Human body and organ

system
dr. Santosa Budiharjo, MKes., PA(K)
Anatomy
= the science of the structures and
relationships among structures
of the human body
historically, anatomy has its beginnings in
the first studies of the Roman physician
Galen
Physiology = the science of the body
functions, that is, how the different
parts of the body, e.g. organs, work
Definisi Anatomi
Anatomi = Ilmu mempelajari struktur tubuh
mns;
Ilmu Dasar Kedokteran; dengan pendiri
Anatomi; Hippocrates (460 377 BC):
Bapak Kedokteran
Istilah Anatomi digunakan oleh Aristoteles
(384 322 BC)
Yunani: An (a) + tomus = Anatome
Ana = ke atas; tomus = memotong/mengiris
= memotong/mengiris dan mengangkat ke
atas
Latin : dissecare; dis = hancur; lebur; secare
= memotong/mengiris; memotong/mengiris
sampai hancur (mengurai sampai habis)


Cakupan Anatomi
Mempelajari struktur, bentuk dan hubungan
bagian-bagian tubuh, baik yang dapat diamati
dengan mata telanjang dan alat tambahan
Objek yang dipelajari: cadaver (mayat) dan
manusia hidup
Cara mempelajari pada cadaver dengan skalpel
diurai dan diamati dengan mata telanjang;
pembuatan preparat jaringan dengan
mikrotome dan diamati dengan mikroskop;
pengamatan pada manusia hidup untuk
mempelajari Anatomi permukaan dan bagian
dalam tubuh dengan alat endoskopi serta
pencitraan organ (non destruktif), misal :
radiologi, USG, MRI
Anatomi & Ilmu terkait
Fisiologi ; Biokimia; Antropologi
Anatomi lebih spesifik :
Makroanatomi (Anatomi Makroskopik/Gross
Anatomy); Anatomi Mikroskopik
(Histologi & Sitologi)
Anatomi sistematik
Anatomi regional/Anatomi topografis
Anatomi fungsional
Anatomi perkembangan prenatal
(intrauterine) & postnatal (ekstrauterine)
Anatomi permukaan,Anatomi komparatif
Subdivisions of Anatomy
Surface anatomy
Gross (macroscopic)
anatomy
Systemic (systematic)
anatomy
Regional anatomy
Developmental
anatomy
Embryology
Histology
Cytology
Radiographic
anatomy
Pathological anatomy
Terminologi Anatomi
istilah khusus (nomenklatur) untuk
menamai masing-masing struktur
tubuh
Kata dari bahasa Latin dan Yunani
Nama menggambarkan:Singkat dan
tepat
Ahli Anatomi: Nomina Anatomica,
histologica & embriologica

Human body parts
Nomenklatur regionalis
Caput; collum; truncus; membrum
Caput: terdapat otak, kulit kepala dg capilli;
facies pd norma frontalis: rima
palpebrarum, sepasang nares; satu rima
oris
Collum: bentuk conus; basis caudal dg
badan; cranial dg kepala (facies)
Membrum: membrum superius & inferius
pars cingulum & liberum/extremitas)

Regiones et partes corporis
Regio capitis
Regio facialis
Regio cervicalis
Regio pectoralis
Regio abdominalis
Regio dorsalis
Regio perinealis
Regio membri superioris
Regio membri inferioris
Body Regions

Axial
caput, collum/cervix, and trunkus (torso;
thorax, abdomen, and pelvis

Appendicular membrum- limbs

membrum
membrum superius:
scapular; clavicular; deltoid; axilla;
brachium; cubiti; antebrachium;
carpus; manus (palmar/volar;
dorsum); digiti manus (pollux)
membrum inferius:
gluteal; inguinal;
femur; patella; poplitea;
crus; tarsal; pes (calcaneal;
plantar; dorsum; digiti; hallux)
Structural organizations of the body
organism level
system level
organ level
tissue level
cellular level
molecules level
chemical level

