Ancient Egyptian architecture

For at least ten thousand years, the Nile valley has been the site of one of the most
influential civilizations in the world. Even today, its architectural monuments, which
include Great Pyramid of Kafu and the Great Sphinx, are among the largest and most
famous buildings in the world.

Contents
[hide]

• 1 Characteristics
• 2 The Giza pyramid complex
• 3 Karnak
• 4 Luxor Temple
• 5 Influence upon European architecture
• 6 References
• 7 See also

• 8 Gallery

[edit] Characteristics
Due to the scarcity of wood, the two predominant building materials used in ancient
Egypt were unbaked mud brick and stone. From the Old Kingdom onward, stone was
generally reserved for tombs and temples, while bricks were used even for royal palaces,
fortresses, the walls of temple precincts and towns, and for subsidiary buildings in temple
complexes.

Most ancient Egyptian towns have been lost because they were situated in the cultivated
and flooded area of the Nile Valley, although the dry, hot climate of Egypt preserved
some mud brick structures. Examples include the village Deir al-Madinah and the
fortresses at Buhen and Mirgissa. On the other hand, many temples and tombs have
survived because they were built on ground unaffected by the Nile flood and were
constructed of stone.

Thus, our impression of ancient Egyptian architecture is based mainly on its religious
monuments, massive structures characterized by thick, sloping walls with few openings,
possibly echoing a method of construction used to obtain stability in mud walls. In a
similar manner, the incised and flatly modelled surface adornment of the stone buildings
may have derived from mud wall ornamentation. Although the use of the arch was
developed during the fourth dynasty, all monumental buildings are post and lintel
constructions, with flat roofs constructed of huge stone blocks supported by the external
walls and the closely spaced columns.
The exterior walls, as well as the columns and piers, were covered with hieroglyphic and
pictorial carvings in brilliant colors. Many motifs of Egyptian ornament are symbolic,
such as the scarab, or sacred beetle, the solar disk, and the vulture. Other common motifs
include palm leaves, the papyrus plant, and the buds and flowers of the lotus.
Hieroglyphics were decoration as well as records of historic events.

[edit] The Giza pyramid complex

Main article: Giza pyramid complex

The Giza Necropolis stands on the Giza Plateau, on the outskirts of Cairo, Egypt. This
complex of ancient monuments is located some 8 kilometres (5 mi) inland into the desert
from the old town of Giza on the Nile, some 20 kilometers (12 mi) southwest of Cairo
city center. This Ancient Egyptian necropolis consists of the Pyramid of Khufu (also
known as the Great Pyramid and the Pyramid of Cheops), the somewhat smaller Pyramid
of Khafre (or Kephren), and the relatively modest-sized Pyramid of Menkaure (or
Mykerinus), along with a number of smaller satellite edifices, known as "queens"
pyramids, and the Great Sphinx.

The pyramids, which were built in the Fourth Dynasty, testify to the power of the
pharaonic religion and state. The Great Pyramid, which was probably completed c. 2580
BC, is the oldest and largest of the pyramids, and is the only surviving monument of the
Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. The pyramid of Khafre is believed to have been
completed around 2532 BC, at the end of Khafre's reign. The date of construction of
Menkaure's pyramid is unknown, because Menkaure's reign has not been accurately
defined, but it was probably completed sometime during the 26th century BC.

[edit] Karnak
Main article: Karnak

The temple complex of Karnak is located on the banks of the River Nile some 2.5
kilometres (1.5 mi) north of Luxor. It consists of four main parts, the Precinct of Amon-
Re, the Precinct of Montu, the Precinct of Mut and the Temple of Amenhotep IV
(dismantled), as well as a few smaller temples and sanctuaries located outside the
enclosing walls of the four main parts, and several avenues of ram-headed sphinxes
connecting the Precinct of Mut, the Precinct of Amon-Re and Luxor Temple.

The key difference between Karnak and most of the other temples and sites in Egypt is
the length of time over which it was developed and used. Construction work began in the
16th century BC. Approximately 30 pharaohs contributed to the buildings, enabling it to
reach a size, complexity and diversity not seen elsewhere. Few of the individual features
of Karnak are unique, but the size and number of features is overwhelming.

[edit] Luxor Temple

 Main article: Luxor Temple

Luxor Temple is a large Ancient Egyptian temple complex located on the east bank of
the River Nile in the city today known as Luxor (ancient Thebes). Construction work on
the temple began during the reign of Amenhotep III in the 14th century BC. Horemheb
and Tutankhamun added columns, statues, and friezes – and Akhenaten had earlier
obliterated his father's cartouches and installed a shrine to the Aten – but the only major
expansion effort took place under Ramesses II some 100 years after the first stones were
put in place. Luxor is thus unique among the main Egyptian temple complexes in having
only two pharaohs leave their mark on its architectural structure.

