Professional Documents
Culture Documents
( )
Part I (Pg 1 to 88)
% Pg 7
Industrial of My anmar SM E ( ) Pg 56
Industry of Manufacturing of the W orld Pg 60
Solar for Aerican and M y anmar mark et ( ) Pg 71
Solar the world 3rd L argest in My anmar ) Pg 78
Wind Turbine by C hina, USA and offshore Pg 82
Pg 108
Pg 110
Alibaba (Knowledge) Pg 113
CO ST REPO RT & PO W ER GENERA TIO N EIA (US Gov erment) Reports Pg 162
Jan 2014
mng m
c
( )
(RERED) Rural Elect rification and Renewable
Energy Development Project -
Page 1
mng m
c
100W , 200W Solar Home Systems SHS
Solar Mini Grid
( )
CFL Part ner Organizat ions
SEZ
Page 2
mng m
c
Telenor & Ooredoo
IPP %
New York Convention
Page 3
mng m
c
World Bank, ADB, IMF, UNIDO, UNICEF
()
Page 4
mng m
c
( )
(ease of doing
business)
Political Risk Multilateral
Investment Guarantee Agency
Instit ut ion
%
% %
Page 5
mng m
c
- Italian-T hai
Dawai Project
IFI Wat ch (88 generat ion)
Page 6
2/1/2014
Thursday
New Energy
Architecture :Myanmar Report
Accenture's Energy
Arthur Hanna
Accenture's Energy
eia.gov
.. ..
...
...
...
1/5
2/1/2014
Thursday
...
..
..
(US$ 10 cents)
40cents
EPC
JOB
State Revenue (Tax)
( Corruption
Tax
GDP %
% ..
FDI , Joint
Venture , BOT
2/5
2/1/2014
Thursday
..
(US$ 10
cents)
..
..
...
Hydro Power, Combine Gas
EU & American
()
White Elephant
( BOT agreement)
BOT
Investor
Electricity & Industry 2013, Page 9
http://mingalaronline.biz/mdg/4.electrical/people.income.high.all.can.use.electricity.htm
3/5
2/1/2014
Thursday
Independent Power
Production IPP
()
()
Accentor's Energy
Accenture
ADB
On paper - look very good (still have many things from practical data)
...
4/5
2/1/2014
Thursday
--
5/5
2/1/2014
(
)
''
''
B.E
(Chemical Engineering)
''
''
1/2
2/1/2014
2/2
2/1/2014
Biogas
Biogas
Anaerobic Digestion
( Manure)
()
Anaerobic Digester
CH4 %
%
CO2 %
CO
N2 -%
H2 -%
H2S -%
O2 -%
()
()
..
1/5
2/1/2014
Biogas
()
Compost
() Plant Manures
Process States
Anaerobic Digestion
()
Hydrolysis, Acidogenesis, Acetogenesis
Methanogenesis
Process Stages
Hydrolysis
Acidogenesis
(
Acetogenesis
Biological Process
Methanogenesis
2/5
2/1/2014
Biogas
Batch or Continuous
Anaerobic Digestion
Batch Reactor
Reactor
Continuous
Reactor
Solids
Contents
Single-stage digestion system
Feedstocks
Anerobic Digestion
Feedstocks
Lignin
Feedstock
Tunnel-like chambers
C:N 20-30:1
Biogas
(
Diary Farm,
)
2006
Diary Farm
..
- %
- %
Vacuum Pumps
- %
- %
3/5
2/1/2014
Biogas
- %
- %
Biomass
8 cents ( )
Biogas Plant
Biogas, Biofuel
( )
Biogas
Biomass
4/5
Biogas
2/1/2014
Biomass.Plasma.Gas
Plastic.to.Energy.by.u.than.zin.tun
Ricehusk.Power
Biogas News from Myanmar (2013)
5/5
2/1/2014
NRG
SOLID LIQUID GAS
PLASMA
is ionized gas energized to the point where electrons are free from their atom or molecules.
THE SUN
Plasma Gasification
Plasma Gasification use Coal - America's most abundant and stable-priced fuel.
to produce efficiency energy.
1/9
2/1/2014
2/9
2/1/2014
3/9
2/1/2014
Removing Ash
4/9
2/1/2014
Gas Turbine
Combined Cycle Process (Gas Turbine & Steam Turbine) with Generators
5/9
2/1/2014
6/9
2/1/2014
Video at Youtube
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n6xyRx_98Rc
7/9
2/1/2014
8/9
2/1/2014
WPC-Plasma-Torches-Eng-Email-Feb-2012.pdf
9/9
2/1/2014
...
