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74.7 JNTRODUCriON
An in-service pavement requires maintenance. The maintenance may be routine in
nature, or may be a major reconsiniction.
A pavement is designed against an assumed design period. After the expiry of the
design period, the pavement is likely to fail structurally and, therefore, it would require
a major renewal to extend its life furdier. Even within the service life of a pavement, the
top wearing course is likely to be subjected to considerable distress due to the movement
of vehicles on it. Thus, the wearing course needs some routine maimenance for smooth
movement of vehicles over the pavement.
The present chapter introduces the reader to the maintenance issues of a pavement.
The chapter is divided into five sections, apart from the introduction, of which the first
section discusses the various forms of disjsessts of pavement, their possible origin, and
their quantification in terms of distress indices. The next two consecutive sections deal
with the functional and structural evaluations of_pa^men_ttheir techniques, related
equipment, and analysis procedures. Remedial measures to extend the longevity of
pavement are discussed in the fourth section while the last section briefly mentions the
need for evolving maintenance strategies subjected to possible fund constraints.
14.2 DISTRESSES IN PAVEMENTS
In most of the ca.ses, the distresses in pavement are_measurp^ the_djjjH^er_miit_ares
^ t ^ jMvernent. For example, one may specify a pavement as M%^racked and 30%
corrugaied. I n smne cases, the distresses are subjective, such as comer cracks, or are
expressed in some other units, such as rutting which is expressed us depression
measured by a 3 m straight edge, or aggregate polish which is expressed in terms of skid
resistance, and so on. According to the "code of practice for maintenance of biuiminous
surfaces of highways", 1RC:82 [39], thel^efecls of bituminous siirfacimi^cun be grouped.,
448
iiinJcr four caicBories. as Niows:
! \ . Surfat f defeofs. For example, faii^ vutface*. huagry *rfces. simwih
surfaces, streaking, and so on. --------
j 2. Crudes. For exiunple. alJi|aior cracks, km(piudinal cracks, hairline crack*,
' shrinkage cracks, edge cracks, refieetion crack's. W so on.
^ 3- Deformations. For example, ratting comtgaiion. shoving, shallow
* depressions. scu|e_^ment, heaving.aid on.
^ 4. Disiniegralionj^ For example, s^giging. km of aggiepre*, ravelling,
potholes, and so on.
Subsequent subsections present a brief discusion on some of the major forms of
distresses of both bituminous and concrete pavemenis.
: i
14.2.1 Alligator Cracking or Fatigue Cracking
Bituminous pavement surfaces can exhibit distress due to flexural faigae as a resoh of
ipeiUive applications of vehicular loads. The oacks on the biiumiiwus sutfree allowthe
surftice water to percolate into the basieand subgrade of the pavements which ftirtlier
accelerates the deterioration process. Yne fatl^e'cSks are like hexagons, joined
together one after another, and hence, also known as oMigotor emdUng. The foUowrng
photograph (Figure 14.1) shows a typical fatigue crading
i ;
Figure 14.t A typical fatiguecrackeig.
T4.2.2 Block Cracking
Block cracks are the ajiproxiin.nc rectangular cracks formed i t^ surface of ^
bi^ninoiis pavement- Thc.<eehamcienre icmiperatuK shtlttle tracks which originate
due to dully variations of temperature, ami eNseniijllv are of noB-!r,irtrcongm. The
l.rufl'ic loiiding increiixes the ,xcveriiy of bkvk csid^>A the cracks Man appeanng on
the pavement surlaco due to hardening of the biUuncn it>J. t^hcatioA of a new coat
4S0 Pnnfifilfi t f TraTiiperUtm E n g n ^ n f
of suitable bituminous layer, or lecycling binimen. can serve as a remedy to prevem
Vock (racking J2).
14.2.3 Corner Break and Spall
Comer break and spall are the cracks developed it) the concrete pavement at the comers
ol the concrete slabs. Spalling is not generally extended (hrougli the whole slab thickness
(2]. These failures are due to the combined effect of mud pumping, heavy repetitive
loadif^ poor load transfer across the joinu. and thermal curling.
14.2.4 Corrugation
Corrugation is the plastic deformatK}n._rir tl)e iot> bituminous surface of the pavement
along the horiaontal direction, Its manifestation is in the form of undulations or ripple
formations on the top suf^ce of the pavement. Corrugation Kcurs due to lack of
stability ^ asphalt nuys jn warm weather. It is mostly observed whoe vehicles exert
a greater horizontal force to sun or stop, such as in the intersection l ^ s where brakes
are applied. If the corrugated surface i$_thin. it can be scarified and material can be relaid.
The ekva^ spots are cut with a medianical Made, widi or wilhMt heating. The surface
can be roiled afteswards.
14.2.S Depression
DepresstM. as the name suggests, is the localized area where the pavement surface si i ^
a link jniih fafetcnce ir>the luiisM si^ace. Depression in a pavement occurs djpyp
differenti.al. seiilemeni of inadequately c^^acted subgrade (or other layers) due to
baffle loading.. Water accumulates on the depre.ssed zone after rainfall, which percolates
ud causes further damage lolHTpavement in that area. Depression can also be due to
inappropriate mix design or settlement of the lower pavement layers. Depressions can
be removed by fiUing the de(uessed part with premix aggregates, followed by ada}ual
compacting.
14.2.6 (any Surface or Bleeding
This is a surface defect associated with tucuminous pavements only. It is the
accumulation of bitumen on the swfac^of the pavement which occurs at hi ^
wnqteTUures during the dayiiine Bitumen at a liii^temperature, sedeens and occupies
the available void space in the aggregates. I f the space is inadequare. bitumen expands
out omo the surface and forms a sticky, shiny surface over the pavemem, called bleeding
or fany suifact. It is an irreversible process, that is. the bitumen does not go back to the
void space during the winter season. Proper mix design, which includes the selection of
appropriate grade -of bitumen, and provision of requisite void spaec cart cootroi this
Weeding pheiKunenon. L oss of cover aggregates, heavy prime or uck coat. ioi-unforro
ipplication of binder can be the other possible reasons of bteerling, therefore, these
should be properly designed and contiolted during construction. I f the bleeding is
nisifomi and without surface irregularities, small siie, clean, angular sand, or small
aggregates can be used over the surface. This i$ called sand htoiiing or sand blituiing
[3?]. If the Wed surface has irregularities, it is advisable to remove the affected portion,
end relay it with a properly designed mix.
14.2.7 Hairli ne Crack on Bituminous Pavement Surface
Haitine cracks are small and fine cracks over the surface of the bituminous pavetnent.
these cracks develop due to insufftcieni bitumen content, excessive ftller at the surface,
or improper compaction (i.e. over-compaction, coinpaction when the base is unstable,
or compaction at a high temperature).
14.2.B Huirgry Surface
Hungry surface is a situation just reverse of the fatty surface. I f the bitumen distribution
rate is lower than the designed value, sntall cracks develop on the surface, and low of
aggregates may start taking place from (he surface due to tiafnc. On the oibei hand, a
hungry surface may also develop if the aggregates have a strong absoqitton afTmity
toward bitumen. Fog seal or slurry seal can be used as requisiie measures to take care
of the hungry surface situation.