The temple proper begins with the 24 metre (79 ft) high First Pylon, built by Ramesses II.
The pylon was decorated with scenes of Ramesses's military triumphs (particularly the
Battle of Qadesh); later pharaohs, particularly those of the Nubian and Ethiopian
dynasties, also recorded their victories there. This main entrance to the temple complex
was originally flanked by six colossal statues of Ramesses – four seated, and two
standing – but only two (both seated) have survived. Modern visitors can also see a 25
metre (82 ft) tall pink granite obelisk: this one of a matching pair until 1835, when the
other one was taken to Paris where it now stands in the centre of the Place de la
Concorde.

Through the pylon gateway leads into a peristyle courtyard, also built by Ramesses II.
This area, and the pylon, were built at an oblique angle to the rest of the temple,
presumably to accommodate the three pre-existing barque shrines located in the
northwest corner. After the peristyle courtyard comes the processional colonnade built by
Amenhotep III – a 100 metre (328 ft) corridor lined by 14 papyrus-capital columns.
Friezes on the wall describe the stages in the Opet Festival, from sacrifices at Karnak at
the top left, through Ammon's arrival at Luxor at the end of that wall, and concluding
with his return on the opposite side. The decorations were put in place by Tutankhamun:
the boy pharaoh is depicted, but his names have been replaced with those of Horemheb.

Beyond the colonnade is a peristyle courtyard, which also dates back to Amenhotep's
original construction. The best preserved columns are on the eastern side, where some
traces of original colour can be seen. The southern side of this courtyard is made up of a
32-column hypostyle court that leads into the inner sanctums of the temple, which begin
with a dark antechamber.

[edit] Influence upon European architecture

Ancient Egyptian architecture has had influence upon the architecture and art of medieval
Europe, notably in the early 17th century, when Renaissance designers brought elements
of Egyptian art into the ornamentation of castles and other fine buildings. Examples
include cyriads. These sculpted women are used to support the ornamentation above the
pillars and columns. Examples of this phenomenon are found at Glamis Castle and
Muchalls Castle in Scotland, where caryatid figures are incorporated into the overmantle
plasterwork. These plasterwork interiors are considered the two finest in Scotland.[1]
[edit] References
1. ^ Archibald Watt, Highways and Byways around Kincardineshire, Stonehaven
Heritage Society (1985)

[edit] See also

• Egyptian pyramids
• Medinet Habu
• Edfu
• Valley of the Kings
• List of ancient Egyptian sites

[edit] Gallery

Egyptian workers Luxor Temple, from

pulling a giant statue The Giza pyramid the east bank of the Ceiling decoration in
on a sled field, viewed from the the peristyle hall of
Nile
southwest Medinet Habu

Obelisk at Karnak
Temple
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_architecture"

Economic growth
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
World GDP/capita changed very little for most of human history before the industrial
revolution. (Note the empty areas mean no data, not very low levels. There are data for
the years 1, 1000, 1500, 1600, 1700, 1820, 1900, and 2003.)

Economic growth is the increase in value of the goods and services produced by an
economy. It is conventionally measured as the percent rate of increase in real gross
domestic product, or GDP. Growth is usually calculated in real terms, i.e. inflation-
adjusted terms, in order to net out the effect of inflation on the price of the goods and
services produced. In economics, "economic growth" or "economic growth theory"
typically refers to growth of potential output, i.e., production at "full employment," which
is caused by growth in aggregate demand or observed output.

As economic growth is measured as the annual percent change of National Income it has
all the advantages and drawbacks of that level variable. But people tend to attach a
particular value to the annual percentage change, perhaps since it tells them what happens
to their wage cheque.

Contents
[hide]

• 1 Origins of the concept of economic growth

• 2 Measuring growth
• 3 Theories of economic growth
• 4 Literature
• 5 See also

• 6 External links

[edit] Origins of the concept of economic growth

In the early modern period, some people in Western European nations began conceiving
of the idea that economies could "grow", that is, produce a greater economic surplus
which could be expended on something other than religious or governmental projects
(such as war). The previous view was that only increasing either population or tax rates
could generate more surplus money for the Crown or country.
Now it is generally recognized that economic growth also corresponds to a process of
continual rapid replacement and reorganization of human activities facilitated by
investment motivated to maximize returns. This exponential evolution of our self-
organized life-support and cultural systems is remarkably creative and flexible, but highly
unpredictable in many ways. Since science still has no good way of modeling complex
self-organizing systems, various efforts to model the long term evolution of economies
have produced few useful results.