- %
- %
2/28
2/1/2014
()
(SSE: 600795),
3/28
2/1/2014
Secondary companies:
Shenzhen Energy Co., Ltd.
4/28
2/1/2014
()
Transmission Loss
ultra-high voltages (UHV) of 800kV
5/28
2/1/2014
ABB
March-2013
Xu
Ming, a real estate billionaire
April 2013
Electricity & Industry 2013, Page 32
http://blackpearlengineering.com/power/index.php/electric-power-world
6/28
2/1/2014
Depreciation
BOT Investor
...
Free Tax )
?
(50%) = 2752000 x
1000 kWh
Reference
7/28
2/1/2014
Small & Median Enterprises SME
)
Alternate Energy
Biogas , SNG
8/28
2/1/2014
www.eia.org
9/28
2/1/2014
www.indem undi.com
Green Energy
10/28
2/1/2014
Latest Articles
USA & World Bank President warning to Myanmar for Corruption and Constitution
(
)
...
ADB ()
"
" --
Thai B 135 billions Power Plant at Dawei (Thai 50%, Mitsubishi 30%, Italian-Thai 20%)
Electricity & Industry 2013, Page 37
http://blackpearlengineering.com/power/index.php/electric-power-world
21/28
2/1/2014
- Nov 2013
2013-2018 small ipp electric power plants by clean government. (6000mW in 5 years) by Slides in
English
2013-2018
(
)
- Dr Hlaing Myint
Myanmar Central Power
IPP and Myanmar Energy 2012 estimation
PTT
22/28
2/1/2014
SME.Myanm ar
http://smemyanmar.com/
S ME.Development
Electricity Ttidal.Power (
600W ()
Wind Turbines (
nrel-cost-report.pdf
A m ericasgenerators.com
Power-Generation-O il-Gas
-Industies.pdf
Price.of.Electricity.by.
Power.Generation
23/28
2/1/2014
http://www.ccj-online.com
eia.gov (Q &A )
24/28
2/1/2014
Mining Prices
http://www.infom ine.com
Japan ~$14.0
Myanmar ??
Thailand $1.00
Vietnam $1.03
Singapore $1.60
Malaysia $0.62
USA $0.96
25/28
2/1/2014
Thailand 4-10
Vietnam 6-10
Malaysia 6-11
Singapore 21
Philippine 40
USA 8-17
Japan 20-24
Australia 30
80 cents
3 cents
IPP (South East A sia - research papers)
T o download
26/28
2/1/2014
Commodity Price
Indexmundi
http://www.indexmundi.com/commodities/
********
19-Jan-2014
.%
.%
(
-%)
-
Technical loss
27/28
2/1/2014
(? ? ?)
*********
EIA(US gov da ta )
Power Plant
Total cost = 2.81+2.93 + 27.8 = 44.56 MILLs per 1kWh. (in USA)
44.56 MILLs = 4.4cents per 1kWh
1 MILL = (1/1000 us dollar).
4.4 cents
...
...
28/28
2/1/2014
Bukit Asam
Bukit Asam
()
()
http://murann.com/stories/mr.coal.indonesia.htm
1/4
2/1/2014
Offshore
..
Bull Shit
..
..
(
)
FDI
..
http://murann.com/stories/mr.coal.indonesia.htm
2/4
2/1/2014
..
Hwawei
Consultant
(
)
(
)
Internal Consultant
(
)
Conbined Gas Turbine
1 mW = US$1 million
100mW
100mW
(
)
()
()
http://mingalaronline.biz/philipine.indo.power.htm
http://murann.com/stories/mr.coal.indonesia.htm
3/4
2/1/2014
CO
(
)
http://murann.com/stories/mr.coal.indonesia.htm
4/4
2/1/2014
MOU
Sedona
Korea Western Power
Hexa International
"
"
Created on Wednesday, 04 September 2013 02:06
)
BOT
()
(
)
()
()
1/2
2/1/2014
BOT
.....
()
()
()
2/2
2/1/2014
...
..
..
..
..
...
..
...
..
1/5
2/1/2014
)
Hard Liner
)
NGO
..
..
2/5
2/1/2014
()
..
