FS963-02

tilapia: Environmental Biology and

nutritional requirements
Kamal Moun and Kurt !" #osentrater$ %ort& 'entral !gri(ultural #esear(& )a*oratory$ +S,!-!gri(ultural #esear(& Servi(e
Mi(&ael )" Bro-n$ ,epartment o. /ildli.e and Fis&eries S(ien(es$ Sout& ,a0ota State +niversity
1ilapia is one o. t&e most -idely (ultured .is& in t&e
-orld" 'urrently$ .armed tilapia represents more t&an 234
o. -orld tilapia produ(tion 5F!6$ 20097$ and t&is (ontri-
*ution &as *een e8ponentially gro-ing in re(ent years"
Several .a(tors &ave (ontri*uted to t&e rapid glo*al gro-t&
o. tilapia" 1ilapia are easily (ultured and &ig&ly adapta*le
to a -ide range o. environmental (onditions" 1ilapia .eed
on a -ide variety o. dietary sour(es$ in(luding p&ytoplan0-
ton$ perip&yton$ 9ooplan0tons$ larval .is&$ and detritus"
!dult tilapia are prin(ipally &er*ivorous *ut readily adapt
to (omplete (ommer(ial diets *ased on plant and animal
protein sour(es" :n t&e +nited States$ t&e most (ommonly
.armed tilapia spe(ies are$ in order$ %ile 56reo(&romis
niloti(us7$ Mo9am*ique 56" mossam*i(us7$ *lue 56" aureus7$
and &y*rids 5;reen$ 20067" 1&is pu*li(ation provides a *rie.
overvie- o. environmental and nutritional requirements o.
tilapia"
EnvironmEntal rEquirEmEnts
1ilapia (an tolerate a -ider range o. environmental
(onditions<in(luding .a(tors su(& as salinity$ dissolved
o8ygen$ temperature$ p=$ and ammonia levels 5ta*le >7<
t&an most (ultured .res&-ater .is&es (an" :n general$ most
tilapia are &ig&ly tolerant o. saline -aters$ alt&oug& salinity
toleran(e di..ers among spe(ies" %ile tilapia is t&oug&t to
*e t&e least adapta*le to mar0ed (&anges 5dire(t trans.er$
>? parts per t&ousand in salinity7@ Mo9am*ique$ *lue$ and
red*elly 51" 9illi7 are t&e most salt tolerant 5El-Sayed 20067"
/it& t&e e8(eption o. %ile tilapia$ ot&er tilapia spe(ies (an
gro- and reprodu(e at salinity (on(entrations o. up to 36
parts per t&ousand$ *ut optimal per.orman(e measures
5reprodu(tion and gro-t&7 are attained at salinities up to >9
parts per t&ousand 5El-Sayed 20067" 1ilapia are$ in general$
&ig&ly tolerant o. lo- dissolved o8ygen (on(entration$ even
do-n to 0"> mgA) 5Magid and Ba*i0er$ >9237$ *ut optimum
gro-t& is o*tained at (on(entrations greater t&an 3 mgA)
5#oss$ 20007" 1emperature is a maor meta*oli( modi.ier in
t&ese .is&" 6ptimal gro-ing temperatures are typi(ally *e-
t-een 22B ' 522B F7 and 29B ' 5?CB F7@ spa-ning normally
o((urs at temperatures greater t&an 22B ' 522B F7" Most
tilapia spe(ies are una*le to survive at temperatures *elo-
>0B ' 530B F7$ and gro-t& is poor *elo- 20B ' 56?B F7" Blue
tilapia are t&e most (old tolerant$ surviving at tempera-
tures as lo- as ?B ' 5C6B F7$ -&ile ot&er spe(ies (an tolerate
temperatures as &ig& as C2B ' 5>0?B F@ 5Sarig$ >969@ Morgan$
>922@ 'aulton$ >9?2@ Mires$ >9937"