Structural Levels of Organization

Chemical level: atoms, molecules, and
macromolecules (biomolecules; proteins, fats,
even carbohydrates)
Cells: smallest living units of structure and function
in the body, contain organelles
Tissues: organization of similar cells that unite to
perform a common function
Organs: group of tissues that act as a single unit
to perform a special function
Systems: groups of organs that together perform
complex functions
The body as a whole: The big unit

sel
Unit struktural terkecil dlm tubuh manusia
Hidup dg prinsip keseimbangan miliu interna
dan externa (homeostasis)
Struktur/arsitektur sel: membran sel (dinding
sel) & protoplasma: protoplasma &
organella: misalnya: nucleus, ribosoma,
reticulum endoplasmicum kasar & halus,
badan Golgi, mitikondria, lysosoma
Nucleus : nucleolus & materi DNA
(kromosom)
CELL
beginning with basic anatomy, the structures of the
human body are organized on several hierarchical
levels, which are (from largest to smallest):
1. Organismal level
- highest level of organization
- all of the system of the body combine and work
together to make a functional organisms = the human
body
2. System level
- consists of related organs that have a common
function, e.g. digesting food or assuring successful
reproduction
- sometimes an organ, e.g. the pancreas, is part of
more than only one system
- 11 principal systems are found operating within the
human body
3. Organ level
- have a recognizable shape and unique function(s)
- composed of two or more different types of tissues

4. Tissue level
- groups of cells and their surrounding materials, e.g. ECM, that work
together to perform a particular function;
- 4 basic tissue types are classified within the human body:
a. Epithelial tissue
b. Connective tissue
c. Muscle tissue
d. Nervous tissue
- a special "tissue" is blood

5. Cellular level
- cells are the smallest living units of life; they are the smallest
structural
and functional units of the human body;
- contain specialized internal structures, called organelles


6. Molecular level
- are small structures that are made up from the joining
of two or more chemical elements; the smallest molecule is
hydrogen gas (H
2
)
- large molecules are often referred to as "macro-
molecules", e.g. DNA, glycogen in the liver, or ribosomes
within cells;
- important molecules of the human body are:
proteins, DNA, RNA, glucose, ATP,

7. Chemical level
- includes the atoms of the chemical elements important
to life which are: C, O, H, N, Ca, Na, K, Mg, Fe,

11 system Tubuh
1. Integumentary System
- includes the skin, oil and seat glands, hair, finger- and toe-nails
2. Skeletal System
- includes the bones, cartilage and the joints
3. Muscular System
- includes: skeletal muscles and tendons
4. Nervous System
- includes: brain, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), spinal cord
and peripheral nerves
5. Endocrine System
- includes: pineal gland, pituitary gland, thyroid gland,
thymus, pancreas, adrenal gland, ovaries/testis, fatty tissue,
6. Cardiovascular System
- includes: 1 heart, blood, blood vessels (arteries, veins),
capillaries


7. Lymphatic and Immune System
- includes: lymphatic fluid and vessels, spleen, thymus, lymph
nodes, tonsils, immune cells, e.g. T- and B-lymphocytes,
macrophages
8. Respiratory System
- includes: larynx, pharynx, trachea (windpipe), bronchus, 2 lungs
9. Reproductive System
- different in males and females:
Females: mammary gland, 2 uterine (fallopian) tubes, 2
ovaries, 1 uterus, 1 vagina
Males: 2 ductus (vas) deferens, seminal vesicle, prostate gland,
1 penis, 2 testis

10. Digestive System
- includes: mouth, salivary gland, esophagus, liver, gall bladder,
stomach, pancreas, small and large intestine, rectum, anus
11. Urinary System
- includes: 2 kidneys, 2 ureters, urinary bladder, urethra,

Human Body Systems

An organ system is a group of organs with a common function.
An organ is an atomically distinct tissue with a specific purpose.
Types of systems
Circulatory-Responsible for blood transport. (included lymphatic
system)
Muscloskeletal-Supports, protects, and moves the body.
Respiratory-Takes in oxygen, removes carbon dioxide.
Digestive-Breaks down food into a form that can be used by cells.
Endocrine-Makes and secretes horomones that regulate the functions
of the body.
Urinary-Maintains a cell's internal environment by removing waste
products.
Nervous-Communicates information within the body. Regulates and
coordinates bodily activities.
Reproductive-Continues human life by making more of the species.
Immune-Protects the body against foreign invaders.
Integumentary-"The skin system". Regulates temperature and
protects against injury and foreing invaders.