(
)
SME Small & Median Enterprises
Electricity & Industry 2013, Page 53
http://mingalaronline.biz/stories/naypyidaw.jan2013.htm
3/5
2/1/2014
STAR MOTOR CYCLE
FACTORY
..
"
" ..
..
(
)
Nationalist
..
..
..
"
"
(
) --
4/5
2/1/2014
Link
http://burmeseamericasingapore.blogspot.sg/
5/5
2/1/2014
SME
%
%
SME
SME
SME
SME
SME
Grant
Grant
SME
SME
http://mingalaronline.biz/stories/sme.loan.and.tax.Dec2013.htm
1/4
2/1/2014
SME
SME
Eleven Media , 3 Dec 2013 "SMEs
(UMFCCI)
(OECD)
(UNESCAP)
" .
The Voice
(JICA)
(~US$5 million)
..
US$ 22 billion
SME US$ 5 million
SME
http://smemyanmar.com SME
()
(SME)
..
SMEs
http://mingalaronline.biz/stories/sme.loan.and.tax.Dec2013.htm
2/4
2/1/2014
SME
SME
(
)
SME
Business Plan
Grant
SME
PR, Citizen
http://www.enterpriseone.gov.sg
http://myanmarinsingapore.com/profiles/blogs/pr-citizen?xg_source=activity
SME
SME Center, SME
http://mingalaronline.biz/stories/sme.loan.and.tax.Dec2013.htm
3/4
2/1/2014
Committee
SME
SME
SME
SME
SME
(
)
http://mingalaronline.biz/stories/sme.loan.and.tax.Dec2013.htm
4/4
2/1/2014
"..
..
...
....."
... "
..
..."
.."
"
"
"
"
http://mingalaronline.biz/stories/industry.manufacturing.htm
1/11
2/1/2014
..
(Helpful)
...
()
..
()
..
http://mingalaronline.biz/stories/industry.manufacturing.htm
2/11
2/1/2014
Bank Of America
Myanmar
Burma
Burma, Myanmar
...
..
(
)
Attitude
http://mingalaronline.biz/stories/industry.manufacturing.htm
3/11
2/1/2014
..
()
..
A list of the world's largest manufacturing companies, ordered by revenue in greater than $25
billion of U.S. dollars.
..
Automotive
Engineering, various
) Electronic - Consumer
Electricity & Industry 2013, Page 63
http://mingalaronline.biz/stories/industry.manufacturing.htm
4/11
2/1/2014
Electronic
()
()
Flextronics
(Electronics) 29 billion USD, Wilmar International (Food & Beverages) 44 billion USD
Electricity & Industry 2013, Page 64
http://mingalaronline.biz/stories/industry.manufacturing.htm
5/11
2/1/2014
Chemical
..
)
Cable ..
Service, Industry and Agriculture
Casher
)
/
http://mingalaronline.biz/stories/industry.manufacturing.htm
6/11
2/1/2014
....
World Is Flat
CEO Management
MBA
Infra Structure
Trading
/
(
)
Trading
(
)
The following is a list of the world's largest manufacturing companies, ordered by revenue in millions of U.S.
dollars according to the Fortune Global 500. Currently all companies with revenue greater than $25 billion are
included.