14.2.9 Lane/ShouM er D r o p o ff o r Heave
Shoulder drop-off is a situation when the shoulder elevation becomes lower than the
level of the pavement lane. This occurs due to the followisg teasonv.
(a) Gradual consolidatioa of the shoulder
(b) Erosion of shoulder maieiials due to rain or weaihet
Heaving nf shoulder may occur due to frost heaving of die shoulder sml.
14.2.10 L o ss o f Aggregates
Loss of aggregates occurs subsequent to stripping or ravelling- The possible leasons for
the loss of aggregates an:
(a) I mproper mix design
(b) I mproper design of surface dressing
(c) I nadequate rolling
fill
452 Priudptts 9f TnnspoHo^ E^tfynt^ng
(d) TraffK allowed lo flow before proper fil i ng <^the binder
(e> Surface ha$ become hungry due to absorption of bitumen unaccounted in mix
dej^ign.
The treatment needed to prevent loss of a^regates depends on specific reasons.
A layer of slurry seal, or fog seal, or relaying of surface dressing, or complete
replacement of the disintegrated layer can be used as some of the possible solutions.
14.2.11 Map Cracking in Concrete Pavements
Map cracking refers to the small map-like cracks which are superficially located over the
lop surface of the concrete pavemenl. Such cracks are caused due lo improper finish of
the top surface, or due to the reinforcemeni bars being too close to the surface (2J.
14.2.12 Patch
)t is the repair work dore on the existing potholes, depressions, or the corrugated
pavement surface. Generally, patch work is a visually distinguishable feature of die
pavement surface.
14.2.13 Polished Aggregate or Smooth Surface
Smooth surface or polished aggregate, as the name suggests, is a situation which arises
due to repetitive passage of traffic on the aggregates of road, whose polished stone value
(or the abrasive strength) is less. The skid resistance of the pavement therefore decreases,
and this requires replacement of the top course with fresh angular aggregates, having a
higher abrasive resistance.
14.2.14 Potholes
Potholes are bowl-shaped holes, caused by localized disintegration of materials, of
varying sizes on Che surface of the bituminous pavement, sometimes extending to the
base course [39]. Due to variation in a large number of parameters involved, during
highway consiniccion. it may not be possible to maintain the same level of homogeneity
althrough. The localized disintegration scans occurring from those places, which are the
weakest spots on the pavement stretch, Potholes may occur due to a number of causes,
such as:
fa) I nadequate construction quality control
(b) ingress of water and subsequent damage
(c) Ravelling
MuffUfnance A55
p o th o les are tepaired by paicbwotk; a good bwxi n w etsafy beiweco ibe e a sin g
pavetnetit aod the patchwork
^4 .2 ^1 S P umpi ng or M ud Pumpmg
pumping a failure generally observed in coocreie pavcmetitt. When traff>c moves on
(be craeVed surface, or over the concrete pints, aecunwtaied water along whh subgrade
m I Cor s ub-base particles) e pc ls out. this pKenomenoa u called pumping or mewf
pumping and it i s more prorntnemly observed in respect ot Ibe cades where the concrete
pavement is put directly on the subgrede layer, l i e fotlowieg sinuiKms Wad to (he
occurrence o f the pumping phenomenon
(a) Material under the concrete dab saturated with water
l b ) Frequent passes of heavy wheel loads
(c) Material under the concrete pavemeal i$ crodaMe in naiute with low
permeability.
The mechanism o f mud pumping can be explained as follows.
( a ) A v o id i s fust formed below the concrete sUh This ci happen eiter due to
posl'Constfuciion plastic defennaiion of soil or due lo warpiog of (he conciete
slab.
V/ater accumulates in (he void Water raay come from the surface infilttaiion. or
from other groundwater sources.
Due t o repetuive applkaiion of heavy vehicles, soil suspension in water is
formed which is ejected out through cracks/joints at each pass of (he heavy
vehicle. I f the mateoal below the conoete slab is granuiar. the pumping may
not occur because qtuck drainage take^ place through this maieriat
Gradual removal <d the particulate material from below the pavement makes the
void^ biggen and the pavemem may fall due to comer break, and favlling ai
j oint s .
f i g u r e ] 4 . 2 explains the mechanism of mud pumping.
Whedloed
(b )
<C)
(d)
Conettie sU^
CeecmesUb
Subgndc
Succtgrr of ttftepank'k*
Figure 14.2 T^e mechaiUsni of mud pumping.
t
4S4 h'tncipUs of Tmnspofioihn E^gin*tri>^
14.2.16 Reflection Cracking
When a pavement (concrete or biiuminous) is overlaid with a bituminous layer,
sometimes, the same pattern of cracks as was in the existing pavement surface
propagates upwards and comes Up to the top surface af the new overlay. This is culled
r^ection cracking because it appears, as if the cracks on the existing surface have been
reflected onto the top overlaid surface. Reflection cracks occur due to the relative
movcxnenc of the existing crocks of (he onginal pavement. I f the original cracks in the
pavement are controlled, reflection cracks aie auiomatically checked. To prevent
reneciioa cracks, stress relief layers, geotextiles, or overly reinforcement are provided
as interlayers between the existing pavement and the overlay. Stress relief layers are the
open graded a^regate specification which do not allow the cracks to propagate
upwards. Geotextifes or overlay reinforcement, on the other hand, bear the teosion
rtiemselves. and do not allow the cracks to prop^^aie further.
14.2.17 RaveUing
Ravelling is the gradual wearing of the top surface, mainly due to weathering of bitumen.
Tl>e binder becomes hard due to weather action, looses its binding property, and the
aggregate panicles are dislodged horn the pavement surfoce, as the trank moves over
it. This form of pavement distress is termed ravelling. I f the extent of ravelling is not
severe, it can be rectified with one coat of slurry seal, or fog seal Otherwise, a renewal
coat may be necessary.
14.2.18 Rutting
As already discussed in Section 12.3.6, accumulation of permanent deformation along
the maximum travelled wheel path is called rutiing. The extent of rutting depends on the
traffic repetitions the pavement has undergone, properties of the materials used in
coDstniction of the pavement, densillcalion achieved during constructioii, average
temperature of the pavement surface, and so on. I f rutting is due to compaction of the
layers, it can be rectified by applying a profile corrective course. A ao$$-section of the
profile correcting course is shown in Figure 14.3.
Profile corieciive course
P)0ur 14.3 A croaa-aecHon of the profile cofrective course 1215).
14,2.19 Slippa ge
SiipiHige ts a relative movement between tfie top wearii>g coimc and the layer below It
along the horizontal direction. Slippage occurs when a horizomai fhmsc c applied by (he
vehicles, specially by the braking vehiefev Ii occurs in the abseivce o f adequate bonding
between the layers, that is, when che tack coat or the prime coat is either missmg or
inadequate. Slippage i& associated with the creseetU'Shaped cracks on (he pavemem
fxirTace. For repair work, the wearing course of the affected area may be removed, and
reUtd ensuring proper interlayer bonding (39].
14.2.20 Streaking
S:reaking is (he appearance of alternate lean and heavy lines o f bitameo. alotig the
(ongitudicia! or transverse directions. This is dw result of Bon^DOtform application o f
binder during construction (391.