Types of cells

Cells are the smallest units that an organism can be divided into and
still retain the functions of life.
Nerve cells can be viewed as the "telephone system" of the body.
They carry electrical signals and messages to the various organs of
the body.
Muscle cells control movement. Muscle cells can be divided into
two types: skeletal and smooth. Skeletal muscle cells control
voluntary movements, while smooth muscle cells make up organs
that contract involuntarily.
Epithelial cells line the organs and mucous mebranes of the body.
Connective-tissue cells, as their name implies, are responsible for
"holding things together" and anchoring the structures of the body.
Cell environments
All cells live in and contain fluid. The only exceptions to this
statement are fat cells and skeletal cells.
Types of Cell Fluids

The Cellular Level
The human body is composed of trillions of cells closely functioning
together. A cell is also the smallest living unit in the body.
Although there are many different kinds of cells in the human body,
most of them contain a nucleus, a thick liquid called cytoplasm, and
enclosed by a very thin layer of cell membrane.
1. Nucleus
The nucleus is the control center of a cell. It contains DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid) molecules, which house the cells chemical
information. A DNA molecule is composed of millions of atoms,
structured in a double helix shape. Before a cell divides, its DNA
molecules replicate (i.e., copy themselves), to make sure that a
complete set of information can be passed to each new cell.
The nuclear membrane separates the nucleus from the other
components of the cell. However, the nuclear membrane contains
numerous holes called nuclear pores, which allow chemical contact
between the nucleus and the surroundings.
2. Cytoplasm
The cytoplasm is a transparent, jelly-like fluid that contains up to 90% water. It
houses the organellessome structures with special functions inside the cell. The
number and types of organelles depend on the functions of the cell.

A typical cell usually includes the following organelles:
Endoplasmic Reticulum The endoplasmic reticulum is a highly folded system
responsible for making and storing proteins and fats.
Ribosomes Although ribosomes are very small in size, they are usually
numerous in number, and can scatter among the cytoplasm or attach to the
endoplasmic reticulum. It is important for the synthesis of protein in the cell.
Golgi Body Golgi body is made up of membranes that store and release the
substances produced by the cell. Besides, it also makes lysosome.
Lysosome Lysosome is a reservoir that contains digestive enzymes. These kind
of enzymes can break down worn-out organelles and digest foreign substances.
During the early stages of development, lysosomes even destroy the cell that
surrounds them. This is called "self-digestion" or autolysis.
Mitochondrion Mitochondrion (plural: mitochondria) is an oval shape structure
with a heavily folded inner membrane (i.e., cristae). This is where aerobic
respiration takes place and energy is released. Mitochondria are often called
the energy warehouse of the cell.

. Cell Membrane
Cell membrane is formed by two layers of phospholipid molecules.
They act as a protective shield, allowing some substances to pass
through, but preventing the passage of others at the same time.
4. Cell Division
About 50 millions cells die in a second in the human body. At the
same time, they are replaced by the same number of new cells.
The life cycle of cells varies from one kind to another. For example,
cells lining the skin and the alimentary canal have to experience a
lot of wear and tear, and are almost replaced every 24 hours.
On the contrary, highly specialized cells such as the neurons (i.e.,
nerve cells) do not divide at all once they have been formed.
Cell division is the process by which cells reproduce.
There are two types of cell division: mitosis and meiosis.

Mitosis is the division of a cell nucleus to produce two
identical cells. It is the process that the body uses for
growth and repair.
Meiosis occurs in the reproductive system to produce
sex cells. It actually involves two cell divisions, one
after the other, to produce four new cells that are
genetically unique.
When cell division becomes uncontrolled, it may lead
to growths called tumors, which often spread out
rapidly, and even interfere with normal body
functioning.
Scientists believe that certain carcinogens, accidental
rearrangement of DNA molecules in a cell, and virus
infection can all be factors that trigger the action of
cancers.