C ompa ny
Indus tr y
Revenue
Toyota
Automotive
235,364
Japan
Volkswagen Group
Automotive
221,551
Germany
Samsung Electronics
Electronics
148,944
South Korea
General Motors
Automotive
150,276
United States
Daimler
Automotive
148,139
Germany
http://mingalaronline.biz/stories/industry.manufacturing.htm
7/11
2/1/2014
General Electric
Engineering, various
147,616
United States
Ford
Automotive
136,264
United States
Hewlett-Packard
Electronics
127,245
United States
McKesson
Pharmaceuticals
122,734
United States
Hitachi
Engineering, various
122,419
Japan
Nissan
Automotive
119,166
Japan
Electronics
117,514
Taiwan
Exor
Automotive
117,297
Italy
Siemens
Engineering, various
113,349
Germany
Apple
Electronics
108,249
United States
IBM
Electronics
106,916
United States
Cardinal Health
Pharmaceuticals
102,644
United States
BASF
Chemicals
102,194
Germany
Honda
Automotive
100,664
Japan
Panasonic
Engineering, various
99,373
Japan
BMW
Automotive
95,692
Germany
ArcelorMittal
Steel
94,444
Luxembourg
Nestle
94,405
Switzerland
Peugeot
Automotive
83,305
France
Consumer goods
82,559
United States
Sony
Electronics
82,237
Japan
Toshiba
Engineering, various
77,261
Japan
Bosch
Engineering, various
71,600
Germany
Sinochem
Chemicals
70,990
China
Mitsubishi
Engineering, various
70,492
Japan
Automotive
70,227
South Korea
ThyssenKrupp
Steel
68,791
Germany
Boeing
68,735
United States
EADS
68,310
Netherlands
Pfizer
Pharmaceuticals
67,932
United States
SAIC Motor
Automotive
67,255
China
Mitsui
Engineering, various
66,512
Japan
PepsiCo
66,504
United States
65,030
United States
Unilever
Consumer goods
64,610
Automotive
62,911
China
POSCO
Steel
62,230
South Korea
United
Kingdom
http://mingalaronline.biz/stories/industry.manufacturing.htm
8/11
2/1/2014
Dell
Electronics
62,071
United States
Caterpillar
Construction equipment
60,138
United States
Dow Chemical
Chemicals
59,985
United States
Novartis
Pharmaceuticals
59,375
Switzerland
Renault
Automotive
59,272
France
Saint-Gobain
Building materials
58,560
France
United Technologies
Engineering, various
58,190
United States
FAW Group
Automotive
57,003
China
Fujitsu
Electronics
56,582
Japan
China Minmetals
Metals
54,509
China
Kraft Foods
54,365
United States
Intel
Electronics
53,999
United States
Nokia
Electronics
53,753
Finland
Nippon Steel
Steel
51,812
Japan
LyondellBasell
Chemicals
51,035
Netherlands
Bayer
Pharmaceuticals
50,790
Germany
SABIC
Chemicals
50,639
Saudi Arabia
Hoffmann-La Roche
Pharmaceuticals
49,714
Switzerland
LG Electronics
Electronics
48,977
South Korea
Sanofi
Pharmaceuticals
48,746
France
Engineering, various
48,485
South Korea
Norinco
Engineering, various
48,154
China
Pharmaceuticals
48,047
United States
Volvo
Automotive
47,814
Sweden
Lockheed Martin
46,692
United States
Coca-Cola
46,542
United States
Mitsubishi Electric
Engineering, various
46,094
Japan
Koc Holding
Consumer durables
45,098
Turkey
Wilmar International
44,710
Singapore
Canon Inc.
Electronics
44,631
Japan
GlaxoSmithKline
Pharmaceuticals
43,907
United
Kingdom
Cisco Systems
Telecommunications equipment
43,218
United States
Automotive, Electronics
43,160
China
Continental
Tyres
42,416
Germany
Sumitomo
Engineering, various
41,301
Japan
40,835
China
Johnson Controls
Engineering,
various
Electricity & Industry 2013, Page 68
40,833
United States
http://mingalaronline.biz/stories/industry.manufacturing.htm
9/11
2/1/2014
Chemicals
40,632
Japan
JFE Holdings
Steel
40,104
Japan
Denso
Engineering, various
39,954
Japan
Anheuser-Busch InBev
39,046
Belgium
Kia Motors
Automotive
38,988
South Korea
Abbott Laboratories
Pharmaceuticals
38,851
United States
Steel
38,722
China
DuPont
Chemicals
38,719
United States
NEC
Telecommunications equipment,
Electronics
38,462
Japan
ABB
Engineering, various
37,990
Switzerland
Bridgestone
Tyres
37,943
Japan
Quanta Computer
Electronics
37,770
Taiwan
Engineering, various
37,613
China
Honeywell
Engineering, various
37,059
United States
JBS S.A.
