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C
H
A
P
T
E
R.,
4 5
E c o to x ic o lo g y
H E ID I
F O T H
I n s titu te o f E n v ir o n m e n ta l T o x ic o lo g y , M a r tin L u th e r U n iv e r s ity o f H a lle ~ W itte n b e r g , H a lle , G e r m a n y
IN T R O D U C T IO N
T h e p o llu tio n
o f w a te r, so il, a n d
a ir w ith c h e m ic a ls
in c r e a s e d
d ra m a tic a lly w h e n
in d u s tria l a n d
e c o n o m ic
d e v e lo p m e n t
s ta rte d .
B ecause
o f te c h n ic a l d e m a n d s ,
m any
n a tu ra lly
o c c u rrin g
com pounds
such as m etals,
coal, oil, sulfur, and
p h o s p h o r u s
a re ta k e n
fro m
th e ir
fossil storage
sites and
n e w
a n th ro p o g e n ic
c h e m ic a ls
are released
in to th e e n v iro n m e n t. In a g ric u ltu re , s y n -
th e tic
b io c id e s
a re
d is trib u te d
o v e r
th e
soil in
la rg e
q u a n titie s
t o
p ro m o te
th e
g ro w th
o f
u s e f u l
p la n ts ,
s u p p r e s s w ild p la n ts , a n d
c o n tro l p e s ts . C h e m ic a ls a re
r e l e a s e d
u n in te n tio n a lly
in to
th e
e n v iro n m e n t
fro m
perm eable
d e p o s its
at landfill sites
a n d
b y
th e
com -
b u s tio n
of fuel and
b u rn in g
o r h e a tin g
d u rin g
in d u s -
tria l p ro d u c tio n .
A s
a
c o n s e q u e n c e
of our
in d u s tria l
a n d
te c h n ic a l s ta n d a r d , th e c y c lin g o f n u trie n ts a n d
o f
n a tu ra l
c h e m ic a ls
i s
e n h a n c e d
a n d
n e w
m aterial
i s
brought into the system . In part, natural life cycles are
in te rru p te d ,
fo r
e x a m p le ,
b y
th e
e u tro p h ic a tio n
o f
sm all inland
lakes. In
other cases new
processes that
a re
s ta rte d
d e p le te
r e s o u r c e s
th a t c a n n o t b e
renew ed
w ith in
a
r e a s o n a b le
tim e , s u c h
a s
th e
p ro d u c tio n
o f
e n e r g y
u s in g
f o s s i l
r e s o u r c e s .
T he
q u e s tio n
i s
th u s
ra is e d w h e th e r th e d e g re e o f p o llu tio n o f o u r e n v iro n -
m ent
w ith
n a tu ra l
a n d
a n th ro p o g e n ic
c h e m ic a ls
m ig h t e x tin g u is h
o u r
c o -in h a b ita n ts
a n d
w h e th e r
in -
d u s tria l
e v o lu tio n
a n d
o u r
n e e d
fo r
n e w
in d u s tria l
s p a c e
w ill
p u s h
o u t
w ild life.
A
d e b a te
h a s
s ta rte d
a b o u t
w h e th e r
i t
i s
p o s s ib le
t o
c o v e r
th e
e c o n o m ic
dem ands
fo r h e a lth
a n d
social w elfare
o f to d a y 's
h u -
m ans and
a lso m a in ta in th e s u s ta in a b ility o f d e v e lo p -
m ent
a n d
a v a ila b ility
of nonrenew able
r e s o u r c e s
fo r
fu tu re g e n e ra tio n s .
E c o to x ic o lo g y is c o n c e rn e d w ith th e h a r m f u l e ffe c ts
o f c h e m ic a ls u p o n
ecosystem s, that is, the
c h ro n ic e f-
fe c ts
o f a n th ro p o g e n ic
c h e m ic a ls , c h e m ic a l m ix tu re s ,
a n d
n a tu ra l
s u b s t r a t e s
o n
organism s,
s tru c tu re s
w ith in
ecosystem s,
d iv e rs ity
o f
organism s,
p o p u la -
tio n s , a n d
c o m m u n itie s . E c o to x ic o lo g y th u s c o m b in e s
k n o w le d g e fro m
m a n y d is c ip lin e s , s u c h a s to x ic o lo g y ,
b io lo g y , c h e m is try , a n d
g e o lo g y . T h e a im
is to u n d e r -
s t a n d
th e
re g u la tio n
o f
ecosystem s
i n
d e ta il
a n d
t o
r e c o g n iz e
a n th ro p o g e n ic
in flu e n c e s
o n
th is
p r o c e s s
w ith in
th is
w ide
fie ld .
E n v iro n m e n ta l
d e v a s ta tio n
c a u s e d
b y
hum an
a c tiv ity
i s
t o
b e
blocked, harm ful
e v e n ts s h o u ld b e p re d ic te d
c o rre c tly , a n d c o n c e p ts a re
t o
b e
d e v e lo p e d
th a t w ill m a in ta in
th e
organism s
o f
ecosystem s w ithin
th e ir r a n g e s o f to le ra n c e .
S P E C IF IC
A S P E C T S
O F
E N V IR O N M E N T A L
T O X IC IT Y
T he
b a s ic
to x ic o lo g ic a l c o n c e p ts
of how
c h e m ic a ls
act on the physiological functions of cells, organs, and
in d iv id u a ls ,
a c u te ly
o r c h ro n ic a lly
e x p o s e d ,
c a n
a ls o
b e a p p lie d
