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Research topics on Coastal engineering

Pablo Cortes.
Federico Santa Mara University Department of Civil Engineering, University of Queensland
April 2014
INTRODUCTION
Coastal engineerings objective is the study of phenomena in the sea land boundary
as well as in the open sea. Amongst the main topics that are covered by this field it
is possible to find: wave generation and propagation, wave breaking, sediment
transport, swash zone hydrodynamics and maritime structures. Research in these
areas is essential for managing land located in coastal environments
The main aim of this report is to gain an overview of the research process
associated to coastal engineering. To fulfill this objective, work was done in three
areas of investigation: laboratory experiments, computational modeling, and field
data processing.
At the same time, secondary objectives were determined for each of the areas,
which included:
Gaining experience in setting up laboratory experiments, and
understanding the challenges, complexities and time schedules associated
with laboratory work.
Exploring the first steps on computational modeling, coding a personal
program to model a physical situation, and obtaining knowledge of the
phenomena physics by applying the code to different cases.
Learn to process field data; get an insight on methodologies to measure
uprush on beaches, identifying their strengths and weaknesses. Learn how
to process time-stack images and obtaining relevant information regarding
uprush.
SUMMARY
Chapter one covers laboratory experiments related to how the rise of the water
level affects the beach profile. The Bruun Rule was briefly explored as it is a widely
used method for erosion estimation, and was later compared to laboratory
measurements.
Chapter two covers long wave modeling. Physical phenomena associated with
transient dynamics of long waves, was briefly studied by doing a literature review.
A computational model in MATLAB was also coded as part of the aims of this
section.
Chapter three covers time-stack analysis. Uprush distributions on the swash zone
were studied through remote sensing. These distributions were later compared to a
Rayleigh Distribution with the objective to determine if they could be modeled.
2

Chapter 1

Changes on beach profiles The Bruun Rule.
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Coastal beach erosion quantification is a process of great interest to researchers,
engineers and, in particular, for people that live near the shoreline. This has led to
investigations conducted by many authors throughout the years, (Cooper and Pikey
2004). The present report aims to study one of the most popular methods for
estimating these changes, the BruunRrule, (Bruun, 1963). The choice of the Bruun
Rule relates to its wide application for estimating erosion throughout the years,
even when underpinning theoretical aspects have not been completely fulfilled in
its application (Cooper and Pikey 2004). In this section, predictions using the
Bruun Rule will be compared to laboratory measurements, for various waves and
mean water levels in order to assess the rules accuracy and hence its validity.
However, only one set of waves was included in the present report, due to the time
frame to finish each experiment. As a secondary objective, the present research
aims to gain experience setting physical experiments by preparing an artificial
beach and using a wave flume.
1.2 THEORETICAL ASPECTS
The Bruun rule, which is straightforward in its application, is a method to estimate
erosion on beaches. The hypotheses behind this method are:
(1) equilibrium along the whole beach profile is satisfied in the long term.
(2) the section of the beach chosen for analysis is in equilibrium in terms of
the sediment flow, or, the net fluxes in all directions are zero.
Bruun hypothesized the scheme in which the erosion took place as: (i) displacement
of the beach profile landwards, caused by the erosion of the upper beach; (ii)
equilibrium is satisfied by considering that the same amount of eroded sand at the
upper beach is later deposited on the offshore bottom, inside the active zone; and
(iii) the deposited sand distributes along the profile in such a way that the total
water depth at the area remains constant, (Bruun, 1988).
The mathematical expression for the sediment requirement when the water level
rises requires (Fig. 1.1), is equal to:
()

()

(1)


3

in which f(x) is the profile shape. Alternatively, sand movement within the profile
is:
()

()

(2)
consequently, combining (1) and (2) yields:
(3)