36,921
Brazil
Heraeus Holding
Engineering, various
36,406
Germany
Ingram Micro
Electronics
36,329
United States
Shougang Group
Steel
36,117
China
Aluminium
35,839
China
Engineering, various
35,727
Japan
Oracle Corporation
Electronics
35,622
United States
Electronics
35,152
Netherlands
Ericsson
Telecommunications equipment,
Electronics
34,958
Sweden
Tata Motors
Automotive
34,575
India
Steel
34,260
China
Christian Dior
Luxury goods
34,244
France
AstraZeneca
Pharmaceuticals
33,591
United
Kingdom
Ineos
Chemicals
33,160
Luxembourg
32,735
Canada
General Dynamics
Defence
32,677
United States
Tyson Foods
32,266
United States
Steel
32,097
China
John Deere
Agricultural equipment
32,013
United States
Suzuki Motor
Automotive
31,817
Japan
31,543
China
Huawei
http://mingalaronline.biz/stories/industry.manufacturing.htm
Telecommunications equipment,
Electricity & Industry 2013, Page 69
10/11
2/1/2014
Electronics
Schneider Electric
Engineering, various
31,128
France
Sharp
Electronics
31,104
Japan
Tobacco
31,097
United States
Building materials
30,022
China
Sinomach
Engineering, various
29,846
China
3M
Engineering, various
29,611
United States
Lenovo
Electronics
29,574
China
Alfresa Holdings
29,551
Japan
Flextronics
Electronics
29,470
Singapore
Aisin Seiki
Automotive components
29,183
Japan
Michelin
Tyres
28,809
France
Magna International
Automotive components
28,748
Canada
BAE Systems
Defence
28,624
United
Kingdom
L'Oreal
Cosmetics
28,286
France
COFCO
28,190
China
Northrop Grumman
28,058
United States
Chemicals
27,919
China
Fujifilm
Photographic equipment
27,804
Japan
Tata Steel
Steel
27,739
India
ChemChina
Chemicals
27,707
China
Alstom
Engineering, various
27,417
France
Danone
26,861
France
Electrical cable
26,082
Japan
International Paper
26,034
United States
China Electronics
Electronics
26,023
China
Japan Tobacco
Tobacco
25,759
Japan
Mazda Motor
Automotive
25,749
Japan
25,145
China
CRH
Building materials
25,141
Ireland
Komatsu Limited
Construction equipment
25,099
Japan
Ref:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_(PPP)_per_capita
http://mingalaronline.biz/stories/industry.manufacturing.htm
11/11
2/1/2014
5KW
5KW
(Solar
System)
1/9
2/1/2014
5KW
2/9
2/1/2014
5KW
https://www.facebook.com/EnergySolarMyanmar
***
3/9
2/1/2014
5KW
NEW
UP BATTERY
UP BATTERY
DELKOR (
)
DELKOR (
)
DELKOR (
DELKOR (
)
DELKOR (
DELKOR (
)
DELKOR (
)
DELKOR (
)
DELKOR (
4/9
2/1/2014
5KW
()
EERI
()
https://www.facebook.com/myanmar.solarpower
238
22
5/9
2/1/2014
5KW
PV
REC
Alibaba.com
$0.1 to
5kw
http://www.alibaba.com/product-gs/1060878168/5KW_Solar_System.html
6/9
2/1/2014
5KW
) ..
Alibaba.com
7/9
2/1/2014
2013
Heater
..
1/3
2/1/2014
SME
Attitude
200MW
http://www.mizzimaburmese.com/news/business/11554-2013-05-09-10-04-...
Green
PV
Thermal
2013
10,000 MW
..
.. Pay for technology
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_power_plant
2MW
....
..
..
Electricity & Industry 2013, Page 79
http://mingalaronline.biz/mdg/4.electrical/solar.myanmar.htm
2/3
2/1/2014
..
0.03 usd)
0.15 usd)
(0.18 usd)
6.2 - 10
6.1 - 14
4.5 - 10
21
30.4
8 - 17
4 - 80
4.5 - 30 cent (
)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricity_pricing
LED + Solar
3/3
2/1/2014
(%) (%)
(%)
(%)
(.%)
(.%)
219 Twh
.% (12 Twh)
Alternate Energy
http://mingalaronline.biz/stories/wind.turbines.htm
1/9
2/1/2014
http://mingalaronline.biz/stories/wind.turbines.htm
2/9
2/1/2014
Wind turbine components : 1-Foundation, 2-Connection to the electric grid, 3-Tower, 4-Access
ladder, 5-Wind orientation control (Yaw control), 6-Nacelle, 7-Generator, 8-Anemometer, 9Electric or Machanical Brake, 10-Gearbox, 11-Rotor blade, 12-Blade pitch control, 13-Rotor
hub.
Class I to IV
Class III
Vermont,
USA
http://mingalaronline.biz/stories/wind.turbines.htm
3/9
2/1/2014
(50 kW to 2 mW)
. Enercon E-126
% (13 Twh)
100kw
Alibaba.com
http://www.alibaba.com/product-gs/550489924/wind_turbine_100kw_for_factory_use.html
PDF file
60 m/s
()
10 to 22 rpm
Horizontal &
Vertical Tower
Horizontal
Vertical
Vertical
Low Starting
Torque, Dynamic Stability problems
Neodymium Magnet
http://mingalaronline.biz/stories/wind.turbines.htm
4/9
2/1/2014
Material
Floating Tower
Vestas, Enercon,
Siemens
Gamesa,
GE Energy,
Suzion Group
( )
%
% %
R&D
Research and Development
O peration
MOU
...