6t&er -ater quality (&ara(teristi(s relevant to tilapia
(ulture are p= and ammonia" :n general$ tilapia (an tolerate
ta*le >" )imits and optima o. -ater quality parameters .or tilapia"
parameter
Salinity$ parts
per t&ousand
,issolved
o8ygen$ mgA)
1emperature$
'B
p=
!mmonia$
mgA)
range
+p to
36
,o-n
to 0">
?DC2
3"2D>>
+p to
2">
optimum
.or gro-t&
+p >9
E3
22D29
2D9
F 0"03
re.eren(e
El-Sayed 520067
Magid and Ba*i0er
5>9237@ #oss 520007
Sarig 5>9697@ Morgan
5>9227@ Mires 5>9937
#oss 520007
El-S&a.ey5>99?7@ #ed-
ner and Sti(0ney$ 5>9297
S o ut & , a0ota Stat e univerSi ty G So u t& , a0 o ta 'o o per at ive e8t enSi on Servi 'e G uS,a
a p= range o. 3"2 to >>$ *ut *est gro-t& rates are a(&ieved
*et-een p= 2 to 9 5#oss$ 20007" !mmonia is to8i( to tilapia
at (on(entrations o. 2"3 and 2"> mgA) as unioni9ed am-
monia$ respe(tively$ .or *lue and %ile tilapia 5#edner and
Sti(0ney$ >929@ El-S&eri. et al"$ 200?7 and depresses .eed
inta0e and gro-t& at (on(entrations as lo- as 0"> mgA) 5El-
S&eri. et al"$ 200?7" 6ptimum (on(entrations are estimated
to *e *elo- 0"03 mgA) 5El-S&eri. et al"$ 200?7"
nutritional rEquirEmEnts
1&e lo- trop&i( level and t&e omnivorous .ood &a*its
o. tilapia ma0e t&em a relatively ine8pensive .is& to .eed$
unli0e ot&er .in.is&$ su(& as salmon$ -&i(& rely on &ig&-
protein and lipid diets *ased on more e8pensive protein
sour(es li0e .is& meal" :n addition$ tilapia are similar to
(&annel (at.is& 5:(talurus pun(tatus7$ in t&at t&ey (an
tolerate &ig&er dietary .i*er and (ar*o&ydrate (on(entra-
tions t&an most ot&er (ultured .is&" 1o ensure &ig& yield
and .ast gro-t& at least (ost$ a -ell-*alan(ed prepared .eed
is essential to su((ess.ul tilapia (ulture" Slig&t variations
e8ist among tilapia spe(ies$ *ut nutrient requirements are
primarily a..e(ted *y t&e si9e o. t&e .is&"
protein
Fis& do not &ave a spe(i.i( requirement .or (rude
protein 5'H7 per se$ *ut rat&er t&ey need a (om*ination o.
essential amino a(ids" 1&ere.ore$ t&e pro.ile o. dietary pro-
tein is important -&en .ormulating diets .or tilapia" ,ietary
proteins are used (ontinuously *y .is& .or maintenan(e$
gro-t&$ and reprodu(tion .un(tions" /&en .ed in e8(ess$
protein may *e used as energy@ &o-ever$ t&e latter .un(tion
is not desira*le *e(ause o. t&e e8pensive (ost o. proteins"
1&e protein requirement o. tilapia de(reases -it& age and
si9e 5ta*le 27$ -it& &ig&er dietary 'H (on(entrations re-
quired .or .ry 530D3647 and uvenile 530DC047 tilapia *ut
lo-er protein levels 52?D3047 .or larger tilapia 5/in.ree
ta*le 2" Hrotein requirements 5dry *asis7 o. tilapia o. various
spe(ies and si9es"
spe(ies
6" niloti(us
si9e 5g7
0"3-6?"3
C3"0D26"3
0"?CD22"?
C0"CD>0?"0
6" niloti(us 8
6" aureus
6" aureus
S" mossam*i(us
2>"3D?>"3
2"3D>6"6
>"?3D?"3
require-
ment 54
o. diet7
C0
C0
C0
30
2?