14.2.21 Stripping
Si ripping is a phenomenon in which the segregation of biUinien and aggregates takes
place in the presence of moisture. The loss of bonding between the aggregates and
bitumen causes loss o f aggregates, further infihraiioa of water. loss of stieogih, md
subsequent failure o f the pavement. The stripping phesomenon is caused due to the
following (391*.
(a) Use o f hydrophilic aggregates
(b) Improper mix design with excess of fines
(c) Cofuimious exposure to moisture or accunnilated water
(d> Opening the road to n f f i c before proper setting of the binder
(e) Aging o f the binder
As a preventive measure, the stripping potential of the aggregate-^nder should be
checked before laying the pavement If necessary, an anti*stripping agent can be used
during the mixing process. The arras affected by senppiog need cr-taying with the fresh mix.
14.2.22 Ssvell and Blow Up
Swelling and blow up of the pavemeni occur due to expansion of the subgrade soil. The
axponsiofi could be either due to expansive aaiure of soil used in subgrade. or due to
frost action. Such a failure is called swell aiid blow up in bituminous and concrete
pavements respectively. Blow up also occurs due to tnfilmtion of certain materials into
(be joints of the concrete pavement, which expand doling the rummer season. caenUng
enough pressure to cause bU>w up of the carvrete paveiuems (2J.
14.3 F U N C T I O N A L E V A L U A T I O N O F P A V E M E N T
Varioiis types and I'orms of pavement disoesses have been discussed in the previous section,
In a pas'cmcnt. in fact, a number of distresses may occur simultaneously, because many of the
distres.ses are interrelated, and the occurrence of one may as well initiate the other. Inditddual
assessment and quantification of (he distresses may not therefore be very useful. Rather, there
is a need to assess die functional condition of the pavement as a whole. Table 14.1illustrates
the recommendations as per the Indian specification for classifying pavement condition based
on visual a.ssessment [74]. Two terms for the functional assessment of pavement, were
developed from the AASHO [I] testPresent Serviceability Rating (PSR) and the Presem
Serv iceability Index (PSD,
TabI* 14.1 Criteria for classification of pavement sections [74]
456 ^ Tmnspmiatitm
CfassMeabon P a v e n w i t condition
Good No cracking, njtting less than 10 mm
Fair No cracking, or cracking confined lo a single
crack in the wheel Uack with rutting between 10 mm
and 20 mm
Poor ExtansFve cracking and/or rutting greater man 20 mm and
cracking exceeding 201i
AsapancdthefunctionalpavemeolevaluaiioacnAASHOfl I road test, people were asked
to drive on the pavement stretch with a vehicle of their choice, and they were asked to rate the
pavement surface in a scale ranging from 0 to S- Later. PSI was developed which statistically
correlated the physical measuremenis on pavement conditions to the subjective judgement of
human rating (i.e. PSR). Thus, PSI is an empirical equation containing terms such as, cracked
area, patched area, cut depth, and slope variance. PSI. as the functional index of pavement
condition, has somedeficicDCies. For example, it was developed from the evaluation of a panel
of experts in the AASHO test, and therefore, may not hold good in the presem comexi. Also,
the kind of profilometers dial were used in the test are not in vogue [266] today.
Likewise, various other indices have been evolved to quantify pavement distress as a
whole. Automatic equipment has been developed which can be driven over the road to acquire
continuous data of functional condition of the pavement. The acquired data is analyzed in the
laboratory to extract the desired infonnation. In this section, two basic functional surface
characteristics of pavement, namely paventeni toughness and skid resistance of pavement have
been discussed.
14.3.1 Pavement Roughness
The objective of roughness measuramem is to obtain a single or a number of parameters
characterizing the level of roughness of a given stretch. A road profile is a two-
dimensional sl i ce of the road surface taken along any imaginary longitvdinal siraigb*
line: and the profi l e measurement is a series of numbers lepicseming elevaiwms relalive
to some reference l evel . T he problem lies in reducing these huge daia-points to a
Ttpresentative i ndex cal l ed roughness [234j.
l b obtain roughness infonnatioTi from a measured profile, two bask requirements
on {VXt\-
1. T he profi l er must be capable of sensing the relevant infonnation preseiM i n the
true profile of the road.
2. A sui tabl e al gori thm nrasi be able to process the measured values to extract the
denred i nformati on as the summary roughness utdex.
A profiltr is an i nstrument used to produce a series of numbers to represent a profile.
Fallowing contai ns a bri ef discussion on profilers.
Various types o f p r o t i l e r s
A profiler works by combi ni ng the following I htee mgiedients:
(i) A reference elevati on
(ii) A hei ght rel ati ve to the reference
<iii) A l ongi tudi nal distance
Some types of profi l ers are 12341;
(i) Beam static profilometer. I t uses a precise linear vertical distance transducer to
measure the profile. The beam is manually moved along the road to record the
prof i l es.
(ii) Dipst ick auto-read road profiler. U contains a precision i nclioometer that
measures the di fference in height between the two supports. T he device i s
'wal ked' al ong the line being profiled. The longitudinal distance is determined
by mul ti pl yi ng the number of measurements made.
<ui) In e r t i a l profilers. A linear potentiometer, a laser, or an ul trasoni c sensor
measures the relati ve displacement between the road surface and any i nertial
reference. T he motion of v^i cl e frame is measured by double i ntegrauon of the
si gnal f rom accel etomel crs. The longitudinal distance of the i nsaui oent i s
usual l y obtai ned from the vehicle speedometer The meni al profi l er needs
certai n speed, that is. U must be in moving state in order to function. T he speed
i s mai ntai ned constant for ease of data processing. Ptofi lecs based on thi s
pri nci pl e can be called as response-type mod roughness meters (2341.
Varioas r o u g h n e s s rmfrees
Some of the i ndi ces used to quantify road roughness are:
(i) Internati onal Roughness Inde.t (IRIV It is calculated from a measured si ngl e
l ongi tudi nal road profile. First, the profile is smoothened with a movi ng
HrgAoiay 057
average of a given base length, lo remove local irregularities. Then, the response of
a quarter car model, in (he form of vertical vibration is added which on dividing Iqr
Ibe length of the profile yields. IRI [201],
A quarter car consists of a .spning ma.ss and an unsprung mass, with spring
and dashpol configuration as shot i in Figure 14.4, Ratios between masses,
spring coasiaots and damping coefficients ate fixed for a standard quaiier car.
The stmulaiion model generates vibration response caused to the moving
quarter car (at a fixed speed of 80 kmph) 1^the roughness of road profile. TTie
analysis of the response of a model vehicle (quarter car. in this case) due to toad
roughness is. however, beyond the scope of this book.
IMnripIn oj Tia'ispmlithtm
(ii) Mean Pane! Rating (MPR). The concept of Mean Panel Rating (MPR) evolved out
of AASHO road test. It is the average of ratings given by a panel of pavement experts
while driving over a given road stretch. These ratings are processed statistically to
yield a single rating, for the panel as a whole, which is called Mean Panel Rating
(MPR). Thus, MPR gives an idea about the average degree of discomfort of riding
due to roughness over a given stretch of road. Panel ratings depend strongly on the
instructions given to the members of the panel to define as to which physical property
or quality is to be judged. Thus. MPR is a subjective judgement of road roughttess.