Figure 1.1. an illustration of Bruuns Rule: the beach profile adapts itself to keep both the water depth and its
shape constant. The green rectangle, (a*l), represents the sediment demand due to water rise, and the orange,
(s*h), represents the available sediment for reshaping the beach, once the level has risen.
The parameter is related to the depth of closure, , or the depth at which no
sediment exchange occurs. This value should be obtained from measurements of
bottom profiles during different seasons. It is also recommended to do an extreme
wave analysis or a study of the bottom granulometry (Bruun 1988). Once this value
is determined, is obtained from profile measurements.
1.3 METHODOLOGY
Beach profile evolution was simulated physically by using a wave flume, and
bottom changes over time were measured. The scheme for these experiments was:
a) set an initial beach profile. At this step there were two choices: flat profile
with a given steepness (created manually), or, equilibrium profile generated
in a previous experiment;
b) create a series of waves with specific height and period were created on the
flume. Their movement initiates the sediment flux that changes the shape
of the profile;
c) measure the profile to account for changes at: 0, (initial condition), 15, 30,
60, 90, 120, 180, and 240 minutes. Register data on the computer for further
analysis on completion of the equilibrium condition.
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1.4 RESULTS
Two experiments were conducted. In the first, the still water level, (SWL) was
equal to 60 centimeters (cm), and the wave height and period corresponded to 15
cm and 1 second (sec) respectively. On the second experiment, wave height and
period remained constant but the SWL was increased to 65 cm. Measurements
indicated that after 4 hours, both experiments reached the equilibrium profile. As
expected, the SWL increase produced profile changes, including sand bars in the
breaking zone.

Figure 1.2 Comparison equilibrium profiles for two types of waves. Both have height= 15 cm and period= 1 sec, but
still water level, (SWL), is different on each case, being 60 cm for the brown profile and 65 cm for the red one.
It is possible to make a raw estimation using the Bruun Rule for the situation
shown in Figure 1.2, since the values of and can be estimated from these data
as ( ) and . Eq. (3) yields The
experimental value of s corresponds to the difference between the locations of the
scarp on each case, .
1.5 DISCUSSION
Based solely on the current results, it seems that the Bruuns Rule overestimates
beach erosion, failing to assess correctly the phenomena as stated by Cooper and
Pikey, (2008). However, it is advisable to consider more experiments before
reaching a significant conclusion.
The preparation of the experiments proved to be a long process, since proper sand
size must be chosen, bought and tested, while profile layout must be selected, and
built in the flume. On the other hand, the actual experiments took several hours,
because the equilibrium condition for each profile requires the breaking of various
waves. Because of this, the results of other wave conditions were not available by
the completion time of the present report.
REFERENCES
BRUUN, P., (1963) Sea-level rise as cause of shore erosion. Proceedings of the American Society of Civil
Engineers. Journal of the Waterways and Harbour divison., 117-130.
BRUUN, P., (1988). The Bruun Rule of Erosion by sea-level rise: A discussion on large-scale two-and three-
dimensional usages. Journal of Coastal Research, 4(4), 627-648. Charlottesville (Vir-ginia). ISSN 0749-0208.
COOPER & PILKEY, (2004) Sea-level rise and shoreline retreat: time to abandon the Bruun Rule. Global and
Planetary Change, 43, 157-171.
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
80
4 6 8 10 12
D
e
p
t
h

[
c
m
]

Distance [m]
Profile h=60 [cm]
Max Runup h=60
Profile h=65 [cm]
Max Runup h=65
SWL h=60
SWL h=65
5

Chapter 2

Transient dynamics of forced long waves.
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Even when steady solutions for forced long waves have been found and studied in
depth (Dean and Dalrymple, 1991), transient behavior of these systems lacked a
comprehensive study. Nielsen et al (2008) provides an insight on the transient
mechanisms governing the growth process of forced long waves.
The main aims of this section were gaining knowledge on the physics of transient
phenomena, and how the proposed scheme performs against laboratory data, based
on Nielsen (2009) and Callaghan et al (2011); as well as exploring the first step for
coding a numerical model.
2.2 THEORETICAL ASPECTS
Based on the calculations of Nielsen (2008), pressure forcings of the type

( )

() ( ) were considered in this report, where

( ) is the atmospheric
pressure on the water surface.
For abrupt onset of forcings,

( )

( ), the steady solution is:

( )

( ) (2.2.1)
The surface profile is the sum of the steady solution and a pair of free waves that
cancel both its height and speed at :
( )

( )

( ( ))

( ( )) (2.2.2)
(

) (

]) (2.2.3)
For gradually increasing forcings

( )

() ( ), a solution can be found


by considering Eq. 2.2.1, for an increment

, an increment equal to

( )
is added to the total forced wave at each time , as if a new abrupt forcing solution
was generated at each time. The free waves propagate with speed , from the
point at which they are originated at . The total wave is then given by:
( )

() ( )
,*

)(

-)+

-)+- (2.2.4)
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The numerical scheme that represents Eq. 2.2.4, is the following
( )

( ) ( )
(
.