Tissue

A tissue contains cells of similar structure and functions, and also other
substances, working together to carry out specific tasks. There are four
main categories of tissue in the human body:
Epithelial tissue is formed by special cells that cover the surface of the
body. It also forms the internal surfaces of many organs and glands. It has
the functions of protecting tissues, helping secretion, and disposing
substances.
Connective tissue can be found all over the body such as bones, cartilages,
ligaments, blood, and fats. It holds the different parts of the body
together, forming the human body structure, and transport substances to
different parts of the body.
Muscular tissue consists of fiber-shaped cells. It has the ability to contract,
and is responsible for the movements of different body parts.
Nervous tissue consists of neurons, forming a network to transmit
messages inside the body. It is responsible for carrying and controlling
electrical signals between the brain and different body parts.
When a tissue is damaged (e.g., tearing a muscle), its cells will divide to
repair the damaged area. However, the ability to regenerate varies from
one kind of tissue to another.

Tissue Types
Although our body parts are diverse in both structure and
function, they are all constructed from four basic tissue
types:
1. Epithelial tissue: Covers the body, lines the cavities of
the body and composes the glands.
2. Connective tissue: Connects and supports the structures
of the body, providing structural support and binding
organs together.
3. Muscular tissue: Has the unique capability to contract or
shorten, provides movement and heat for the body.
4. Nervous tissue: Composed of specialized cells that
respond to the environment by detecting, processing and
coordinating information.

Epithelial tissue is composed of tightly connected cells
arranged in one or more layers. Epithelial tissues covers the
whole surface of the body (it's your skin!) as well as lining
all cavities and forming glands. Epithelial tissues as many
functions including protection, sensation, diffusion,
secretion, absorption and excretion.
There are 8 different epithelial tissues types and they can
be divided into two groups, depending on the number of
layers in the tissue. Epithelial tissue that is only one cell
thick is called simple epithelium. If the tissue is two or
more cells thick it is known as stratified epithelium. The
shape of the topmost layer of cells determines the name of
stratified epithelium.
Epithelial tissue, regardless of the type, is separated from
the underlying tissue by a thin sheet of connective tissue,
known as the basement membrane (pictured in blue in the
image on the right.) The basement membrane provides
structure and support for the epithelium and binds it to
underlying structures.


1. Simple squamous: A single layer of squamous cells that are
thin, flat cells that resemble fried eggs. They form the lining of
cavities such as the mouth, blood vessels and lungs.
2. Simple cuboidal: One layer of cuboidal cells which are
plump cells that are roughly square or cube-like in shape.
These cells are found in glands, duct and portions of the
kidney tubules.
3. Simple columnar: A single layer of tall, skinny cells (column
shaped) that are found in places like the lining of the intestine
and gallbladder.
4. Pseudostratified columnar: This type of epithelium appears
to be composed of layers of cells, but is in fact composed of
just a single layer of cells, as each cell touches the basement
membrane. Pseudostratified columnar cells line the nasal
cavity, bronchi and trachea.

5. Stratified squamous: Many layers of cells are present, the topmost layer
is made up of squamous cells. Stratified squamous cells are often
described as looking like "piles of tiles." This is the type of epithelium that
makes up the skin surface and lining of the mouth, through and
esophagus.
6. Stratified columnar: Many layers of cells, the topmost layer is made up
of columnar cells. Epithelium of this type is found in the mammary ducts
and epididymus.
7. Transitional: Multiple layers of cells, but surface cells change from
rounded to flat to permit expansion when needed. Transitional epithelium
is found in the urinary bladder, renal pelvis and ureters.
8. Glandular: Columnar and cuboidal cells often become specialized as gland
cells which are capable of secreting substances such as enzymes, hormones,
mucus, sweat and saliva. Examples include the salivary, sweat and adrenal
glands.