to th e u n d e rs ta n d in g
of the harm ful effects
o f c h e m ic a ls
o n
ecosystem s.
Im p o rta n t
d e te rm in a n ts
fo r th e
o u tc o m e
a re
th e re fo re
th e
am ount
of release
(to ta l in p u t), th e
m echanism
o f a c tio n
(to x ic o d y n a m -
i c s ) ,
a n d
th e
f a t e
o f
th e
fo re ig n
com pounds
i n
th e
e n tire
ecosystem , w hich
ta k e s
in to
a c c o u n t
d is trib u -
tio n ,
re te n tio n ,
a n d
d e c o m p o s itio n
(to x ic o k in e tic s ).
H ow ever, som e events are specific to ecosystem s and
c a n n o t
b e
r e c o g n iz e d
u s in g
c la s s ic
m e th o d s
t o
te s t
c h e m ic a ls fo r to x ic ity .
T O X IC O L O G Y
1 0 6 7
C o p y r i g h t \ue0009
1999 A cadem ic P ress.
A ll rig h ts o f re p ro d u c tio n
in any form
r e s e r v e d .
1 0 6 8
F o th
G ases / particles from com bustion of
o il, c o a l, w o o d
furnace top gas from srneltm g,
gases / sm oke from industrial production /
p ro c e s s in g
A IR
e v a p o ra tio n //ra in
~ ~ e v a p o ra tio n
S O IL
" '~
\ue0009
W ATER
~
~ 'ra in
%
f e r t i l i z e r s
s e w a g e o u tle t
b io c id e s
off-shore deposits of w aste
in d u s tria l h a z a rd s
in d u s tria l h a z a rd s
, k
9
m ass transfer b etw een air, w ater, soil
f a te o f p o llu ta n ts in e c o s y s te m s
(b io tic / a b io tic tra n s fo rm a tio n , b in d in g to th e
m atrix , rem o b ilisatio n )
la te o n s e t o f to x ic ity
lo n g -ra n g e tra n s p o rt, s lo w d is trib u tio n
b io c o n c e n tra tio n in e c o s y s te m s ,
b io a c c u m u la tio n in th e f o o d c h a in
change o f the structure o f ecosystem s
d e v a s ta tio n o f o rg a n is m s
a d a p ta tio n / s e le c tio n / r e s is ta n c e
re p ro d u c tiv e to x ic ity
A ll ecosystem s together form
th e b io s p h e re
a n d
a ll
p e r s i s t e n t
c h e m ic a ls
th a t
a re
b ro u g h t
in to
th e
b io -
s p h e r e
b y
hum an
a c tiv ity
w ill rem ain
th e re . T h e
ic e
o f th e p o la r re g io n s is re la tiv e ly h ig h ly
c o n ta m in a te d
w ith
e n v iro n m e n ta l c o m p o u n d s
th a t a re d e p o s ite d
i n
th is a re a
b y
c o n d e n s a tio n
fro m
th e
a ir. T h is e n v iro n -
m ent
is an
im p o rta n t
a rc h iv e
a n d
re fle c ts
h o w
e n v i-
ro n m e n ta l c o n ta m in a tio n
b y
g e o c h e m ic a l a n d
hum an
a c tiv ity
h a s
d e v e lo p e d .
A part
fro m
th is
lo n g -ra n g e
m ovem ent
o f
c h e m ic a ls
in to
re g io n s
fa r
aw ay
fro m
in d u s tria l s e ttin g s , a n o th e r im p o r ta n t p o in t is th a t th e
harm ful effects on
the environm ent cannot be
sim p ly
s to p p e d
w hen
th e
c a u s a tiv e
a g e n ts
a re
r e c o g n iz e d .
R e m e d ia tio n
o f e n v iro m e n ta l
p o llu tio n
i s
a
c o m p le x
p ro b le m
(Fig. 1). Furtherm ore,
th e
c o n ta m in a tio n
o f
e c o s y s te m s o fte n in v o lv e s m a n y u n n a tu r a l c o m p o u n d s
a n d
d e te c tio n
o f
th e
m ost
im p o rta n t
c o n ta m in a n t
w ith in
th e
c o m p le x
m ix tu re
c o n s titu te s
a
p ro b le m .
H ow ever,
s tra te g ie s
fo r re m e d ia tio n
a im
a t d e te c tin g
th e le a d in g c o m p o u n d
w ith re s p e c t to th e a c tiv ity a n d
th e
a r e a
th a t is m o s t c o n ta m in a te d
b e fo re
efforts that
m ay be lim ited in tim e and
c o s t c a n b e in v e s tig a te d .
T he
r i s k
fo r
e n v iro n m e n ta l
to x ic ity
is p a rtic u la rly
h ig h fo r c o m p o u n d s th a t h a v e h ig h b io lo g ic a l a c tiv ity ,
a re
p e r s i s t e n t
i n
ecosystem s,
a n d
c a n
b e
b io c o n c e n -
tra te d
b e c a u s e
o f
th e ir
lip o p h ilic ity
a n d
s ta b ility
a g a in s t m e ta b o lic
in a c tiv a tio n . T h e s e
com pounds
a re
a c c u m u la te d
i n
th e
fa t
a n d
lip id -ric h
tis s u e
o f
c o n -
sum ers
a n d
m ay
b e
b io c o n c e n tra te d
a lo n g
th e
fo o d
c h a in . T h e
e c o to x ic o lo g ic a l im p o r ta n c e ,
fo r e x a m p le ,
o f te tra c h lo ro d ib e n z o -p -d io x in