(())

()/

] ( , -) )


(
.

(())

()/

] ( , -))

(2.2.5)
This scheme is similar to the one proposed by Callaghan et al (2011) for sliding
humps in a flume.
2.3 METHODOLOGY
Using MATLAB, Eq. 2.2.4 and 2.2.5 were implemented to study the behavior of
surge systems in different conditions: pressure systems traveling both faster,
, and slower , than free waves. Firstly a benchmark case was set to
compare the performance Eq. 2.2.4 versus Eq. 2.2.5. This benchmark case
corresponded to a square shaped pressure field whose amplitude grows linearly.
Then, an exponential shaped forcing with linear growing amplitude was used to
study slow forcings.
2.4 RESULTS
2.4.1 Case N1 : Box Shaped-linear growing forcing
The main forcing characteristics, growing with time, width and maximum value,
are shown on Fig. 2.1. Fig 2.2 shows differences between both analytical and
numerical results at different times, as well as the surface shapes,

Fig. 2.1. Box
shaped forcing
properties. In the
studied case the
value of W was
equal to 15 m.

In Fig. 2.2 it is possible to appreciate the behavior of the system for a fast forcing,
( ), in which the forced asymptotic solution separates from both free waves.
Since the forcing increments gradually, the shape of the forced waves is a
trapezoid.
The behavior of a slow forcing is displayed on Fig. 2.3. In this case an exponential
shaping of the form

( )

()

( ), with linearly growing

(), was
used. It is possible to observe the opposite behavior as in the fast forcing case, since
the forced wave corresponds to an elevation.
-6000
-3000
0
0 5 10 15 20
P
o

(
t
)

Time s
,-
7










Fig. 2.2. shows that the difference between the analytical and numerical
approaches is bounded to 0.0025, for a max wave height of -0.6, thus representing
a 0.41% of the max. When compared to model versus laboratory max errors
(Callaghan et al, 2011), 0.41% can be considered as an insignificant.
DISCUSSION
The method proposed by Nielsen et al (2008), shows the main qualitative difference
of waves forced by low pressure systems. Slow systems, ( ), produce an
asymptotic solution corresponding to a rise of the water level, and fast systems,
( ), a depression. However, from the viewpoint of an observer, the first wave
is always a depression followed by a lift. The previous scheme allows for measuring
the time in which the asymptotic solution reaches its peak.
As seen on Callaghan et al (2011), for a sliding hump, the long wave scheme of a
forced wave and a pair of free waves effectively captures the forward free wave, but
underestimates the backward wave. However, when compared to Non-
linear/Hydrostatic, Linear/Non-hydrostatic, Non-linear/ Non-hydrostatic and Non-
linear/ Non-hydrostatic/friction models performance, substantial improvement was
only observed for the last two models, thus encouraging the studied scheme to be
applied in real scenarios.
From a practical viewpoint, the process of coding a model requires several hours.
Even when the scheme studied was simple, testing and de-bugging the code proved
to be a challenging task, especially because two approaches, analytical and
numerical, had to be implemented to fulfill this sections aim.
REFERENCES
CALLAGHAN ET AL (2011) Transient wave behaviour over an underwater sliding hump from experiments and
analytical and numerical modeling, Experimental Fluids, vol 51 1657-1671.
DEAN & DARYMPLE (1991) Water wave mechanics for engineers and scientists. World Scientific, Singapore. 353
pp.
NIELSEN ET AL (2008) Transient dynamics of storm surges and other forced long waves, Coastal Engineering
vol. 55 499-505.
NIELSEN ET AL (2009), Coastal and Estuarine processes , Singapore, p 341.
,-

-

Fig. 2.2. Absolut value of difference between analytical
and numerical surface elevations, (up); and comparison
between analytical, (straight lines), and numerical,
(circles and diamonds) outputs, (down). Colors represent
different times: green=0 s, red=10 s, blue=20 s. In this
case / 5, 4 /, C= 20 m/s, 5 .