Connective Tissue

The most diverse and abundant of tissue, connective tissue holds cells
together and supports the body.
Connective tissue is made up of cells suspended in a noncellular matrix. The
matrix (also known as ground substance) is secreted by the connective tissue
cells and determines the characteristics of the connective tissue.
It is the consistency of the matrix that determines the function of the
connective tissue. The matrix can be liquid, gel-like or solid, all depending on
the type of connective tissue.
Fibroblast cells are responsible for synthesizing protein fibers for the
matrix. Collagen fibers are strong, elastic fibers are flexible and reticular
fibers form a supportive framework for organs and basement membranes.
Types of connective tissue include:
1. Loose connective tissue: Thin and soft, this tissue contains many collagen
and elastic fibers in a jell-like matrix. The cells in loose connective tissue are
not close together. This tissue functions in binding the skin to underlying
structures.



2. Dense connective tissue: This tissue consists of two categories, dense irregular
connective tissue and dense regular connective tissue which differ on the
arrangement of the fibrous elements of the extracellular matrix.
Dense irregular connective tissue contains collage and elastic fibers which are
found running in all different directions and planes.
The dermis of the skin is composed of dense irregular connective tissue.
Dense regular connective tissue has extracellular fibers that all run in the same
direction and plane.
Muscle tendons are a type of dense regular connective tissue.

3. Elastic connective tissue: Made up of freely branching elastic fibers with
fibroblasts in the spaces between the fibers, this tissue allows the kind of stretch
that is found in the walls of arteries.
4. Blood: Considered a fluid connective tissues because the matrix of blood is not a
solid. The fluid matrix is called plasma, and formed elements of this tissue include
white blood cells, red blood cells and platelets.
5. Cartilage: This connective tissue is relatively solid and is a non-vascularized
tissue (does not have a blood supply).
There are three types of cartilage: hyaline cartilage, elastic cartilage and
fibrocartilage.
Hyaline cartilage is the most common type of cartilage, contains many collagen
fibers and is found in many places including the nose, betwween the ribs and the
sternum and in the rings of the trachea.
Elastic cartilage has many elastic fibers in the matrix and support the shape of hte
ears and forms part of the larynx. Fibrocartilage is tough and contains many
collagen fibers and is responsible for cushioning the knee joint and for forming the
disks between the vertebrae.
6. Bone: A hard, mineralized tissue found in the skeleton. The bone matrix
contains many collagen fibers as well as inorganic mineral salts, calcium carbonate
and calcium phosphate, all features that make it a very rigid structure. Bone cells,
called osteocytes, secrete the osteoid substance that eventuallys hardens around
the cells to form an ossified matrix. The osteon forms the basic unit of compact
bone.
7. Adipose tissue: Commonly known as fat, this tissue is related loose connective
tissue. Adipose tissue contains fat cells which are specialized for lipid storage. In
addition to storing energy, this tissue also cushions and protects the organs

Muscular Tissue

Muscle tissue is characterized by the ability to contract when stimulated.
When muscle cells contract, they get shorter, generating force and often
movement. Muscle cells contain filaments of two
proteins: actin and myosin. When these two filaments slide past each
other, the muscle contracts.
There are three different types of muscle tissue:
1. Skeletal muscle: This tissue is composed of long, multinucleate cells
with visible striations. Skeletal muscle allows movement by being attached
to bones in the body. Because skeletal muscle contraction is consciously
controlled, it is known as a voluntary muscle.
2. Smooth muscle: Composed of short, cylindrical cells that taper at the
ends, smooth muscles are commonly involved in involuntary
motions. Involuntary muscle contractions are not consciously controlled
and occurs in places like the digestive tract an in the walls of blood vessels.
3. Cardiac (heart) muscle: Cardiac muscle tissue contains short, branched,
striated cells, with one nucleus at the center of each cell. Cardiac muscle
cells within a fiber are joined to their neighbors by intercalated discs.
These specialized communication junctions facilitate the heart beat by