(T C D D ) a n d p o ly c y c lic arom atic hydrocarbons (PA H s) is caused by their abil- i t y

t o
in d u c e
g e n e
e x p r e s s io n
a n d
t o
in itia te
e v e n ts
le a d in g
t o
tum ors.
C e rta in
p e s tic id e s
rem ain
p e r s i s t -
e n t
i n
th e
s o il
a n d
u n d e r g o
lo n g -ra n g e
m o v e m e n t,
to g e th e r w ith
th e
tra n sp o rt
of other substrates
i n
th e
e c o s y s te m s . L ip o p h ilic
p e r s i s t e n t
com pounds
rem ain
i n
th e
a q u a tic
a n d
terrestrial food
c h a in s
a n d
fin a lly
a c c u m u la te
s u b s ta n tia lly ,
e s p e c ia lly
i n
organism s
a t
high trophic levels. A s a consequence, high concentra-
tio n s o f th e s e
p o llu ta n ts
are present in the
tissue and
m ilk o f p re d a to rs
th a t a re a t th e to p
o f th e fo o d
c h a in
p y ra m id . T h is b io c o n c e n tra tio n
fa c to r is v e r y h ig h fo r
s o m e p o llu ta n ts
(e.g., 105 for D D T ).
In c o n c lu s io n , a sp e c ific fe a tu re o f p e rs is ta n t p o llu t-
a n ts is th a t th e y a re d is trib u te d