36
C0
Siddiqui et al"
5>9??7
1-i*ell and
Bro-n 5>99?7
/in.ree and
Sti(0ney 5>9?>7
Iaun(ey 5>9?>7
re.eren(e
!l =a.id 5>9997
and Sti(0ney$ >9?>@ Iaun(ey$ >9?2@ !l =a.ed&$ >999@ Siddiqui
et al"$ >9??@ 1-i*ell and Bro-n$ >99?7" !s -it& ot&er -arm-
-ater .is&$ tilapia require >0 essential amino a(ids t&at need
to *e supplied *y t&e diet 5ta*le 37" Essential amino a(id
requirements (an *e met *y t&e use o. a *alan(e o. *ot&
plant and animal proteins$ and i. ne(essary$ *y t&e in(lusion
o. synt&eti( amino a(ids in t&e (omplete .eed"
lipids
,ietary lipids provide a maor sour(e o. energy$
.a(ilitate t&e a*sorption o. .at solu*le vitamins$ play an
important role in mem*rane stru(ture and .un(tion$ serve
as pre(ursors .or steroid &ormones and prostaglandins$ and
serve as meta*oli9a*le sour(es o. essential .atty a(ids" /in-
.ree and Sti(0ney 5>9?>7 .ound t&at .or tilapia up to 2"3 g$
t&e optimum dietary lipid (on(entration -as 3"24$ de(reas-
ing to C"C4 .or .is& up to 2"3 g" Iaun(ey 520007 suggested
t&at to ma8imi9e protein utili9ation$ dietary .at (on(entra-
tion s&ould *e *et-een ? and >24 .or tilapia up to 23 g$
and 6 to ?4 .or larger .is&" !s -it& most .is&$ tilapia appear
to &ave a requirement .or n-6 5linolei(7 .atty a(ids$ and to
a lesser e8tent$ a requirement .or n-3 5linoleni(7 .atty a(ids"
,ietary lipids s&ould supply at least >4 o. n-6 .atty a(ids
51es&ima et al"$ >9?27" /&en dietary lipids (ontain (on-
ta*le 3" !mino a(id requirements 5dry *asis7 o. tilapia"J
amino a(id
!rginine
=istidine
:soleu(ine
)eu(ine
)ysine
Met&ionine(
H&enylalanined
1&reonine
1ryptop&an
Kaline
a
4 o. dietary protein
6" niloti(usa
C"20
>"22
3">>
3"39
3">2
2"6?
3"23
3"23
>"00
2"?0
6" mossam*i(us*
2"?2
>"03
2"0>
3"C0
3"2?
0"99
2"30
2"93
0"C3
2"20
Santiago and )ovell 5>9??7" #equirements estimated *y t&e
dose-response met&od" :nitial -eig&t 5>3 to ?2 mg7 and .inal
-eig&t 5>03 to>20 g7"
*
Iaun(ey et al" 5>9?37" #equirements estimated *y t&e -&ole
*ody and mus(le amino a(id (omposition met&od"
(
'ystine 0"3C4 o. dietary protein"
d
1yrosine >"294 o. dietary protein"
J %ote t&at t&e met&ionine requirement depends on dietary (ys-
tine (on(entration" :. (ystine is not in(luded in t&e diet$ part o.
met&ionine -ould *e used to synt&esi9e (ystine and i. (ystine is
supplied *y t&e diet$ t&e requirement o. met&ionine is redu(ed"
)i0e-ise$ tyrosine (an *e synt&esi9ed .rom p&enylalanine and
its supply *y t&e diet -ould de(rease t&e dietary requirement o.
p&enylalanine .or ma8imal gro-t&"
2
sidera*le amount o. polyunsaturated .atty a(ids$ attention
s&ould *e given to prevent o8idation o. t&e dietary lipids"
1&e resulting produ(ts o. lipid o8idation are to8i($ redu(e
t&e availa*ility o. ot&er nutrients$ and impa(t t&e quality o.