..
Electricity & Industry 2013, Page 85
http://mingalaronline.biz/stories/wind.turbines.htm
5/9
2/1/2014
(
)
()
(
)
http://mingalaronline.biz/stories/wind.turbines.htm
6/9
2/1/2014
http://mingalaronline.biz/stories/wind.turbines.htm
7/9
1 of 9
http://mingalaronline.biz/mdg/electrical/chniese5.htm
Green Energy
Automotive ()
Clothing () () ()
() () ()
() () () (). ..
5/18/2013 9:40 PM
2 of 9
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Shandong
oil
equipment engineer
Himin Solar
Himin
Dezhou
(Sun-Moon
Mansion)
Law on
Renewable Energy
Motion
Dezhou League
5/18/2013 9:40 PM
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()
Shi Zhengrong
Martin Green
Shi
Wuxi Suntech
(Solar Panel) - %
5/18/2013 9:40 PM
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Suntech
% (zero growth)
Shi
..
.. ..
- Rank 217 on Huran Rich List 2011.
Gushi, Henan
Electricity & Industry 2013, Page 92
5/18/2013 9:40 PM
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Wind Turbine
Wind Turbine
Wind Turbine
Zhang Guangdong Ming Yang Wind Power
Technology
Zhang Aerodyn
Research & Development Prototype
( )
Zhang ICBC
Ming Yang Ming Yang
%
Ming Yang
Wind Turbine
- Rank ??? on Huran Rich List 2011.
5/18/2013 9:40 PM
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Zhang Yue
Changsha
Broad ..
..
pressure-free boiler
Broad
() lithium bromide
Efficiency Broad
.
Zhang
Changsha
5/18/2013 9:40 PM
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Zhang -
Solar Thermal Power Plant Taicang
5/18/2013 9:40 PM
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GLC-Poly Stock List
Biomass Generators
Solar Energy
PV photovoltaic industry polysilicon
Suntech Yingli
Solar panels
mW
GLC-Poly polysilicon
Electricity & Industry 2013, Page 96
5/18/2013 9:40 PM
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Liu Hana Sichuan mining billionaire March-2013 Xu Ming, a
real estate billionaire April 2013
MDG series
100 Chinese Tycoons Book - Download Link:
http://mingalaronline.biz/chinese100.pdf
5/18/2013 9:40 PM
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-
()
()
Myanmar Transitional Platform (MTP) (Food Technology)
() () () (Corruption )
() () () MTP
Panel Discussion
MAI
Electricity & Industry 2013, Page 98
5/18/2013 9:35 PM
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US Cents per KWH =
6.2 - 10
6.1 - 14
4.5 - 10
21
30.4
8 - 17
4 - 80
4.5 - 30 cent ( )
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricity_pricing
EPC
(US 3 cents)
( National Grid )
5/18/2013 9:35 PM
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..
- ()
Data
Data
()
(%)
529 MW
- () 240 MW *
- 75 MW *
- 60 MW *
- 40 MW *
- 99 MW *
- () 52 MW *
- () 120 MW *
Electricity & Industry 2013, Page 100
5/18/2013 9:35 PM
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- 140 MW *
- 40 MW *
- 74 MW
*
2. () 285 MW (%)
3. 1452 MW (%)
550 MW
902 MW
- ( ) 176 MW
- () 290 MW
- ( ) 216 MW
- ( ) 50 MW
- ( ) 120 MW
- 50 MW
4. 60 MW (%)
-
(UNIDO
)
Independent Power Production (IPP)
...
Tuas Ave 14 6 billions REC
Solar Energy
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Steam Turbine
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37,000 MW % ( 2773 MW)
CEO
Zero Factory
I, II, III 1420 MW Yunnan Machinery & Equipment Import & Export
Co. (YMEC) %
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..
.%
%
%
% TWh
UNIDO
4.8cent (usd) per kwh.
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10 MW
()
F.O
40W
Power Distribution
Electricity & Industry 2013, Page 105
5/18/2013 9:35 PM
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1MW
..