Fig. 2.3. Evolution of water surface for a
slow forcing. Colors represent different
times: green=0 s, red = 5 s, blue = 20 s. In
this case / 5, 4 /, C=10
m/s, .

,-

-

,-
,-
8

Chapter 3

Time-stack analysis and run up distribution.
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Swash zone hydrodynamics play an important role on sediment flux, and therefore
on morphology changes on beaches. This section covers the time-stack method
originally described by Aagaard and Jrgen Holm (1989), for studying run up
phenomena in the swash zone, as well as remote sensing approach.
The main goal of this investigation is to gain experience on the time-stack method
by processing image information taken at North Stradbroke Island. Also, the
behavior of relevant swash parameters will be briefly studied for different time
intervals.
3.2 THEORETICAL ASPECTS
The time-stack method consists of remote video, recording the waves in the swash
zones. A specific beach transect is chosen and spikes are located enclosing it in a
quadrilateral shape as seen in Fig 3.1. The bathymetry is measured, and a video
camera is placed at an angle from the beach transect to record incoming waves and
bores.

Fig. 3.1 Typical special distribution for the sticks is shown on the left picture. The beach transect used in this
report, corresponding to North Stradbroke Island is shown on the left.
When the image record is finished, and using the geometrical information of the
sticks, the video pixels are shifted to a 90 position with respect to the shoreline, in
a rectification process (Holland et al, 1997). The information contained in one line
of pixels, that correspond to the beach transect, is extracted for each video frame
and stacked from top to bottom. The final result of this technique can be seen on
Fig. 2.

9























Two points are taken from each wave in order to determine the rush up
distribution; they correspond to the beginning of the uprush and the maximum
uprush. The methodology proposed by Power et al (2011) to identify these points
was used in the present report.
3.3 METHODOLOGY
Each time stack image had 4500 pixels which correspond to 15 minutes, thus
enabling stationary tidal assumption. From time-stacks, cross-shore information
was taken and processed in MATLAB using Atkinson code, (Atkinson 2012),
transforming it into uprush. Other significant information obtained was the
tangent of the slope angle at the swash zone, and the tidal level corresponding to
each time interval.
Uprush within each period was plotted against
(

) (3.3.1)
with the total number of swash oscillations during that time, and the rank of
each particular uprush. This method checks to see if uprush is modeled by the
Rayleigh distribution, considering that a straight line is obtained for Rayleigh
distributed data (Nielsen 2009). For purposes of this report,

is considered
to be distributed as Rayleigh. At the same time the tangent of the swash zone slope
angle was obtained from each interval, considering:

(3.3.1)










Fig. 3.3 Problems found when processing image data.
The time-stack indicates a possible water drop on
the camera lens, as well as an unidentified object
blocking the view.

Fig. 3.2 Typical time-stack image output, each
parabola represents a wave rush-backwash at the
swash zone. White and blue colors correspond to
water, and brown to beach sand
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3.4 RESULTS
Fig. 3.4 Example of easured data plotted against
Rayleigh distribution data line.
Table 3.1 Results for each time interval.