Nervous Tissue

Nervous tissue responds to changes in the environment and
conducts impulses to various organs in the body to respond to
these changes. Nervous tissue is found in the brain, spinal cord and
peripheral nerves that branch throughout the body.
Nervous tissue contains two types of cells:
1. Neuroglia: These cells do not send or receive electrical impulses,
but instead function to support neurons. They have important
functions such as providing physical support, providing nutrients,
removing debris and providing electrical insulation.
2. Neurons: These are the cells that carry electrical impulses. There
are three main types of neurons, which are classified by their
function. Sensory neurons conduct impulses from the sensory
organs (eyes, nose, ears, etc) to the central nervous system (brain
and spinal cord). Motor neurons are responsible for conducting
impulses from the central nervous system to the effector organs
(muscles and glands). Finally, interneurons are those neurons that
connect sensory neurons to motor neurons.l

Neuron

1. Cell body: Enclosed by a plasma membrane and central
nucleus, the cell body is responsible for producing all of the
proteins for the dendrites, axons and synaptic terminals. The
nucleus of the neuron is located in the cell body.
2. Dendrites: These structures branch out from the cell body
in a tree-like fashion. Dendrites function in receiving signals
from other nerve cells.
3. Axon: The axon is the main conducting unit of the neuron
and is capable of conveying electrical signals over long and
short distances. The axon transmits impulses from the cell
body to other cells. Individual neurons may have many
dendrites, but each neuron has only one axon.


neuron
Organ

An organ is a structure made of two or more
tissue that carries out a particular range of
tasks.
The heart, lungs, kidneys, stomach, liver,
muscles, etc. are some of the important
organs in the human body.


System

When a collection of organs that work
together to perform specific tasks, they form a
body system.
Human body system
1 The skeletal system consists of 206 bones. Its functions include:
Strengthen and support the body.
Protect important internal organs.
Provide attachments and levers for muscular contractions.
Produce blood cells.
Site to storage and liberate minerals (e.g., calcium, phosphate, etc.).

2. The muscular system contains three different kinds of muscle, which vary in shapes
and functions.
Skeletal muscles are attached to the skeleton, and can be moved according to the mind
(i.e., voluntary).
Smooth muscles is found on the wall of hollow organs inside the body, and cannot be
controlled by the mind (i.e., involuntary).
Cardiac muscles can only be found in the heart. Its strong and powerful contractions
are alsoinvoluntary.
Functions of the muscular system include:
Constitute different kinds of body movements through muscular contractions (e.g. heart beat and
breathing).
Maintain posture, stabilize joints, and produce energy.


3. The nervous system is composed of the brain, spinal cord, and millions
of nerve cells (i.e., neurons), which constitute a huge and complicated
network. The major function of the nervous system is to pass information
and nerve impulses from one part of the body to another.
4. The respiratory system consists of the lungs and the many air tracts of
different sizes. Cells and tissues inside the human body must be
continuously supplied with oxygen to produce energy for survival. The
main function of the respiratory system is to provide passages and room
for gaseous exchange.
5. The circulatory system is composed of the heart and a complicated
network of blood vessels. Its main function is to transport nutrients and
oxygen to the body tissues, and remove metabolic wastes from the cells at
the same time.

6. The lymphatic system is made up of a network of lymph vessels that
runs along the veins and arteries. It is a system to drain excess fluid from
the spaces between cells. Functions of the lymphatic system include:
Drain excess fluid from the spaces between cells (i.e., lymph) back to the
bloodstream.
The lymph node along the lymph vessels contains cells that can destroy
bacteria, and helps the immune response.

7. The digestive system contains the esophagus and certain organs
responsible for digestion (e.g., stomach, intestines, liver, and gall bladder).
It main function is to break down food into smaller substances for better
absorption.

8. The urinary system is made up of two horsebean-shaped kidneys, two
ureters, urinary bladder, and the urethra. Major functions of the urinary
system include:
Discharge metabolic wastes outside the body through urination.
Maintain internal balance of water and salt.
Adjust pH of blood.