(iii) Profile Index (Pt>. This index is calculated in a similar fashion as the quarter car
simulation used in IRI computation. However, the ratios between the mas.ses.
spring constants, damping coefficients are chosen different in this case. The
root mean square value of the response profile of the quarter car normalised to
the scale between S (perfectly smooth) to 0 (maximum possible toughness), is
referred as PI f200].
(iv) Root Mean Square Vertical Acceleration (RMSVA). The rale of change of slope
o f the measured profile is the spatial veitical acceleration. The tool mean square
of this spatial accel mii on is the RMSVA,
l it g h u fty M a ttiU n a n c t 4 5 9
(v) Wiivrbtind f nJices. A road profile is assumed to be comprised of shon. medium,
and long vvaveieng;lhs. The Power Spectral Density fPSO) distribution plotted
against the wave number {the number of waves m unit length) gives some
quantitative idea o f the roughness level. The nature of this plot remains the
same for various roads and (he area enclosed is observed lo be linearly
piopoitional to IRf
Closing remarks
AiMinber of profilers s^e used to measure roughness and also a number of indices have
been proposed, most o f them are apparently uncotTclated to each other. Roughness
information can be derived from the true profile of ifae road, as well as from the vibration
response o f the vehicle plying on it. It may be argued that the study on the vehicle
vibtation reisponse could act as a better roughness index compared to that on the true
profile of the surface, because it is the vehicle vibration and the related discomfort which
a road user is more concerned with. Different vehicles would show different vibr^ion
tsj>onses, and that is why a quarter car model (with fixed ratios of mass, damping
coefficient and spring constants) is chosen as a standard vehicle for the roughness suxly.
For this reason, IRl. as the roughness index, is gaining acceptance in most of the
countries.
14.3.2 Skid Resistance
The skid resistance is the retarding force generated due to ioteraciion between the
pavemerit and locked tyre when the vehicle is moving. Skid number is defined as tOO
times the frictional coefficient between the wheel tyre and the pavement surface.
Skid number = 100 x coefficient of friction (14.1)
factors a f f ^ c i i n g s k i d resistance
The following are the factors affecting the skid resistance of pavement surface:
Ci) Aggregate quality. Aggregate polish reduces the skid resistance. Hard
aggregates, which are fine grained, sometimes show tendency to get polished
quickly, compared to softer and coarse-grained aggregates 1187). Thus, a
compromise needs to be made between the durability and the desired skid
resistance.
<ii) Binder. BirKlers which are soft or temperature susceptible may cause bleeding,
thereby reducing (he skid resistance.
(iii) Climate For similar reasons, climate affects (he .skid resistance In hot climate,
as bitumen softens the chances of bleeding increase. Hence, (he skid resistance
decreases.
(iv) Surface drainage. If (he surface drainage system is not proper, waier
accuniulcues on the surface and cause.s lo.ss of skid resisuuice. In such a
situation, lyre tread and the surface texture may not be sufficient to drive away
(he water and (he tyre may start slipping on the water film. This phenomenon
is called hydroplaning.
Meawremeftr of diid rtsisUnct
Skid resistance can be measured by a portable skid tester, known as the British Pendulum
Tesier. Figure 14.5 shows the photograph of a portable skid tester developed by
Transpon Road Research Laboratory (TRRL). UK. The test uses a pendulum, as a spring
loaded rubber slid^. The pendulum is released from horizontal position, and it slides
over the specimen whose skid resistance is to be measured. The scale attached to the
pendulum measures the energy lost, and the friction coefficient of the object is estimated
by the following formula (111]:
/= " '- ^1 ^x100
460 Piitififtlfs ef IraaspnrUthm Engiilfering
(14.2)
where
/ is the coelTicienl of friclimi (et^ssed as percentage)
IF is the weight of the swing arm
X is the distance of effective centre of gravity of the swinging arm from the centre
of oscillation
Z is the vertical distance of Ihe edge of (he scale below the zero of the scale
P is the load on the slider
0 is Che sliding distance
p is the length of the arm of the pointer.
Figure 14.$ A portable skid tesier
High-way MutrU^narw.e 461
The pendul um ski d tester can measure the skid resistance fnr small areas onl y, and i t taken
uioe fur each measurement, then it may be difficult to use for network l evel eval uati on of ski d
tesisiance- A l so, i t requi res regul at cal i brati on. Other devi cesai e also avai l abl e, such as l ocked
Vi'heel trailer and yaw mode trai l er, whi ch can measure the ski d resi stance of a l ong stretch of
road, mounted on a vehi cl e movi ng at nonnai traffi c speed. I n a locked wheel trai l er, a two-
wheel trai l er whose wheel s are l o ^ed, is pul led i n the forward di recti on. T he l ocki ng f orce i s
measured and the ski d number i s obtai ned. I n the yaw mode equipment, the l ocked wheel s of
ihe tTdiler are turned at a speci f i c angl e to si mulate the effect of turning. M u-mcter i s a ski d
testing equi pment based on thi s pri nci pl e. Ski d resi ^ance can also be mea.<urcd by the stoppi ng
dght di stance method, where the wheel s of a runni ng vehicl e are l ocked, and the braki ng
distance is measured.
EXAMPLE 14.1
\ force of 25 k N i s requi red to pul l two l ocked wheel s at a speed of 40 kmph. l oaded wi th SO
kN of wei ght. C al cul ate the ski d number.
Sobttion
S k i d number = 100 x 50, at a speed of 40 kmph
I mprovement o f s k i d re sista n c e
For bi tumi nous pavement, the ski d resistance of the surface can be i mproved by putti ng a thi n
layer of smal l aggregates, sand, and binder. Slurry seal, surface dressing, fog seal , sand bl tndi ng,
etc. can al so i mprove the ski d resi stance of the surface. Excess bi tumen, i f any. whi ch comes
out due to bl eedi ng can be taken out by heati ng and cutting. Grooving on a bi tunuoous pavement
surface can al so be done, whi ch i s effecti ve only i n col d cli mate. G rooving i s a techni que by
which shal l ow, narrow channel s ate made on the surface of the pavement by means o f a narrow
rotating di amond saw- bl ade [266l .F oT theconcrM epavemcnt.thesl ddf esi si aceof i be surf ace
can be i mproved by aci d etchi ng, oc grooving. Grooving on concrete pavements i s more
effecti ve than that on bi tumi nous pavements, and transverse groovi ng i s pref erred to
l ongitudi nal groovi ng.
14.4 STRUCTURAL EVALUATION OF PAVEMENT
The structural eval uati on o f pavement can be broadly cl assi fi ed i nto two mayor categones.
namely destructi ve eval uati on and non-destructive evjduation tN DT l of the pavement. I n non
destructi ve eval uati on. the structural strength of the pavement i s eval uated w i thout causi ng any
damage to the pavement or di srupti on of traflK;. Destnictive and non- destructi ve eval uati on o f
pavement are bri ef l y di scussed i n thi s section.
(a> i n dc-tiruclive rvaluaiiMi. samples are retrieved froni the pavement and
analyzed tn (he laboratory. The ptis dug in the pavement give a measure of the
thickness of various l ^ers of the exisirng pavement, which is turn gives an idea
about the field compacted thkkness compared to the thickness which was
originally laid.