2MW
- US$80cent (4MW Honda EM4000S cost US$2200. Fuel 6.2 gal can
()
US$2
billion Tuas Power Jurong Ilands
Professional
Engineers
()
() uzawaung@gmail.com
() unaymyo.maung@gmail.com
() phonemyatnyein@gmail.com
Reference:
-
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TaSang_Dam
http://www.burmariversnetwork.org/
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricity_generation
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relative_cost_of_electricity_generated_by_different_sources
Chinese Genset Jichai (China) 500kw
http://www.alibaba.com/product-gs/690255049/Factory_Price_500KW_Chinese_Large_Power.html?s=p
Portable Generator (Honda, EM4000S 4kw) http://powerequipment.honda.com/generators/
Electricity & Industry 2013, Page 106
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http://murann.com/vietnam.pdf
BLACK PEARL ENGINEERING document http://blackpearlengineering.com
5/18/2013 9:35 PM
1 of 2
http://mingalaronline.biz/mdg/electrical/ricehusk.power.htm
compost
Recycle
http://haiqimachine.en.alibaba.com/
()
(Solar Power
Plant $275 million)
%
(more than 20 billions usd)
(more than 10 billions usd projects)
(2012, US$2.5 billions usd) ....
()
Electricity & Industry 2013, Page 108
5/18/2013 9:41 PM
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..
MDG series
End..
5/18/2013 9:41 PM
Tidal Power
1 of 3
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Tidal Power
RIT ..
Text
http://quigonjinn03.appspot.com/www.demowaiyan.org/2013/05/blog-post_3.html
http://quigonjinn03.appspot.com/www.demowaiyan.org/2013/05/blog-post_6.html
Process Industry
...
10 mW
..
..
Research
Gas Turbine
...
Proposal .
Electricity & Industry 2013, Page 110
5/18/2013 9:37 PM
Tidal Power
2 of 3
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Station .% ()
List of Tidal Power Station (Attached document) 3.2 mW
(
1320 mW 520 mW
20000 mW
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Tidal Power
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Home > Products > Electrical Equipment & Supplies > Generators > Diesel Generators (382970)
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Ms. martina ma
Product Detail
Company Profile
Quick Details
Place of Origin:
Brand Name:
Cummins
Model Number:
GNRC
Output Type:
AC Three Phase
Speed:
1500rpm or 1800rpm
Frequency:
50HA or 60HZ
Rated Power:
50 KVA
Rated Voltage:
Rated Current:
72A
Engine:
Cummins
Alternator:
Stamford,LeroySomer, Marathon,Engga
Control panel:
Smartgen, Deepsea,ComAp
Cooling System:
Water cooled
Power factor:
0.8
Insulation class:
Protection class:
IP21-23
QC system:
Certificates:
ISO9001:2008, CE
Packed in standard seaworthy packing such as Wooden case / Plywood case etc.
Delivery Detail:
Specifications
Diesel Generator 50 kva
-Cummins Engine & Stamford Alternator
-Low Fuel Consumption
-1 Year Warranty
-CE & ISO 900
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Engine part:
Manufacturer
Model
4BTA3.9-G2
Engine speed
1500rpm
Engine power
--------------------Standby power
55kw / 74HP
50kw / 67HP
After-cooled, turbo-charged
Cylinder quantity
Bore * Stroke
102*120mm
Displacement
3.9L
Fuel system
Speed-droop
5% (electric governor)
Alrerntor Data
Model
LSA42.3 S35
Output power
50 kva
AVR model
R220
Number of phase
0.8
Altitude
1000 m
Overspeed
2250RPM
Number of Pole
Exciter type
Shunt
Insulation class
Voltage regulation
0.5%
< 50
Bearing
single
Coupling
Direct
Supply Scope:
1.brand-new engine, w/ start motor.
2.brand new brushless alternator, single bearing, flange connection, IP23, H insulation class, with AVR.
3.Heavy duty steel channel base frame
4.Heavy duty industrial type silencer c/w flexible bellow
5.Vibration damping supports between Engine/Alternator and base frame
6.Radiator with safety guard
7.Automatic strat control panel, Smartgen brand HGM6110 model as standard supply. Deepsea, DEIF, ComAp, Woodward are for option.
8.High capacity lead acid battery c/w battery cables
9.3-pole output circuit breaker. ABB breaker is for option.
10.Below 500KW, skid-mounted bottom fuel tank for 8hrs full load as standard supply. Above 500kw, storage fuel tank is provided at extra cost.
