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DepthProfilingofMaterialNanostructureImportanceofNanotechnology
Inrecentyearstherehasbeenalargeamountoffocusdirectedtowardsnanotechnology.Nanotechnologydealswithmaterialsonthenmlengthscalesandisadvancingmanyfields,suchasmolecularself‐assembly,andthedevelopmentofnewmaterials.Newcarbonstructuressuchascarbonnanotubeshavebeensomeofthemostwidelypublicizedresults,helpingusreachgoalsasambitiousasaspaceelevator.
NeedtoUnderstandMaterials
‐Asaresponsetothisgrowingfield,newmethodsofextractinginformationfromthesystemhavebeendevelopedtoallowforadeeperunderstandingofwhatphysicaleffectsareoccurring.SomeoftheseincludeAtomicForceMicroscopy(AFM),andScanningTunnelingMicroscopywhicharelimitedtoaverynarrowcrosssectionofinformation
X-rays!
AnothermethodofextractingusefulinformationfrommaterialsonthenmlengthscaleistheuseofX‐rays.X‐raysareelectromagneticwaveswithawavelengthrangingfrom10to0.01nm(wikipedia).Asweallknow,X‐raysareparticularlygoodatgoingthroughthingswhichisaresultoftheirrelativelysmallwavelength.InthesamewaythatX‐raysareusedtocreateimagesofourbones,X‐rayscanalsobeusedtopenetratematerialsandprovideuswithinformationregardingthestructurewithin.
SAXS,GIXD,XRR,GISAXS
ThereareanumberofgeometriesforX‐raystoprovideinformationaboutamaterial,makinguseofbothdiffraction,reflection,andscattering.SomeexamplesincludeGrazingIncidenceX‐rayDiffraction(GIXD),X‐rayReflectivity(XRR),SmallAngleX‐rayScattering(SAXS),andGrazingIncidenceSmallAngleX‐rayScattering(GISAXS).Eachoftheseexamplesisoptimizedtowardsobtainingspecificinformationaboutasystem.ThefocusofthisprojectisentirelyuponGISAXS.
GISAXS
GISAXSstandsforgrazingincidencesmallangleX‐rayscattering,andisparticularlywellsuitedtoprovidingdepthprofilingoflateralstructure,inourcaseregardingfluctuationsinthedensityofelectrons.Inthismodel,anX‐rayisshoneuponamultilayeredsystemwithasemi‐infinitesubstratelocatedbeneaththesamples.Thecriticalangleforthesubstratemustbelessthanthatofthematerialsaboveitto
 
ensuretheX‐rayentersthematerialsabove,butdoesnotpenetratethesubstrate.(ShowGISAXSdiagram)TheGISAXSgeometryreliesontheDistortedWaveBornApproximation(DWBA)tofindanintensityamplitudeoftheenvironmentduetoallthepossibledirectionsofmomentumscatteringinthesystem.TheBornApproximationstatesthatawavetravelingthroughascatteringpotentialcanbemodeledasvaryingfromtheincidentwavebyaverysmallamount.TheDWBAsimpleextendsthisapproximationtoawavethatistravelinginsideamedium(andisthusdistortedbyinteractionswiththismedium).
 
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 z
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BranchesofMomentumTransfer
http://www.gisaxs.de/theory.html
 
Asseeninthewavebornapproximation,thereare4distinctcontributionscomingfromthedifferentcombinationsofscatteringforthevariousbranchesoftransmissionandreflection.Thedifferentpossiblebranchesofscatteringareseenabove.Inthisexperiment,term2isourfocus.
IsolatedMomentumBranch
FromtheworkbyLee,Park,(
et.al 
2005
)
ithasbeenshownthatthecrosstermscanbeneglectedintheDWBA,anditissimplyscatteringaboutthedirectandreflectedbeamthataredistinctsetsofscattering.Thequestionatthispointishowtoisolateonlyoneofthesebeams.ThisismadepossiblethankstotheGISAXSgeometry.Asyoucanseeinthisdiagram(DIAGRAM),theX‐rayenterthematerial,andisreflected.ThegrazingincidencepartofGISAXSmeansthattheangleatwhichthisoccursisveryshallow,causingalongpathlengthoftravelwithinthemedium.Asaresult,scatteringfromthedirectbranchbecomesabsorbedbeforeitisreflected.Thisallowsusthelookat
 
thescatteringfromthereflectedbeamalone.Weareabletoisolatethemomentumtransferevenmorespecificallytothe
q
y
directionbyonlymeasuringthescatteringpatternwheretheangleofincidenceisequaltotheangleofreflection.Thisconditionensuresthezcomponentofthemomentumisconstant.Additionally,thedetectorisperpendiculartothexaxis,thisthexcomponenthasnoeffect(X‐rayalsoincidentinthisplane,sonoscatteringcanoccur).
 AbsorptionEffect
Asmentionedearlierwhilediscussingtheisolationofthereflectedbeam,theX‐rayundergoesabsorptionwhiletravelingthroughthematerialgovernedbyanabsorptioncoefficient.Thisabsorptiontermcausesscatteredbeamstoloseintensitythefurthertheymustgo.Asaresult,thescatteringmeasuredinthisexperimentbecomesasumofthescatteringfromalllayers,weightedtowardstheuppermostlayers.Depthprofilinginthisexperimentoccursbyexaminingthechangeinscatteringseenastheangleofincidenceisvaried(byverysmallamounts).Asthebeamentersonasharperangle,thepathlengthwithinthe
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