Bitumen extraction is generally employed to check the bitumen content and
aggregate gradation used in a pavement construction. The sample taken out (by
core cutter or from pits) from the in-service pavement, is broken into pieces,
and pul into a centrifuge bitumen extractor, where bitumen is dissolved in a
solvent (tricholoroethylene. benzene, methylene chloride, and so on) and is
separated out from the mix by the action of centrifugal force. The quantity of
bitumen is measured after the solvent is evaporated, and this gives an idea
about the quantity of bitumen used in the actual construction. The aggregate
proportions are also checked by sieve analysis. Corrections are made for the
amount of fines which goes out along with the dissolved bitumen during the
extraction process. Also, necessary corrections are made for the water content,
i f present, in the mix. For concrete pavements, the beam samples taken are
tested for their flexural strength and crashing strength 1230).
The physical propeilies of bitumen and a^regal es are tested i f required,
such as estimating the suitability of recycling-
(b) A number of NDT devices have been developed for the structural evaluation
of pavement. The NDT equipment is used to dMermine the <i) in-situ moduli of
pavement layers, (ii) load transfer eniciency at joints in the concicte
pavements, and (iii) location and extent of void io a pavement structure. The
NDT equipment used for pavement evaluation is broadly classifled into four
major categories on the basis of their type of loading, as briefly discussed
below:
Stati c creep deflection method. In this type of equipment, a static load is
applied to the pavement aod the deftection is measured. Benkelman beam
test is such an example. A multiprobe Benkelman beam measures the static
deflection as a number of points. California travelling deflectograph and
L aCroix deflectograph are some examples of equipment under this
categmy. Pavement evaluation by Benkelman Beam (BB) is covered io
Section 14.4.1.
The problem with the static e m p kind of equipment is that (i) the static
(or slow moving) detecti on response measured with this equipment is
different from the deflection response of the moving wheels in the in-service
pavement, and (ii) the fixed reference with respect to which deflection is
measured, may also be a pari of the deflection bowl, hence may give
erroneous readings.
462 PrineipUt o f Thnuport^tinn Engtnttnttg
.steady state defleciton devices- I he NtTp devices tliaf fall in this calegeiry.
measure i hc deflection response nf the pavement w> a low frequeacy
oscillatory load. The Road Rater and Dynaflcci arc the (wo such devicea.
T he basi c operating principte of these devices U to impart a vibratory
loading by means of some eccentnc loading mechanism and to metnure the
deflecti on caused to the pavement at a series of points through velocity sensors.
T he fi xed point referencing prablem, as in the static creep method, is taken care
by thi s equi pment with the use of inettial reference (velocky sensort). However,
the steady stale loading applied to the pavement does rtot correspond to the actual
form of loading applied by the vehicles [266). Figure 14.6 presents a schematic
di agram of a Road Rater.
Bridge and elevainr asteinirty
Wave propagaiMR devices. The vibrations propagate through layered media tt
various speeds. Individual waves have different reflectivity cbaractetistics. The
sensors, like, geophone or acceleromeuts. placed at a distance, senae the arrival
of various waves, and the elastic moduli of (he respective layers cao be estintded
therefrom. Among the various available analysis methods, the Spectra) Analysis
of Surface Waves (SASW> is popularly used for pavement evaloaiion.
Impulsive loading devices. ITie impuistve loading type NDT devices apply
an impulsive load to the pavement and record the resulting pavement
deflections at several radial distances from the load applkatioii point. Awing
a short loading time. The Juratioa and the impulsive nature of loading
closely simulate the nature of loading irapaned to the pavement the
vehicles. The enamples of impulsive loading devices arc Dynaiesl. Phoenix,
and KUAB FWDs. These devices generate impulsive load through rapid
decelerolion of Ihe falling mass. The defteciions caused to ihc pavemcnl are
measured with the help of velocity sensors, that is, geophones. The peak
deflections at each measurement location constitute the deflection basin. In
a multidepih deflectomeler, deflections at various depths are measured by
installing .sensors at various depths.
14.4.T Benitelman Beam
Benkelman beam was devised by A.C. Benkelman as a deflection measurement test
bituminous pavement for Ihe WASHO road test in 1953 f74]. The Benkelman Beam
Deflection (BBD) technique is a popular test all over the world for estimating the
required overlay thickness. The popularity is possibly because of its simplicity and low
cost. The permissible maximum allowable Benkelman Beam deflection for satisfactory
performance of a road stretch depends upon the trafTic. material of construction, and the
environmental factors. This forms the basis of Ihe BBD study. Benkelman deflection
more than the allowable deflection suggests that the pavement may require an overlay.
In India, the earlier guidelines [73] on strengthening by overlay using the BBD
method, have been revised, and the present guidelines [74] have evolved from a broader
perspective of experience gained through research and practice [61] in India and in other
countries.
Principle of BBD study
A conceptual working ctf a Benkelman beam is depicted in Figure 14.7. A'B' represents
the position of a Benkelman beam when the probe A' is placed between the dual wheel
of a loaded truck. The poim A' touches the maximum deflected point of the deflected
bowl. When the truck moves forward by a given distance (from F to P). the deflection
bowl also moves forward, and the probe point A' comes back to a point position A. This
f'rmiplrt af TrantporUthoH EnpurariHg
Eaitierwhed
posjllon
Rebound
deneaion
deflection i& called the rebound deflection, and is UKd f<ir the pstimalicin of overlay thickness.
There may be some residual deflection at the present positinn of the truck wheel fat Pj and
therefore, the truck Is further moved forward to measure the residual deflection. As mentioned
earlier, if the deflection bowl has a large spread, the pivot (Ot may itseif fall within thedefleGtion
bowl, giving erroneous reauits. This error, to some extent, is taken care by iocorpnrating
corrections in the observed reading. This aspect has been explained in the example problem,
la dyitamic equipmeist (steady state or impulse type), however, the veIcKity of movement of
deflection bowl is measured, which on integration over a lime period gives the maximum
deflection of the deflection bowl, without any error of this kind. In Benkelman beaoi. the length
of AO is double (hat of OB; the dial gauge being placed at B. and the rebound deflection of
thepavement is twice the reading obtained by the dial gauge.
The reader may note that die diagram of the Benkelman beam shown in Rgure H.7 is
of conceptual nature only. Figure 14.8 shows the diagram of an actual Benkelman beam drawn
to scale. I t may be noted that in this diagram the lengths of the arms are 2.44 m and 1.22 m.
tbereby ntaintaining a 2; I ratio.
M aintm nnrr 44$
Deflection measurement b y Benkelmin beam method
To collect the BBD data of a road section, under the Indian guidelines tRC'.8l-l997. at least
10 equidistant points in each lane (the uiierval between the points should not be more than
SO m) are marked on the pavement along the outer wheel path [74|. Further iitstructioas
for selecting the points depending on the type of road o r also available in the guidelutes.