.is&-.les& produ(ts"
'ar*o&ydrates
Fis& do not &ave a spe(i.i( requirement .or (ar*o&y-
drates$ *e(ause amino a(id and .atty a(id pre(ursors (an
supply t&e required glu(ose via glu(oneogenesis" 1&is does
not imply t&at (ar*o&ydrates s&ould not *e in(luded in
tilapia diets$ &o-ever" 'ar*o&ydrates provide a relatively
ine8pensive sour(e o. energy (ompared to protein$ and t&eir
in(lusion (an improve t&e quality o. pelleted .eeds" 1ilapia
(an e..e(tively utili9e (ar*o&ydrate levels up to 30 to C04
in t&e diet$ -&i(& is (onsidera*ly more t&an most (ultured
.is& 5!nderson et al"$ >9?C@ 1es&ima et al"$ >9?37" Fi*er is
usually (onsidered indigesti*le$ as tilapia do not possess
t&e required en9ymes .or .i*er digestion 5alt&oug& some
(ellulase a(tivity .rom mi(ro*es &as *een .ound in t&e gut
o. 6" mossam*i(a7 5Sa&a et al"$ 20067" For t&is reason$ and
to attain ma8imum gro-t&$ (rude .i*er levels in tilapia diets
s&ould pro*a*ly not e8(eed 34 5!nderson et al"$ >9?C7"
1&e relations&ip *et-een (on(entrations o. dietary
protein and energy is important in .is& nutrition" ,iets
s&ould *e *alan(ed to ma8imi9e t&e use o. protein .or
gro-t& *y providing optimal amounts o. energy as (ar*o-
&ydrates and lipids" 1&e ratio o. protein to energy 5H:E@ mgA
K(al7 varies -it& .is& age and si9e" For tilapia t&e optimum
ratio .or gro-t& varies *et-een 6? and >23$ depending on
spe(ies and si9e 5/in.ree and Sti(0ney$ >9?>@ S&iau and
=uang$ >9907"
vitamins and minerals
Kitamins and minerals are essential .or normal .is&
meta*olism" Kitamin and mineral supplementation in t&e
.orm o. premi8es may *e *ene.i(ial in intensive systems$ al-
t&oug& most o. t&ese requirements are usually met natural-
ly in e8tensive and semi-intensive pond (ultures" =o-ever$
spe(i.i( requirements are not e8a(tly 0no-n .or all vitamins"
1a*le C gives ranges o. vitamin requirements t&at &ave *een
determined .or di..erent tilapia spe(ies and &y*rids" Be(ause
o. t&e limited 0no-ledge and t&e un(ertainty regarding
vitamin requirements$ it is di..i(ult to ma0e general re(om-
mendations as to -&at t&e optimal (on(entrations s&ould
*e$ *ut general minimum levels are (ommonly applied to
.eeds" ;eneral mineral requirements .or various tilapia
spe(ies are presented in ta*le 3" Basi( 0no-ledge o. mineral
to8i(ity and intera(tions among minerals is ne(essary -&en
supplementation is made" 1&oug& not spe(i.i( to tilapia$
e8(essive supplies o. (ertain minerals (an (ause de.i(ien(ies
o. ot&ers and in e8treme (ases to8i(ity to .is&" For e8ample$
&ig& dietary (al(ium (an (ause de.i(ien(ies in p&osp&orus$
9in($ iron$ and manganese" 6n t&e ot&er &and$ it &as *een
s&o-n t&at 9in($ (opper$ and selenium$ at &ig& (on(entra-
tions$ (an *e to8i( to various .in.is& spe(ies"
'on'luSion