o v e r a lm o s t th e e n tire b io s p h e re , b u t th e y a re n o t u n ifo rm ly c o n c e n tra te d o r d ilu te d . D u e to in te ra c tio n s b e tw e e n b io tic a n d a b io tic c o m p o n e n ts , s o m e p o llu ta n ts

a re tra p p e d
w ith in
s e d -
im en ts,
b io c o n c e n tra te d
w ith in
t i s s u e s ,
a n d
c o n c e n -
tra te d
a t
p a rtic u la r
p la c e s .
A lth o u g h
m any
com -
p o u n d s
a re
s p r e a d
w ith in
ecosystem s, som e
o f th e m
h a v e
s p e c ific
b io lo g ic a l a c tiv itie s
a n d
c a n
b e
c o n s id -
e r e d
to b e le a d in g
com pounds
o f e c o to x ic o lo g ic a l im -
p o r ta n c e .
A ssessm ent
o f
th e
r i s k
fo r
e n v iro n m e n ta l
to x ic ity
dem ands
th a t in fo rm a tio n
o n
m any
d iffe re n t
le v e ls o f th e e c o s y s te m
b e p ro v id e d .
P o llu tio n
o f
E cosystem s
A
c h a ra c te ris tic
o f
p o llu ta n ts
i s
th e ir
m o b ility ,
w h ic h
r e s u l t s
fro m
th e
in te n s e
m ass
tra n sp o rt
b e -
E c o to x ic o lo g y
1 0 6 9
tw e e n
th e
a q u a tic
a n d
terrestrial system s and
the air.
G aseous
p o llu ta n ts , s u c h
as C O 2, SO 2, N O K ,m ethane;
v o la tile
com pounds
or com pounds
a b s o r b e d

to parti- cles, such as VOCs (volatile organic com pounds); pes- tic id e s; P C B s (p o ly c h lo rin a te d

b ip h e n y ls ); a n d
P A H s,
a re
t r a n s f e r r e d
b y
c irc u la tio n
i n
th e
atm osphere.
I n
th e tro p o s p h e re
(th e lo w e r p a rt o f th e a tm o s p h e re , u p
t o
1 0 -1 1
k m ), th e
m ain
c irc u la tio n
i n
air is predom i-
n a n tly
a h o riz o n ta l s tre a m , a n d
th e v e rtic a l tra n s fe r o f
a ir m a s s b e tw e e n
th e tro p o s p h e re
a n d
s tr a to s p h e r e
i s
lo w . A s a c o n s e q u e n c e , p o llu ta n ts
in a ir u n d e r g o
r e l -
a tiv e ly
fa st lo n g -ra n g e
m ovem ents,
w hereas
th e
v e r -
tic a l
d iffu s io n
o f
v o la tile
com pounds
i s
v e r y
slow .
T his is a m ain
r e a s o n
fo r th e d e s tro y in g
effect of flou-
ro h y d ro c a rb o n s
o n th e o z o n e la y e r in th e s tra to s p h e re
h a v in g
becom e
v is ib le
o n ly
y e a r s
after the
r e le a s e
o f
th e s e re a c tiv e p o llu ta n ts . D e s p ite th e fa c t th a t th e u s e
o f
flu o ro h y d ro c a rb o n s
h a s
b e e n
b a n n e d
o r
a t
le a s t
re s tric te d ,
th e s e
e c o to x ic
e ffe c ts
still persists
b e c a u s e
these com pounds
have already been
r e le a s e d
in to th e
lo w e r la y e r o f th e a tm o s p h e r e
a n d
w ill n o w
c o n tin u e
to diffuse vertically. It is u n k n o w n
w hat effects m ight
b e
c a u s e d
b y
m odern
s p a c e
te c h n o lo g y
th ro u g h
w h ic h
h y d r a z in e ,
h y d ra z in e
p r o d u c ts ,
a n d

m etals, m o s tly a lu m in u m , a re re le a s e d , e s p e c ia lly in to th e u p - p e r la y e r o f th e a tm o s p h e re .