3.5 DISCUSSION
Results, (Table 3.1), show that maximum uprush presents variability in time,
perhaps due to the influence of long period waves, (other than tidal). At the same
time, the tangent of the surf zone slope remains almost constant over time,
averaging 0.0436. Least square coefficients show agreement between run up
distributions and Rayleigh distributions, following the previous assumption of

, enabling their use as a statistical predictor method. This agrees with


studies from Nielsen (2009).
The time-stack method proves to be robust when high definition images are used.
It overcomes the weaknesses of other procedures such as observation in situ using
stakes that might lead to high variability (Nielsen and Hanslow, 1991), or
resistance wires that can be easily removed by debris (Holman and Guza, 1984).
Its main drawbacks are the time needed to process the image data since all points
have to be manually selected on the computer screen, and the sensitivity of the
camera lens to the sunlight, water drops, or sand as seen on Fig. 3.3.
REFERENCES
AAGAARD T. & HOLM J. (1989) Digitization of Wave Run-up Using Video Records. Journal of Coastal Research,
5, 547-551.
ATKINSON A. (2012) Extreme wave run-up in eastern Australia: An assessment of existing empirical models,
Master Thesis, University of Sydney.
HOLLAND K. T., HOLMAN R.A & LIPPMANN T. C. (1997) Practical Use of Video Imagery in Nearshore
Oceanographic Field Studies. Journal of Ocean Engineering, 22, 81-92.
HOLMAN, R. A. & GUZA, R. T. (1984). Measuring run-up on a natural beach. Coastal Engineering, 8, 129-140.
NIELSEN ET AL (2009), Coastal and Estuarine processes , Singapore, p 341.
NIELSEN, P. & HANSLOW, D. J. (1991). Wave Runup Distributions on Natural Beaches. Journal of Coastal
Research, 7, 1139-1152.
POWER, H. E., HOLMAN, R. A. & BALDOCK, T. E. (2011). Swash zone boundary conditions derived from optical
remote sensing of swash zone flow patterns. Journal of Geophysical Research, 116, C06007.
y = 0,268x - 0,3397
R = 0,9858
-0,4
-0,3
-0,2
-0,1
0
0,1
0,2
0,3
0 1 2 3
R

(
m
)

sqrt(-ln(n/N))
North Strad. 09:02 tide AHD
Time Tide [m] Max Uprush [m] Tan(s) R^2
07:02 0.535 0.754 0.0430
0.995
07:17 0.626 0.793 0.0431
0.988
07:32 0.706 1.036 0.0448
0.988
07:47 0.782 1.043 0.0432
0.978
08:02 0.847 1.208 0.0453
0.984
08:17 0.903 1.176 0.0436
0.976
08:32 0.944 1.179 0.0431
0.982
08:47 0.969 1.182 0.0431
0.993
09:02 0.975 1.158 0.0432
0.986
09:17 0.965 1.242 0.0438
0.980
09:32 0.946 1.099 0.0431
0.969
11



OVERALL CONCLUSIONS FROM CHAPTER 1 TO 3
The conducted laboratory experiments on beach erosion gave an idea of how much
dedication and time this requires. A least two sets of experiments were considered,
but the necessary conditions to get valid results were not fulfilled in on the original
proposed time so only one set was obtained.
The main characteristics of long wave transient phenomena were studied and
compared to laboratory data. This section proved that even when complex
hydrodynamic models can represent the reality accurately; it is possible to find
simpler approaches that provide a robust physic explanation, while representing
measurements with acceptable precision.
Computational modeling was a challenging task in terms of coding different
mathematical representations of long wave phenomena. Translating continuous
expressions to discrete approaches, which are suitable for fast calculation, was time
demanding in terms of code de-bugging and version control.
Following the literature review, time-stack analysis proved to be a robust method
to study uprush even when it has drawbacks, regarding the sensitivity of the
camera lenses. These are irrelevant when compared to other methods such as
electric wires or stakes measurements. The analysis of time-stack data indicates
that uprush was Rayleigh distributed, a useful forecast model for North Stradbroke
Island.
As a final conclusion, the investigations on each topic demonstrated that coastal
engineering is a time demanding research field. This is especially apparent in
laboratory and field data, in which one experiment or field data set can take days
to be fulfilled, thus delaying the processing and conclusions by days or months.
Even so, at least one scenario was completed for purposes of Chapter one, and pre-
obtained field data was used in Chapter three, thus fulfilling the proposed aims.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author is thankful for the financing of the present program by CONICYT. The
outline of the research program by Dr. David Callaghan, and the laboratory
experiments, field data, and uprush codes by Alexander Atkinson, at Coastal
Engineering Research Group, University of Queensland.

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