!lt&oug& tilapia is one o. t&e most studied (ultured
.is&$ spe(i.i( dietary requirements are still la(0ing and
t&e intera(tion among nutrients and -it& (ulture (ondi-
tions are not (ompletely understood" :n addition$ nutrient
requirements may vary among tilapia spe(ies" 1&us$ readers
are reminded t&at t&is pu*li(ation is only a *rie. introdu(-
tion to tilapia requirements$ most o. -&i(& -ere derived
under (ontrolled environmental (onditions" More detailed
in.ormation (an *e .ound in t&e additional re.eren(es listed
*elo-"
3
ta*le C" Kitamin requirements 5dry *asis7 o. tilapia o. various spe(ies and si9es"
vitaminAspe(ies
Kitamin B> 5t&iamine7
6" niloti(us
6" mossam*i(us L 6" urolepsis &onorum
Kitamin B2 5ri*o.lavin7
6" aureus
Kitamin B6 5pyrido8ine7
6" niloti(us L 6" aureus
6" mossam*i(us L 6" niloti(us
si9e 5g7
D
D
>"C6DC2"0
0"2>D3>"6
0"23D2"2
0"23D3"C
Hantot&eni( a(id
6" aureus
%i(otini( a(id 5nia(in7
6" niloti(us L 6" aureus
Biotin
6" niloti(us L 6" aureus
Foli( a(id
6" niloti(us L 6" aureus
Kitamin B>2 5(yano(o*alamin7
6" niloti(us L 6" aureus
:nositol 5Myo-inositol7
6" niloti(us L 6" aureus
'&oline
6" aureus
6" niloti(us L 6" aureus
Kitamin ' 5as(or*i( a(id7
6" niloti(us
Kitamn ! 5retinol7$ :+A0g
6" niloti(us
6" niloti(us L 6" aureus
Kitamin , 5(&ole(al(i.erol7
6" aureus
6" niloti(us L 6" aureus
Kitamin E 5to(op&erol7
6" niloti(us
6" aureus
a
e
requirement
re.eren(e
5mgA0g o. diet7
C
2"3
3
6
>"2D9"3a
>3"0D>6"3*
6
>0
26D>2>(
0"06
0"?2
%#
C00
%#
>000
30
C20
3000
3?30D6920d
%#
323
>0.
>0D23e
)im et al" 520007
)im and )eamaster 5>99>7
)im et al" 5>9937
Soliman and /ilson 5>992a7
S&iau and =sie& 5>9927
S&iau and =sie& 5>9927
#oem et al" 5>99>7
Soliman and /ilson 5>992*7
S&iau and Suen 5>9927
S&iau and '&in 5>9997
S&iau and =uang 5200>7
S&iau and )ung 5>9937
S&iau and Su 520037
#oem et al" 5>990a7
S&iau and )o 520007
!*delg&any 5>9967
Soliman et al" 5>99C7
Sale& et al" 5>9937
=u et al" 520067
6M'onnell and ;atlin 5>99C7
S&iau and =uang 5>9937
Sato& et al" 5>9?27
#oem et al" 5>990*7
D
0"2>D>2"C
2"2D2?"?
0"9?D3"0
0"C>DC">
>"0DC2"2
0"3>DC"?
2"0D2>"9
0"62D6">
0"36DC"3
>"0D>?"0
>>"CD33">
>"6D9"3
2"3DC2"0
0"29D22"2
0"C9D2"?
2D>9"2
2?4 protein diet$ * 324 protein diet$ ( .ed eit&er glu(ose or de8trin diets$ d depending on -eig&t gain o. .is&$
.ed eit&er 3 or 64 lipid diet$ . .ed a 34 lipid diet"
J %#: not required"
C
ta*le 3" Mineral requirements 5dry *asis7 o. tilapia o. various spe(ies and si9es"
mineralAspe(ies
maor 5gA0g o. diet7
'al(ium
6" aureus
H&osp&orus
6" niloti(us
6" aureus
Hotassium
6" niloti(us L 6" aureus
Magnesium
6" niloti(us
6" aureus
tra(e 5mgA0g o. diet7
Nin(
6" niloti(us
6" aureus
'&romium
6" niloti(us L 6" aureus >"23D>3">
0"33DC"0
2
>C0
S&iau and )in 5>9937
S&iau and S&y 5>99?7
3">D22">
?"3D23">