9. The endocrine system is made up of special glands called
the endocrine glands. Its major functions is to secrete
hormones to regulate metabolism of the body, growth,
development and reproduction.
10. The reproductive system differs very much in male and
female. The major function of the reproductive system is
for the production of offspring.
11. integumentum system
Each of the above systems is responsible for the processes
that are essential for life. In physical education and sports, we
are particularly interested in the skeletal system, muscular
system, nervous system, respiratory system and circulatory
system.

Integumentary system
1. Structure organs
a. Skin largest and most important in Integumentary system;
16% body weight
b. Hair
c. Nails
d. Sense receptors; pain, pressure, touch, changes in temperature
e. Sweat glands
f. Oil glands

2. Functions
a. Protection
b. Regulation of body temperature
c. Synthesis of chemicals
d. Sense organ

integumentary system
The integumentary system is the largest organ
system in the human body, and is responsible for
protecting the body from most physical and
environmental factors.
The largest organ in the body, is the skin.
The integument also includes appendages, primarily
The sweat and sebaceous glands, hair, nails and arrec
tores pillorum (tiny muscles at the root of each hair
that cause goose bumps).

Support and
movement
B. Skeletal system
1. Structure
a. Bones
b. Joints
c. Ligaments, tendons,
cartilage

2. Functions
a. Support
b. Movement (with joints
and muscles)
c. Storage of minerals
d. Blood cell formation



C. Muscular system
1. Structure
a. Muscles
Voluntary or striated
Involuntary or smooth
Cardiac
b. Tendons

2. Functions
a. Movement
b. Maintenance of body
posture
c. Production of heat

Integration and
coordination
Nervous system
1. Structure
a. Brain
b. Spinal cord
c. Nerves
d. Sense organs


2. Functions
a. Communication nerve
impulses, sensory and motor
b. Integration brain or spinal
cord
c. Control motor impulses
d. Recognition of sensory
stimuli
3. System functions by
production of nerve impulses
caused by stimuli of various types
4. Control is fast-acting and of
short duration

nervous system
The nervous system consists of cells that
communicate information about an
organism's surroundings and itself.
The nervous system of humans is divided into
the central nervous system (CNS)
and peripheral nervous system (PNS
E. Endocrine system

1. Structure ductless glands
a. Pituitary gland
b. Pineal gland
c. Hypothalamus
d. Thyroid gland
e. Parathyroid glands
f. Thymus gland
g. Adrenal glands
h. Pancreas
i. Ovaries
j. Testes

1. Functions
a. Secretion of special substances
called hormones directly into the
blood
b. Same as nervous system
communication, integration,
control
c. Control is slow and of long
duration
d. Examples of hormone
regulation:
Growth
Metabolism
Reproduction
Fluid and electrolyte balance


Maintenance of the
Body

F. Circulatory system
(cardiovascular)
1. Structure
a. Heart
b. Blood vessels

2. Functions
a. Transportation
b. Regulation of body
temperature
c. Immunity (body
defense)


G. Lymphatic system
1. Structure
a. Lymph nodes
b. Lymphatic vessels
interstitial fluid, lymph, return to
venous blood
c. Thymus
d. Spleen

2. Functions
a. Transportation
b. Immunity (body defense)


cardiovascular system
Comprise : the heart, veins, arteries and capillaries.
The primary function of the heart is to circulate the blood,
and through the blood, oxygen and vital minerals are
transferred to the tissues and organs that comprise the body.
The left side of the main organ (left ventricleand left atrium) is
responsible for pumping blood to all parts of the body, while
the right side (right ventricle and right atrium) pumps only to
the lungs for re-oxygenation of the blood.