During much of the "Mercantilist" period, growth was seen as involving an increase in
the total amount of specie, that is circulating medium such as silver and gold, under the
control of the state. This "Bullionist" theory led to policies to force trade through a
particular state, the acquisition of colonies to supply cheaper raw materials which could
then be manufactured and sold.

Later, such trade policies were justified instead simply in terms of promoting domestic
trade and industry. The post-Bullionist insight that it was the increasing capability of
manufacturing which led to policies in the 1700's to encourage manufacturing in itself,
and the formula of importing raw materials and exporting finished goods. Under this
system high tariffs were erected to allow manufacturers to establish "factories". (The
word comes from "factor", the term for someone who carried goods from one stage of
production to the next.) Local markets would then pay the fixed costs of capital growth,
and then allow them to export abroad, undercutting the prices of manufactured goods
elsewhere. Once competition from abroad was removed, prices could then be increased to
recoup the costs of establishing the business.

Under this theory of growth, the road to increased national wealth was to grant
monopolies, which would give an incentive for an individual to exploit a market or
resource, confident that he would make all of the profits when all other extra-national
competitors were driven out of business. The "Dutch East India company" and the
"British East India company" were examples of such state-granted trade monopolies.

It should be stressed that Mercantilism was not simply a matter of restricting trade.
Within a country, it often meant breaking down trade barriers, building new roads, and
abolishing local toll booths, all of which expanded markets. This corresponded to the
centralization of power in the hands of the Crown (or "Absolutism"). This process helped
produce the modern nation-state in Western Europe.

Internationally, Mercantilism led to a contradiction: growth was gained through trade, but
to trade with other nations on equal terms was disadvantageous. This – along with the rise
of nation-states – encouraged several major wars.

The modern conception of economic growth began with the critique of Mercantilism,
especially by the physiocrats and with the Scottish Enlightenment thinkers such as David
Hume and Adam Smith, and the foundation of the discipline of modern political
economy. The theory of the physiocrats was that productive capacity, itself, allowed for
growth, and the improving and increasing capital to allow that capacity was "the wealth
of nations". Whereas they stressed the importance of agriculture and saw urban industry
as "sterile", Smith extended the notion that manufacturing was central to the entire
economy.

David Ricardo would then argue that trade was a benefit to a country, because if one
could buy a good more cheaply from abroad, it meant that there was more profitable
work to be done here. This theory of "comparative advantage" would be the central basis
for arguments in favor of free trade as an essential component of growth.

This notion of growth as increased stocks of capital goods (means of production) was
codified as the Solow-Swan Growth Model, which involved a series of equations which
showed the relationship between labor-time, capital goods, output, and investment. In this
modern view, the role of technological change became crucial, even more important than
the accumulation of capital.

Income per capita was essentially flat until the industrial revolution. This period of time
is called the Malthusian period, since it was governed by the principles explained by
Thomas Malthus in his "Essay on the Principle of Population." In essence, Malthus said
that any growth in the economy would translate into a growth in population. Thus,
although aggreagate income could increase, income per capita was bound to stay roughly
constant. The mainstream theory of economic growth states that with the industrial
revolution and advancements in medicine, life expectation increased, infant mortality
decreased, and the payoff to receiving an education was higher. Thus, parents began to
place more value on the quality of their children and not on the quantity. This lead to a
drop in the fertility rates of most industrialized nations. This is known as the breakdown
of the Malthusian regime. With income increasing drastically and population dropping,
industrialised economies drastically increased their incomes per capita in the next
centuries.

The late 20th century, with its global economy of a few very wealthy nations, and many
very poor nations, led to the study of how the transition from subsistence and resource-
based economies, to production and consumption based-economies occurred, leading to
the field of Development economics.

[edit] Measuring growth

The real GDP per capita of an economy is often used as an indicator of the average
standard of living of individuals in that country, and economic growth is therefore often
seen as indicating an increase in the average standard of living.

However, there are some problems in using growth in GDP per capita to measure general
well being.

• GDP per capita does not provide any information relevant to the distribution of
income in a country.
 • GDP per capita does not take into account negative externalities from pollution
consequent to economic growth. Thus, the amount of growth may be overstated
once we take pollution into account.
• GDP per capita does not take into account positive externalities that may result
from services such as education and health.
• GDP per capita excludes the value of all the activities that take place outside of
the market place (such as cost-free leisure activities like hiking).