20
30
M('lain and ;atlin 5>9??7
Eid and ;&oneim 5>99C7
20"0D3C"C
0"3D9"0
0"39
0"3
,a*ro-s0a et al" 5>9?97
#eig& et al" 5>99>7
0"22D3"3 2D3 S&iau and =sie& 5200>7
6">D32"0
D
F9
>0
/atana*e et al" 5>9?07
Kiola et al" 5>9?67
2"3D6>"3 2D2"3 #o*inson et al" 5>9?27@
6M'onnell and ;atlin 5>99C7
si9e 5g7 requirement re.eren(e
re.eren'eS
!*delg&any !" E" >996" ;ro-t& response o. %ile tilapia$
6reo(&romis niloti(us$ to dietary )-as(or*i( a(id$ )-
as(or*yl-2-sul.ate$ and )-as(or*yl-2-polyp&osp&ate" I"
/orld !qua(ult" So(" 22: CC9DC33"
!l =a.ed&$ O" S" >999" E..e(ts o. dietary protein on gro-t&
and *ody (omposition o. %ile tilapia$ 6reo(&romis
niloti(us )" !qua(ulture #esear(&" 30: 3?3D393"
!nderson$ I"$ !" I" Ia(0son$ !" I" Matty$ and B" S" 'apper"
>9?C" E..e(ts o. dietary (ar*o&ydrate and .i*re on t&e
tilapia 6reo(&romis niloti(us 5)inn"7" !qua(ulture" 32:
303D3>C"
'aulton$ M" S" >9?2" Feeding$ meta*olism and gro-t& o. ti-
lapias - some quantitative (onsiderations" pp" >32D>?C"
:n: Hullin #"S"K" and )o-e-M('onnell #"=" 5eds7$ 1&e
Biology and 'ulture o. 1ilapia" :')!#M$ Manila$ 1&e
H&ilippines"
,a*ro-s0a$ ="$ K" ," ;uent&er$ and K" Meyer-Burgdor.."
>9?9" !vaila*ility o. various magnesium (ompounds
to tilapia 56reo(&romis niloti(us7" !qua(ulture" 26:
269D226"
El-Sayed$ !"M" 2006" 1ilapia (ulture in salt -ater: Envi-
ronmental requirements$ nutritional impli(ations and
e(onomi( potentials" Eig&t& Symposium on !dvan(es
in %utritional !qua(ulture" %ovem*er >3D>2$ %uevo
)eon$ Me8i(o"
El-S&eri.$ M" S"$ and !" M" E)-Fe0y" 200?" E..e(t o. am-
monia on %ile 1ilapia 56" niloti(us7 per.orman(e and
some &ematologi(al and &istologi(al measures" Eig&t&
:nternational Symposium on 1ilapia in !qua(ulture"
'airo$ Egypt"
Eid$ !"E"$ and S" :" ;&onim ">99C" ,ietary 9in( requirement
o. .ingerling 6reo(&romis niloti(us" !qua(ulture" >>9:
239D26C"
F!6$ Food and !gri(ulture 6rgani9ation o. t&e +nited %a-
tions" 2009" 2002 F!6 year*oo0" Fis&ery and aqua(ul-
ture statisti(s" &ttp:AA---".ao"orgA.is&eryApu*li(ationsA
year*oo0sAen"
;reen$ B"/" 2006" 1ilapia .ingerling produ(tion systems" pp
>?>D2>0" :n: '" )im$ '" /e*ster 5Eds7" 1ilapias: Biology$
'ulture$ and %utrition" Food Hrodu(ts Hress" Bing&am-
ton$ %O"
=u$ '" I"$ S" M" '&en$ '" =" Han$ and '" =" =uang" 2006"
E..e(ts o. dietary vitamin ! or P- (arotene (on(entra-
tions on gro-t& o. uvenile &y*rid tilapia$ 6reo(&romis
niloti(us L 6" aureus" !qua(ulture" 233: 602D602"
Iaun(ey$ !" >9?2" 1&e e..e(t o. varying dietary protein level
on t&e gro-t&$ .ood (onversion$ protein utili9ation and
*ody (omposition o. uvenile tilapias 5Sarot&erodon
mossam*i(us7" !qua(ulture" 22: C3D3C"
Iaun(ey" K" 2000" %utritional requirements" H" 322D323" :n: M"
'" M" Beveridge and B" I" M(!ndre- 5eds"7 1ilapias: Biol-