I ndian guidelines have adopted the CGRA (Canadian Good Roads Associanoni
method of BBD evaluation of pavement, which is described as follows. A standard
loaded truck, with rear axle weighing 8100 kg and flned with dual tyre each havuig a
tyre pressureof 5.6 kg/cm^, is used in the BBD study. The dual wheel of the truck is
centred above the selected point The probe of the Benkelman beam is placed between
the two wheels. The lock of the Benkelman heani is removed and the beam is checked
for IIS ftrs- iihofiwm. Tho inick liii'oi i* ska1 to slowly movf 2,7 m from ilio
pinm mikI slop. The .lial gaujje iviulinf! foi Ihc conv.spondins dt-floclion is nolod when
the rts.o\er> of Ihc |ni\emoiu is less ihiiii or iH|iial lo 0.025 mm/inimile; thi.s wading is
s'alieti the it/erme^i.Me iroiiiMg- The irm-k is niosed I'orwunl by luiother m. iimJ Ihe
fiMl reading is laken. I'aveim'ni leniperainre is alsi>rn-ordcd every hour by inserting a
iheniH'iiwier in ihe stniulnixl hole filled with glyceixil, Tho diffewiice I viwoen the final
and the initial dial tradings ami alst>the difference between tho inlcnncdiulo and iniiial
readings, are both calrnloRd. I f the difference of values lies within 0.025 mni. then the
actu.il imveiiwm deticciion is iwico tho final diffowniiiil reiiding. I f ii is noi so. Ihen. a
term <vyaireni parrmeiu deflecium is derimvi as twice tite final dilToroiiIial reading. Tho
true pavement deflection is e<)ual lo the ap|>airnl pavenienl deflection plus 2.*)! tiine.s
twice Ihe difference beiwien the final and internicdialo dial readings [741. The design
of overlay making use of iho HHD readiiig.s has boon described in iho next section.
14.4.2 Falling Weighf Deflecfomefer
In Ihe Palling Weight Deflectometer (KWD) lest, an impulsive load with a short loading
tinto IS applied on to the road surface by means of a weight falling on a set of
springs tsee Figure 14,9). With propei choice of ihe drop weight, .spring constant, and
the tailing height, a representative impulsive load .simulating a real traffic load can be
obtained.
Drop Height
l.nudccll
-Spring Ccnpliiinn
IMIecuontnml
Flflurai4.9 Schematic diagram of FWD
I t a truck is assumed to move with a speed of bO kniph, and its radius of tyre imprint
is assuiiwd to be 15 cm. then the time of contact is talailaicd as (2 x l5U)/(60 x
1073600) = 0.018 s. which is approximately of the order of 0.02 .s. ['hiis, the loading
duratum of FWD is so designed that it approximately equals 0,02 s.
P r i n c i p l e o i r w r ^
In FWn ttudy, the deflection of the paventerw suffoce i menwred at a oMinber o f points
at different disinnccs situated radially umwards from the centre of the falling weight. The
gererated response is tisttally measured by velocity rmnsducert fgeophones) and after
the velocity time response is integntted. the values of inMantaneous pavement Jeflectinn
at a mimher of points are obtained. The tc.st is repeated several times at a panictilar
locntittn nnd the results are averaged to reduce random errors. If required, the test may
also he done with different loads to evaluate the stress dependence of the layer
modulus 1210V Figure 14.10 shows a photograph of the FWD test being carried out in
ihc field.
F ig u r e S 4 .1 0 FVUO testing tn p r o g m a N M o n a t H igivw av 1
Back-calcutation o f layer nvoduh from the ftVO deffeefson profits
In the FWD l est, six or seven discrete surface deflectioo readings re present the defWctkM
basin. I f the behaviour of the pavement tinder impact loading is as.\umed to be efaecse.
the pitveinent response can be described by knowing only the elastic modulus ff and the
Poissons rati o p of each l ayer Sonw siandaid M values may toe assumed from the
liteTiiiure. since these have little effect im ihe stress analysis 6ach layer is thus,
represented by only one unknown, that is. the elastic modulus of the l ayer The porpvvse
of the FWD study is to find out the in-sitw elastic hkhIuIus of the layers, when the
deflection husin is known from FWD testing. The pn.xes.s of estimating unknown etaMic
moduli from known deflection bastn is known as b*H'k-cah'ultnu*n. Therefore, the
intniiuuin numbei of surface dcllectis'ii leadings ncciled in toack-cak'ulaiioa process
must be at least cijual to the luimbcr of layers lo avoid non-unHtue v..dution (.^7| Because
of the roimding of f and iniiu'acion errors iiuivxluccd during back'cak'ulation. u may not
be possible to rcpivnluce exactly the original layer nKxtuh from a basin gerreraU'sl by a
linear elastic solution. ,Mo. Ixn the devianoii of material behavirnir fmm the htx'ac clastic
model no solution may exist which matches the measured basin perfectly [37j. The division
of a pavement structure into many layers may produce a non-uni|Uc solution whereas assuming
fewer layers may not be able to reach a >loikm which matches the measured deflections. Some
researchers have reported that there is no unique solution to the set of moduli that would produce
exactly a given deflection basin (96]. The thicknesses of the different layers also form an
important input to the back-calculation, otherwise a realistic match may not be achieved [210].
Thicknesses may be measured accurately by coring, boring, ground penetration radar, and
seismic tests (2S8] treated as unknown parameters.
As meniicoed. the basic philosophy of back-calculation is that when the computed surface
deflections match the measured deflections, the resulting layer moduli are considered to be the
most appropriate material tnodult for the pavement structure [37]. The process is initiated by
assuming 'seed values' for elastic moduli of the pavement layers and comparing the lesulling
deflections (through a pavement analysis, i.e. forward calculation routine] with the measured
ones. Adjustments of the elastic moduli are made until the difference between the two deflection
profiles is within a given tolerance. Algorithms forconvogence should be carefully adopted,
otherwise convergence may not even be adueved. or it may take an unnecessarily long lime
to atiivC at a reliable re.suli [145]. Hiere are several back-calculation algorithms (such as,
equivalent half-space method, regression method, database search method, optimization
method, and so on) suggested by a number of researchers. The methods are inevitably
complex and not unique. Figure 14.11 presents a simple back-calculation scheme.
4M Pmtriplti t f Tntn^ ertation Enginefring
Highway Maintnvtiu.f 469
Ivalualion o f toad transfer f ffici^ncy of a foint
The ^oad transfer efficiency of a joint can be determmed by FWD (or any other impact
devices). The tocation of fall of weight is so adjusted that it is close to the joints of the
pavement slabs. The defiection.s measured in the two slabs cloae to the joint give the
value of load transfer efficiency of the joint. Figure 14 12 showa a diagram of two
idealistic extreme situations where the efficiency of the joint is 0% and 100%.
respectively. If due to the application of load close to the joint, both the adjacent stabs
deflect by the same amount, the joint efficiency is 100%. and similarly, if the ocher slab
(whkh is not loaded) does not deflect at all. its joint efficiency is 0%.