Economist are well aware of these defeciencies in GDP, thus, it should always be viewed
merely as an indicator and not an absolute scale. Economist have developed
mathematical tools to measure inequality, such as the Gini Coefficient. There are also
alternate ways of measurement that consider the negative externalities that may result
from pollution and resource depletion (see Green Gross Domestic Product.)

The flaws of GDP may be important when studing public policy, however, for the
purposes of economic growth in the long run it tends to be a very good indicator. There is
no other indicator in economics which is as universal or as widely accepted as the GDP.

GDP increase since 1990 for the IMF "advanced economies".

Economic growth is exponential, where the exponent is determined by the PPP annual
GDP growth rate. Thus, the differences in the annual growth from country A to country B
will multiply up over the years. For example, a growth rate of 5% seems similar to 3%,
but over two decades, the first economy would have grown by 165%, the second only by
80%.

[edit] Theories of economic growth

The short-run variation of economic growth is termed the business cycle, and almost all
economies experience periodic recessions. Explaining and preventing these fluctuations
is one of the main focuses of macroeconomics.

A statistical relationship called Okun's law relates the growth rate of an economy to the
level of unemployment. On a Keynesian view, growth varies because of changes in
aggregate demand, causing firms to produce more or less goods for sale and hence
altering the size of the economy. The contrasting real business cycle model suggests that
in the short run growth depends on a series of shocks to the productivity of the economy,
e.g. an oil price rise making the economy generally less productive and reducing growth.

The long-run path of economic growth is one of the central questions of economics; in
spite of the problems of measurement, an increase in GDP of a country is generally taken
as an increase in the standard of living of its inhabitants. Over long periods of time, even
small rates of annual growth can have large effects through compounding (see
exponential growth). A growth rate of 2.5% per annum will lead to a doubling of GDP
within 28 years, whilst a growth rate of 8% per annum (experienced by some East Asian
Tigers) will lead to a doubling of GDP within 9 years.

The neo-classical growth model, developed by Robert Solow in the 1950s, was the first
attempt to model long-run growth analytically. This model assumes that countries use
their resources efficiently and that there are diminishing returns to capital and labor
increases. From these two premises, the neo-classical model makes three important
predictions. First, increasing capital relative to labor creates economic growth, since
people can be more productive given more capital. Second, poor countries with less
capital per person will grow faster because each investment in capital will produce a
higher return than rich countries with ample capital. Third, because of diminishing
returns to capital, economies will eventually reach a point at which no new increase in
capital will create economic growth. This point is called a "steady state." The model also
notes that countries can overcome this steady state and continue growing by inventing
new technology that allows production with fewer resources, but the model assumes
technological progress, "exogenizing" technology from the model.

Unsatisfied with Solow's explanation, economists worked to "endogenize" technology in

the 1980s. They developed the endogenous growth theory that includes a mathematical
explanation of technological advancement. This model also incorporated a new concept
of human capital, the skills and knowledge that make workers productive. Unlike
physical capital, human capital has increasing rates of return. Therefore, overall there are
constant returns to capital, and economies never reach a steady state. Growth does not
slow as capital accumulates, but the rate of growth depends on the types of capital a
country invests in. Research done in this area has focussed on what increases human
capital (e.g. education) or technological change (e.g. innovation).

There is common misconception that the positive correlation between high income and
cold climate is causal, when in fact it is a by-product of history. Former colonies have
inherited corrupt governments and geo-political boundaries (set by the colonizers) that
are not properly placed regarding the geographical locations of different ethnic groups;
this creates internal disputes and conflicts. Colonies in temperate climate zones as
Australia and USA did not inherit exploitative governments since Europeans were able to
inhabit these territories and set up governments that mirrored those in Europe. Thus, we
observe a correlation between high incomes and average temperatures but the correlation
is, again, not casual and a mere reflection of the product of colonization.
Jared Diamond attempts to explain, in his book Guns, Germs and Steel, why it was that
some groups were able to colonize others. He argues that Eurasia was much more
advanced because it had a larger surface area that had a common climate (oriented from
east to west as opposed to America which is oriented from North to South,) they had
more domesticable animals. This advantages in size and agro-technologies translated in
the long run into advantages that allowed them to become militarily stronger than other
groups.

Gatherer
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search

Gatherer is Wizards of the Coast's official database for the cards in its trading card game
Magic: The Gathering.

Gatherer, launched on September 23, 2004, was the first official online tool offered by
Wizards of the Coast that could be used to search for and sort data about the cards in
Magic. Prior to Gatherer, official resources for card data on the company's website were
limited to text-only "Oracle" lists, sortable lists of the cards in individual sets, and a
comprehensive collection of card images that could only be looked up individually by
name. Gatherer was preceded by several unofficial databases and search utilities, which
were created and run by enthusiasts.

