ndage
co ul d
pr o ve
such an
infinitel y
var iabl e
institutio nin
just
o ne
r egio n
o f co l o nial No r th
Am er ica,
im agine
wh at we
m ay
findas
we
piece to geth er exper iences
acr o ss th e entir e co ntinent.
Expl icating
such
diver sity
wil l
br ing
Am er ican
pr actices
o f
sl aver y
into better
gl o bal per spective
andm o r e fr uitful co m -
par iso n
with co l o nial
geo po l itics
andcul tur al
geo gr aph ies
ar o undth e wo r l d.
56 Ar ch er , "Depo r tatio no fBar bar ianI ndians fr o m th e I nter nal Pr o vinces o fNew
S pain";
Al B.
Nel so n,
"Juan
de
Ugal de
andPicax-Ande
I ns-Tinsl e, 1787-1788," S o uth wester nHisto r ical
Quar ter l y,
43
(Apr il
1940), 450;
Jean
Lo uis
Ber l andier ,
Th e I ndians
o f
Texas in1830, ed.
Jo h n
C. Ewer s, tr ans. Patr icia
ReadingLecl er cq (W ash ingto n,
1969),
41.