FWD tAiCing
Lqad iransfer effielency of the J oint =
FWD Loading
;
Load bvisfer eHkicAcy f the iMM iOQW
n g u r a 14.12 J o W elBcieney i M t t)y F W O
14.5 PAVEMENT MAINTENANCE
A distressed pavement requires maintenance. Maintenance measures constitute fresh
investment on the existing roads. There are two considerations which are of i n^onance
in this regard:
1. The maintenance expenditure can be reduced through proper planning, design,
construction, and quality control. I f the causes of possible distresses are
removed, or judiciously taken care of during design, the expenditure due w
maintenance measures on in-service roads reduces. For example, i f the
drainage provisions are designed properly, or. overloadtitg beyond the legal
limit i s stricily prevented, the premature pavement distresses can be avoided.
2. I t is advisable to implement the necessary' maintenance measures at an early
stage when the distresses have just started showing up. It is seen that proper
pavement maintenance tneasures at the early onset of distresses, can obvtaie
major maintenance expetidiiure in future. This is because, in general, the rale
of deterioration increases with time.
Thi section hricfly introduces various pavement maintenance measures under two categories,
namely maintenance measures other than overlay, and maintenance with overlay.
470 I'linrifilf' of Transpomlion Engiiiffriitg
14.5.1 Pavement Maintenance Measures Other than Overlay
The pavement maintenance measures other than overlay are the minor maintenance or repair
works ts'hich are performed on the pavement. These works do not enhance the structural strength
of the pavement, but can improve the functional .standards and check the rate of deterioration.
These maintenance measures can be of routine type or periodic in nature. A brief explanaticm
of surface repair and drainage maintenance measures is given below.
Surfan repairs
Surface repairs are effective when discrete damaged patches (say. potholes, local depressions)
exist on a pavement surface which need immediate repair. For surface repairs, if needed, the
existing bituminous layers of the specified area are carefully scarified without causing any
disturbance to the other layers. Tack coat is applied to ensure good adherence. Granular layer
and bituminous layer, as the situation demands, are laid and compacted (see Figure 14.3).
Table 14.2 briefly presents the various repair works recommended against various forms
of distresses. Some of them have already been discussed while introducing the various forms
of distresses. Hie reader may note that the table is neither exhaustive nor does it express the
only available solutions. The actual repair technique needs to be evolved on a case to cases basis.
Also, T ^l e I4.2|esenisonly(herepairtechniques. not (be preventive measures, which have
already been covered in Section 14.2.
Table 14.2 Possible surface maintenance measures for some pavement distresses
T y p e c f d is t m s s Mbntenance measuras
Block cracking
AMilication of new biluminous coat recycling
Heedng
Sand bloflingfsand blinding
Corrugation
Scarification of elevated part by mechanical blades and rolling
Depression
Application of profile corrective course
Fatty surfaces
Application of hot, dry, small aggregates, and roiling
Hungry surface Application of fog seal, slurry seal
Loss of aggregates
Appllcatior of seal coat, fog coat, or surface dressing
Polished stone
Surface dressing or other suitable form of wearkig coat
Pothole
Patching and partial reconstruefloo
Ravefling
Seal coat, fog coal, or laying of renewal coat
Rutting falure
Milling of protruded portion, profile corrective course recycling
Sfippage Replacement of top wearing coal with proper tack coat
Stripping
Replacemem of affected layer with fresh mix
Swell and blow up Milling of protruded portion, construction of drainage facility
Drainage mainlenance
The drainage system provided in the road need* louitne (or periodic) atlention to check
(heir proper functi oni ng. The camber and the shoulder slopes need to be maintained
properly for sati sfactory functioning of surface drainage. Depresstoos, potholes, and
rutting shoul d be repaired immediately with premix aggregates to check the
accumulation of water and subsequent damage to the pavement. Cl ogging of open
longitudinal drai ns due to debris accumulation needs regular checking. The sub'SurCK e
drainage network should also be inspected regularly for clogging.
14.S.2 P avement M ai ntenance with Overlay
The overlay is the extra thickness provided on the pavement surface winch strengthens
the pavement structurally, and thereby enhances its loogevity. The overlay desi ^
comprises the determination of thickness and the type of material to be laid over (he
existing pavement surface so as to extend its longevity by a given period. Earlier (prior
to I 960), the overlay design used to be based on judgment and experience (266). There
are various overlay design methodolc^ies in vogue now and among which at least three
basic approaches may be identified as follows:
(a) Effecti ve thickness approach
(b) Defl ecti on approach
(c) M echanistic approach
The principle of effective thickness approach has already been covered with the stage
construction considerations in Section 12.8-2. The overlay design by the BB method is
ba.sed on deflecti on approach, and that by FWD is based on mechanistic approach.
These two approaches are now discussed in the subsequent paragraphs of this section.
Se/ecfion o f homogeneous sections
When the BBD survey data is collected over a long stretch of road, there is a need to
subdivide the stretch into a number of (possibly unequal) parts, where the deflecuon
records are somewhat the same in their order of magnitude. There is no specific
methodology suggested in Indian guidelines 189. 74] for this segmentation, except doing
it by visual observation of kilometre-wise plotted data However, it is suggested that the
minimum length of the section should be at least one kilometre 174J , otherwise it
becomes inconvenient from the construction point of view if the overlay thickness
recommendation changes even for a fractional length of a kilometre.
A simple method suggested by ASSHTO (2] can be adopted for such a situauoi*.
A ccording to this method, (he cumulative data points are plotted on a kilometre scale,
as shown in Figure 14.13. The best fit straight line is drawn through all the data points
Wherever the data points change their location from one side of the best fit line to the
4 7 2 P n n r ^ U s ^ T r a m p c r i a t i o n E n g t n ^ m n g
Other, it cAn be marked as the start o f another homogeneous section'. Thus, the BBD data
points observed from km 438 to km 474 o f a particuJar road stretch have been delineated
into three pans by this method as shown in Figure 14.13. These three stretches can
further be referred for overlay design, individually.
B B D m e t h o d
The following example illustrates the overlay design method as per the IRC:8I>I997
[74] guidelines.
E X A M PL E 14.2
The f oll owi ng arc the BBD. Held moisture content, and temperature readings at
equidistant points obtained along a stretch o f a major road. If the pavement is to sustain
further 2 0 msa o f irafitc repetitions, design an overlay thickness for the stretch. The
average annual rainfall o f the area is found to be 1200 mm, and the soil is of clayey
nature, with average plasticity index I2.
'Xn fact. Uie requirement of delineation of points into homogeneous stretches may arise, not only
fctf B B D survey, but also, in various parameurs usocioied with pavement design, such as, roughness
d a te . C B R data, ptale load teal data, and so on. A good reliability of the ovenll design, subjected to
a gi ven fwrsd comi rai nt. ca/i be achieved depending on hoiv successhtlJ y the delineation has been lione.
So fu fto d
i
The actual pavemeni denectioas ate cakulated according to the IRC:81-1997
recommendations. Temperature and moisture eorreciioAs (data given in
Table 14.3) are applied and the finai corrected deflections are found out as shown in
Table 14.4.