Egyptian Religion

Cairo's unique city scape with its ancient mosques

Main article: Religion in Egypt
Religion plays a central role in most Egyptians' lives, as visitors to the country quickly
discover. The rolling calls to prayer that are heard five times a day have the informal
effect of regulating the pace of everything from business to entertainment. Cairo is
famous for its numerous mosque minarets and church towers.

Egypt is predominantly Muslim, at approximately 90% of the population, with the

majority being adherents of the Sunni branch of Islam.[1] A significant number of Muslim
Egyptians also follow native Sufi orders.[20] Christians represent about 10% of the
population, 95% of whom belong to Coptic denominations (primarily Coptic Orthodox,
but also Coptic Catholic and Coptic Protestant), while the remainder include Roman
Catholics, Greek Orthodox, Syriac Orthodox, and Armenian Orthodox, largely found in
Alexandria and Cairo.[1]

According to the constitution, any new legislation must implicitly agree with Islamic
laws. The mainstream Hanafi school of Sunni Islam is largely organised by the state,
through Wizaret Al-Awkaf (Ministry of Religious Affairs). Al-Awkaf controls all mosques
and overviews Muslim clerics. Imams are trained in Imam vocational schools and at Al-
Azhar University. The department supports Sunni Islam and has commissions authorised
to give Fatwa judgements on Islamic issues.

Egypt hosts two major religious institutions. Al-Azhar University (Arabic: ‫ )جامعة الزهر‬is
the oldest Islamic institution of higher studies (founded around 970 A.D) and considered
by many to be the oldest extant university. Egypt also has a strong Christian heritage as
evidenced by the existence of the Coptic Orthodox Church headed by the Patriarch of
Alexandria, which has a following of approximately 50 million Christians worldwide,
most importantly in Ethiopia and Eritrea (one of the famous Coptic Orthodox Churches is
Saint Takla Haimanot Church in Alexandria).[21]

Over seven million Egyptians follow the Christian faith as members of the Coptic
Church.

Religious freedom for Egypt's Coptic Christian community is hampered to varying

degrees by extremist Islamist groups and by discriminatory and restrictive government
policies. Until recently, Christians were required to obtain presidential approval for even
minor repairs in churches, but the law was recently eased.[22] Copts have faced increased
marginalization after the 1952 coup d'état. That however changed to some degree when
President Sadat appointed Boutros Boutros-Ghali, as the Egyptian Foreign Minister.
Prominent Copts on the cabinet now include Finance Minister Youssef Boutros Ghali and
Environment Minister Maged George. In addition, Naguib Sawiris, an extremely
successful businessman and one of the wealthiest people internationally is an Egyptian
Copt. Under the Mubarak government, Coptic Christmas (January 7) was recognized as
an official holiday in 2002.[23] The Coptic community however has occassionally been the
target of hate crimes and physical assault, most recently during attacks on three churches
in Alexandria.[24] In addition, many Copts continue to complain of being minimally
represented in law enforcement, state security and public office, and of being
discriminated against in the workforce on the basis of their religion.[25]

Egypt was once home to one of the oldest Jewish communities in the world. Jews partook
of all aspects of Egypt's social and political life; one of the most ardent Egyptian
nationalists, Yaqub Sanu' (Abu Naddara), was a Jew, as was popular singer Leila
Mourad. After the 1956 Suez Crisis, some 25,000 Egyptian Jews were expelled by Gamal
Abdel Nasser, their Egyptian citizenship was revoked and their property was confiscated.
A steady stream of migration of Egyptian Jews followed, reaching a peak after the Six-
Day War with Israel in 1967. Today, Jews in Egypt number less than 200.[26]

Bahá'ís in Egypt, whose population ranges between several hundred and a few thousand,
have their institutions and community activities banned. Since their faith is not officially
recognized by the state, they are also not allowed to use it on their national identity cards
(conversely, Islam, Christianity, & Judaism are officially recognized); hence most of
them do not hold national identity cards. In April 2006 a court case recognized the Bahá'í
Faith, but the government appealed the court decision and succeeded in having it
suspended on 15 May.[27]

There are Egyptians who identify as atheist and agnostic, but their numbers are largely
unknown as openly advocating such positions risks legal sanction. In 2000, an openly
atheist Egyptian writer, who called for the establishment of a local association for
atheists, was tried on charges of insulting Islam in four of his books.[28]