C h e m ic a ls
in the air are w ashed
out by
r a i n
or are
d e p o s ite d
w ith
p a rtic le s
a n d
r e a c h
s u r f a c e
w a te r
o r
th e
s o il.
M any
p e r s is te n t
w a te r-s o lu b le
com pounds
are w ashed
fro m
th e
la n d
a n d
r e a c h
th e
a q u a tic
s y s -
tem .
T he
a q u a tic
system s
a re
c o n ta m in a te d
a ls o
b y
d e p o s itio n
fro m
th e
a ir
b u t
th e
b u r d e n
com es
fro m
d ire c t in p u t fro m
th e o ffsh o re d e p o s itio n
o f c h e m ic a ls
a n d
fro m
th e o u tfa ll o f s e w a g e . T h e m a in
p re c a u tio n -
a ry
m easure
t o
r e d u c e
e n v iro n m e n ta l
to x ic ity
b y
d u m p in g
o f w a ste in to th e sea is d ilu tio n w h ic h is still
c o m m o n ly
a p p lie d
to acids, bases, highly
to x ic c h e m -
ic a ls
s e a le d
in to
c o n ta in e rs ,
a n d
s e a le d
ra d io a c tiv e
w aste. In case the w aste
is r e le a s e d , th e h u g e
m ass of
seaw ater
is th o u g h t
t o
p r e v e n t
th e
com pounds
fro m
e x e rtin g
( h u m a n ) to x ic ity .
S o ils a r e
p o llu te d
m a in ly
b y
th e
d ire c t a p p lic a tio n
o f
h e rb ic id e s ,
in s e c tic id e s ,
a n d
f e r t i l i z e r s
a n d
th e ir
c o n ta m in a n ts
d u rin g
m odern
a g ric u ltu re .
I n
re g io n s
w h e re th e m in in g
a n d
s m e ltin g o f m e ta l o re s a re c o m -
m on, landfill sites are used
to deposit the overburden,
sm eltin g
s la g ,
a n d
re m n a n ts
o f
p o o r
o r e .
A n o th e r
s o u r c e
o f c o n ta m in a tio n
o f s o ils is p a rtic le s
a n d
d u s t
fro m
c h im n e y s
a n d
w ashout
fro m
d e p o s its
of indus-
trial and
m u n ic ip a l w a s te . W a te r-s o lu b le
com pounds,
m e ta l
(o x id e s), m in e ra l
salts, and
re m n a n ts
fro m
th e
chem ical industry
a re b r o u g h t in to
th e u p p e r la y e r o f
soils. T his
b u r d e n
o f c o n ta m in a n ts
i s
o fte n
re ta in e d
th e re b y
c o m p le x a tio n
w ith
m o stly
in o rg a n ic
com po-
n e n ts
or by
a b s o rp tio n
t o
th e
o rg a n ic
m atter
of soils.
T h e s e
s t o r e s
c a n
b e
re m o b iliz e d
w hen
th e
lo c a l c o n -
d itio n s
a re
c h a n g e d
(e.g., b y
a c id ific a tio n ,
c h a n g e
i n
th e
w a te r
c o n te n t,
a c c e s s
t o
o x y g e n ,
o r
s h i f t
i n
th e
s tru c tu re
of m icroorganism s). A fterw ard, this fraction
can be taken
u p
b y
th e ro o ts a n d
e n te r th e b io s p h e re
th ro u g h
the terrestrial food
c h a in v ia p la n ts .
F a te o f P o llu ta n ts
i n
E cosystem s
L o c a l c o n c e n tra tio n s
o f p o llu ta n ts
i n
so il o r w a te r
a re s tro n g ly d e p e n d e n t o n m a n y
p a ra m e te rs : th e ty p e
of release
( e .g ., g a s e o u s
com pounds
fro m
chim neys,
le a k a g e fro m
w aste
d e p o s its , a n d
w a s h o u t fro m
a g ri-
c u ltu ra l
la n d ), th e
a m o u n ts
th a t h a v e
b e e n
r e le a s e d ,
the frequency
(p e rm a n e n tly , p e rio d ic a lly , o r b y
a c u te
in c id e n ts ), a n d
th e p h y s ic o c h e m ic a l fe a tu re s (e .g ., v o l-
a tility , a ffin ity fo r b e in g
a d s o r b e d
o n to
a surface, and
p a rtitio n
c o e ffic ie n t b e tw e e n
p h a s e s ) .
Im p o rta n t
f a c -
tors from
th e
e c o s y s te m
are the
te m p e ra tu re ,
pH , re-
d u c tio n -o x id a tio n
c o n d itio n s ,
d e n s ity
o f
p a rtic le s ,
s e d im e n ta tio n , a n d
type of norm al nutrient cycling.
T h e te n d e n c y
of m olecules to escape from
a partic-
u la r p h a s e
or com partm ent
(fu g a c ity ) le a d s fin a lly
t o
a w idespread,
som etim es
e v e n
g lo b a l, d is trib u tio n
o f
p e rs is te n t p o llu ta n ts
w ith in
th e
ecosystem s. Fugacity
m o d e ls
d e s c r ib e
th e
d is trib u tio n
o f
e n v iro n m e n ta l
chem icals. Equilibrium
is r e a c h e d
w hen
th e
c h e m ic a l
h a s th e s a m e
fu g a c ity
in a ll p h a s e s . H o w e v e r , in fa c t,
p o llu ta n ts
a re n o t u n ifo rm ly
d is trib u te d
b e tw e e n
a n d
w ith in
so il, w a te r, a n d
air because formation
o f in s o l-
u b le
c o m p le x e s , in c o rp o ra tio n
in to
organism s, depo-
s itio n in to s e d im e n ts , o r tra n s fe r a lo n g th e fo o d
c h a in
m ay
le a d
to o n ly
te m p o ra ry
re te n tio n
of com pounds,
w h ic h
m ay
b e
re m o b iliz e d
w hen
th e lo c a l c o n d itio n s
h a v e
c h a n g e d
a c c o rd in g ly . T h e
a v a ila b ility
o f c h e m i-
cals in
ecosystem s
is te rm in a te d
b y
a b io tic
a n d
b io tic
tran sfo rm atio n
o r
alm ost
perm anent
c o m p le x a tio n
w ith
lig a n d s .
A lto g e th e r,
th e
r e a l
e x p o s u r e
m ay