Table 14.3 Data to find temperature and moisture oorrectiorvs
Sr. P a ve m e n f Mo/sture plat sa u g a reading (mm)
no.
tempe/afi/re
content miliai
inUrmmaiate Pinal
rc>
<%)
1 3 5 10 0.00
0 S 4
0.56
2 3 5 11 0.00
0.54 0 S 4
a 3 8 10 0.00
0.53 0.53
4 3 6 10.5 0.00 0.90 0.51
5 36.5 10.5
0.00 0 48 0.49 ;
6 3 5 10.S 0 0 0 0.46 0.49
7
3 4 11
0.00 0.SO 0.51
8 3 4 10 0.00
0.57 0 4 7 1
9 3 4 10
0.00
0 5 4 0 .S 6 1
10 3 5 10
0.00
0 53 0.54 <
*
T a b l e 1 4 . 4 C o rr e c t e d d e fle c tio n s
1
Sr. Actual
Correction tactora CoffaCtMt
no. deflecOon Tetnperaliira*
Uais tut
dsABctians
1 1-12 0
1-23
1 J 3 7
2 1.08 0
1.19 1.285 r
3 1.06 - 0 . 0 1
1.23 1 . 2 9 2 * 1
4 1.02 - 0 . 0 1
1.20 1.212
9 0 .9 8 - 0 . 0 1 S
1 2 0 1.198
e 1.15* 0
1J20
1.380
7 1.02 0.01
1-19 1.225
6 1.14 0-01
1 2 3
1.41&
9 1.12 0 0 1
1 2 3 1 3 8 9
1 0
1 0 8 0
1-23
1 3 2 8
No(*.-
'T h ls vaU i* t* calcutated a 2(0.4) * 2.9( * 2 * 0491. jnd. Oa* 'advO om a t i wtad n U,4.t
TfnorUar* oortociion n *0.0t*C it a ! In ae Mohw r t f* d
tMoishu* conecSon tadon ar trem f l ew 14 14: aMca m W b g i w m aiWaai t <
p4) oapandme upcm Oi tyo ol sol and fmlM
^sample caK Uallon. (10S - 0.0111.23 1.201$; diflacam valuts ara first oonaOBd lor emeefauee. M O
rruilipiiM by vto moisiuie eonocaon taaoi.
A JM PnneipUs of TraniportaHoti Enginetring
F tg u r* 14.14 Moisture correction factor for dayey subgrade with low plasticity (PI < 15) for low
rainfall areas (annual ra<nfeil i 1300 mm) [74]
Mean deflection is obtained i s 1.302 iDin, and the standard deviation as
0.0839 nun. Therefore, the characteristic deflection is
1.302 + 2(0.0839) = 1.469 mm
The multiplicative factor 2 in standard deviation is chosen as it is a major road. From the
overlay design chart (see Figure 14.15). the required overlay thickness is found to be
F ig u r e 14.15 Overlay thickneis deaign chart as per Benketman Beam method [74]
Highu'aj Mahti^nniir^ 4 75
146 mm of BM. This thickness can be converted to equivalent thickness of other layers
by the empirical relationship, or by equivalency (see Eq. (12 I8,
n V D method
The overlay design by the FWD method is a three-stage process involving:
(i) FWD study
(ii) Back-calculation of layer moduli
(iii) Estimation of overlay thickness
The first two stages have been discussed in Section 14.4.2. Now, after the layer moduli
are obtained, the mechanistic pavement design principles are applied to find out the
necessary overlay thickness. For example, as shown in Figure 14.16. the existing
pavement structure is of three layers, and it is analyzed as a four-layered structure when
the overlay is put for enhancement of hs loi^viiy by a given 'msa' level. The overlay
requirements in terms of extra bituminous concrete thickness are determined for various
traffic levels, and the existing granular layer thickness is evaluated from fatigue and
rutting considerations.
200 400 600
Cianular thickness (mm)
SCO
F i g u r a 14.10 A n overlay design chart obtained from F W O study.
C lo s in g re m a rk s
It is not always the maximum deflection but curvature, too. is another imponam
parameter required for determination of the overlay thickness. Pavemenrs
which have the same design life with different pavement compositioins and
subgrade CBR. yield different deflections under the standard axle load. The
mfl]iiiuni H dcllcttion value, fhcrefw. cannoi alway be the righJ eritcfitw tot
overlay desi|{n. TTiecTc/Iected pnifik of the owtJ fcbouid alao be lakcn into account
/orrrverlay dcMgn.
Thuv. ntudtpntbe Hcnkelnm Beam equipment hav been evotved, in which
(k-ricciion ai variouv poiniv iv alao mraMired i<>derive some infonnaiion about
the curvature of the deflection bowi. b'or example, in Auviroailv | IH2) me(hrd, a
parameter /!' Ww'' forcHimating the overlay thteknexs. where /^and/i a^
are the maximum deflection and the deflection at 2fi0 mm rexpeciively. radially
outwards from the point of maximum deflection.
TV BBD melliod is popular because of id low cosa and easy lest procedure, hut
the static loading nature and the dirficuliy in getting a fixed reference point for
deneetion mea.surcmenl are the shortcomings associated with this method,
a In a separate study, the overlay thicknesses derived fnim the BBD mcthrKf and the
mechanistic method arc compared 147) for various points of some selected stretches
in India, as shosvn in Figure 14.17. It it interesting to note that though the basic
approaches of the BBI) and themechanistic method of overlay design arc difTerent.
the final overlay recommendations are comparable Ui each other,
476 of ItantpMhilKm f^uginforinji
Figure 14.17 Comperiaon of overlay tfuckneu obtained from 6B0 P4] and mechaniaiie
pavement detign method [47],
ffverlay is discuMied here as the Mruciural rchabiliialiofl procedure. In overlay,
extra thickness is laid on the existing pavement to extend its longevity.
However, nveitay conMnKiwM mcreswv the heigtu of the pavemeni. This
problem is porticuUdy acute in city weeis where toad level keeps on risw|
causing tneonverticnee to the toadvde ewabltdimeus. Tl* best driuiini in ibis
case is to recycle liic materials o( ibe existing pavement and use them for
overlay conshuclion. Recycling is a better itkibiVnatKin method than puniiif
new overlay on the existing surface, as it conserves aggregates, binder
and energy, preserves the environment and road gcomelrics 12). A brief
discussion cmbituminous pavonem recycling has alteady been pteseMed in
Section 13.10.3.
477
14.6 MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENr
Figure 14.18 shows a schematic diagram of vahaiion of pavement conditwa (siructwai.
or functional, or combined; with respect to time. If no rehabiliiaiKmmeasures ae taAen.
the pavement gradually deteriorates and fails at a certain tuge, as shown in the figure.
Rehabilitation improves the condition of pavement, extends Hs life, and thus, prevents
its failure after the expiry of initial design period. 'These can be ahemiuive cthalnlitaiian
measures (in terms of their extent and ftequency;. shown in the figwe. Depending
upon the frequency and type of rehabilitation, pavemeni continues to serve satisfactorily
for an extended period. The designer has to jodtcionly recommend suitable
rehabilitation measures, chosen from various possible aUemuives. such that the fund
utilimiion is optimal and the condilioa of pavemeiu at any given pouu of time icmaiitt
satisfactory. This may be Kferrcd as optimal maiatCMAce requiremem of a paniculat
stretch.
Tum (ycxrl
Figure 14.1$ SetiemaiK diapramsliowing lament eomWIon aends tor attamawe
rehaMitation measufes.
^iriifiarly. the fTuiinirniim;c requirementv uf vaniius individual pavement seirms of
given road aciwork un be different. Due to fund vonsiramis, it may not be possible