The heart itself is divided into three layers called
the endocardium, myocardium and epicardium,(liquidation)
which vary in thickness and function
lymphatic system
The main function of the lymphatic system is
to extract, transport and metabolise lymph,
the fluid found in between cells.
The lymphatic system is very similar to the
circulatory system in terms of both its
structure and its most basic function (to carry
a body fluid)

Maintenance of the
Body

H. Respiratory system
1. Structure
a. Nose
b. Pharynx
c. Larynx
d. Trachea
e. Bronchi
f. Lungs


2. Functions
a. Exchange of waste gas
(carbon dioxide) for oxygen
in the lungs
b. Area of gas exchange in
the lungs called alveoli
c. Filtration of irritants
from inspired air
d. Regulation of acid-base
balance

Maintenance of the Body

Digestive system
1. Structure
a. Primary organs
Mouth
Pharynx
Esophagus
Stomach
Small intestine
Large intestine
Rectum
Anal canal
b. Accessory organs
Teeth
Salivary glands
Tongue
Liver
Gallbladder
Pancreas
Appendix

2. Functions
a. Mechanical and chemical
breakdown (digestion) of food
b. Absorption of nutrients
c. Undigested waste product that is
eliminated is called feces
d. Appendix is a structural but not a
functional part of digestive system
e. Inflammation of appendix is
called appendicitis



Digestive system
The digestive system provides the body's
means of processing food and
transforming nutrients into energy.
The digestive system consists of the -buccal
cavity, esophagus, stomach, small
intestine, large intestine ending in
the rectum and anus.
These parts together are called thealimentary
canal (digestive tract).

Maintenance of the Body

Urinary system
1. Structure
a. Kidneys
b. Ureters
c. Urinary bladder
d. Urethra


2. Functions
a. Clearing or cleaning
blood of waste
products: waste product
excreted from body is called
urine
b. Electrolyte balance
c. Water balance
d. Acid-base balance
e. In male, urethra has
urinary and reproductive
functions


Reproduction and
Development

Reproductive system
1. Structure
a. Male
Gonads testes
Genital ducts vas deferens,
urethra
Accessory gland prostate
Supporting structures
genitalia (penis and scrotum)

b. Female
Gonads ovaries
Accessory organs uterus,
uterine (fallopian) tubes, vagina
Supporting structures
genitalia (vulva), mammary
glands (breasts)

2. Functions
a. Survival of species
b. Production of sex cells
(male: sperm; female: ova)
c. Transfer and
fertilization of sex cells
d. Development and birth
of offspring
e. Nourishment of
offspring


Male reproduction organs
The major reproductive organs of the male can be grouped
into three categories.
The first category is sperm production and storage.
Production takes place in the testes which are housed in the
temperature regulating scrotum, immature sperm then travel
to the epididymis for development and storage.
The second category are the ejaculatory fluid producing
glands which include the seminal vesicles, prostate, and
the vas deferens
The final category are those used for copulation, and
deposition of the spermatozoa (sperm) within the female,
these include the penis, urethra, vas deferens and Cowper's
gland

The human female reproductive
system
is a series of organs primarily located inside of the
body and around the pelvic region of a female that
contribute towards the reproductiveprocess.
The human female reproductive system contains
three main parts: the vagina, which acts as the
receptacle for the male's sperm, the uterus, which
holds the developing fetus, and the ovaries, which
produce the female's ova.
The breasts are also an important reproductive organ
during the parenting stage of reproduction.

Female reproductive organs
The vagina meets the outside at the vulva, which also includes
the labia, clitoris and urethra; during intercourse this area is
lubricated by mucus secreted by the Bartholin's glands.
The vagina is attached to the uterus through the cervix, while
the uterus is attached to the ovaries via the fallopian tubes.
At certain intervals, typically approximately every 28 days,
the ovaries release an ovum, which passes through the
fallopian tube into the uterus.
The lining of the uterus, called the endometrium, and
unfertilized ova are shed each cycle through a process known
as menstruation.

The Balance of Body Functions

Homeostasis:
constancy of internal environment
Feedback loops:
Stimulus Receptor regulator center effector change
caused eliminates stimulus control center shuts down
effector or stops stimulating effector
Negative: control within tight limits
Blood glucose levels: Insulin and glucagon

Positive: deal with rare or catastrophic events
Oxytocin and uterine contraction birth
Blood clotting


Disease loss of homeostasis


Local disease restricted to a specific body
part
Systemic more widespread, involves several
organ systems or even the entire body
Acute sudden occurrence and short duration
Chronic usually less severe, develop more
slowly, last longer