b e h ig h ly v a ria b le , w h ic h is a n im p o rta n t p o in t w h e n th e m o n ito rin g

o f p o llu tio n
is d e s ig n e d .
M o le c u la r
m o d ific a tio n s
o f
e n v iro n m e n ta l
p o llu t-
a n ts
o c c u r
i n
ecosystem s
b y
a b io tic
tra n s fo rm a tio n s
d u e
t o
p h o to ly s is , h y d ro ly s is , a n d
r e d o x
re a c tio n s
o r
b y
b io tic
tran sfo rm atio n s.
A b io tic
p h o to ly s is
is initi-
a te d
i n
th e
atm osphere
e ith e r b y
d ire c t a b s o rp tio n
o f
lig h t o r b y
re a c tio n
w ith
p h o to o x id a n ts ,
s u c h
as hy-
d ro x y l
ra d ic a ls ,
p e r o x y
ra d ic a ls ,
s in g le t
o x y g e n ,
o r
ra d ic a ls o rig in a tin g fro m
c h e m ic a ls in th e a ir o r w a te r.
H y d ro ly tic
d e c o m p o s itio n
o c c u r s
p a rtic u la rly
i n
w a-
te r s y s te m s a n d
d e p e n d s
stro n g ly o n te m p e ra tu re
a n d
i n
som e
cases also
o n
pH. Redox
re a c tio n s
are m edi-
a te d
b io tic a lly
a s w e ll a s a b io tic a lly
a n d
le a d
t o
m o-
le c u la r
tra n s fo rm a tio n ,
m a in ly
b y
o x id a tio n
o f
th e
of 00

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