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Cummins Engine
Stamford Generator
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About 64 results: Solar Energy Systems (37) , Solar Collectors (7) , Other Solar Energy Related Products (2)
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Home > Products > Energy > Solar Energy Products > Solar Energy Systems (175402)
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plant
Contact Details
Company Profile
Offline
Place Order
Company Profile
Product Detail
Quick Details
Place of Origin:
Brand Name:
BESTSUN
Model Number:
BPS 2000W
Specification:
Normal
Application:
Home
Delivery Detail:
Specifications
solar thermal power plant
pure sine wave output,auto switch
easy install & upgradeable
long life span:25 years.
solar thermal power plant
1. All solar Systems have LCD digital display which allows you to see the system working, (eg) Charge data,System voltage, Daily power consumption and temperature.
2. All type of BPS solar system both has AC and DC output. Also have AC back up charger function.
3. All solar system have automatic switch , If mains power goes off the system will switch automatically over to battery power,When mains power resumes the system will switch
back automatically. The battery's will resume recharging automatically.
4. All solar inverters are Pure Sine Wave inverters. This allows the use of Air Conditioners and refrigerators without any problem.
5.Each component has a single chip detector. Assembled by the IPM or IGBT of Mitsubishi ,This protects the solar system from Overloads, Low Voltage and Under Voltage
(alarm) Over Heating, Short circuit, Reverse Polarity.
6. BPS solar system can be updated very easily.Just by adding extra components your system will increase power capacity.
7. Solar system Simple to install , just follow installation instructions.
8. Our solar System offers Cutting Edge Technology, State of the Art Quality with Greater Functionality than our competitors, at Competitive prices.
Technical data:
Capacity
Output wave
2000VA
Pure sine wave
Output current
PREcision of output voltage
7.2A(220V) / 14.5A(110V))
3%
Electricity & Industry 2013, Page 119
5/18/2013 9:20 PM
2 of 4
0.1%
less than 3%
0.8
120%, 30 seconds
More than 85%
AC110/220V
50HZ/60HZ
900W
157.5V
5.7A
110V100AH
2576WH
Name of Load
Model
Power
Quantity
Color TV
Satellite TV Receivers
LCD Computer
Energy-saving lamp
Printer
Electrograph
Water Pump
Refrigeratory
Washing machine
21 inch
65W
25W
100W
11W
30W
150W
200W
100W
300W
1
1
1
6
1
1
1
1
1
Inkjet
Inkjet
150L
http://www.alibaba.com/product-gs/707918526/solar_thermal_...
Continued
Working Days
3 continued
overcast and
raining days
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Port: shanghai
Port: Shanghai
Min.Order: 1 Unit/Units
Min.Order: 1 Unit/Units
Min.Order: 1 Unit/Units
FOB Price:
FOB Price:
FOB Price:
Port: SHANGHAI
Port: SHANGHAI
Port: SHANGHAI
Min.Order: 1 Unit/Units
Min.Order: 1 Unit/Units
Min.Order: 1 Unit/Units
FOB Price:
FOB Price:
FOB Price:
US $15 - 30 / Unit
Port: Shanghai
Port: SHANGHAI
Port: shanghai
Min.Order: 1 Unit/Units
Min.Order: 1 Unit/Units
Min.Order: 1 Unit/Units
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FOB Price:
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Price
Port:
SHANGHAI
Supply Ability:
Payment Terms:
L/C,D/A,T/T,Western Union
Offline
Company Profile
Company Profile
Product Detail
Quick Details
Type::
Plant
Output Voltage::
220 V,220v
Color::
Many
Raw material::
Model::
400KW
Delivery time::
30 days
Payment::
TT
Best
wooden case
Delivery Detail:
25-30 days
Specifications
1) Biggest company in China which supply Biomass Power Plant.
2) Environmental-friendly
3) No emission ,easy to operate
biomass power plant system suitable for many kinds of biomass used for cooking, heating save your cost high profit
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Besides we can design biomass power plant according to the buyers requirements.
Standard: We can meet the standard of GB,ISO,DIN,CEMA,JIS
Remarks: The above technical data of biomass power plant is just for your referece. We also offer you the hole production line for you. Any questions, please
contact me.
To:
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FOB Price:
FOB Price:
Professional manufacturer
biomass gasifier for power
generator
US $1000000 - 10000000 /
US $1000000 - 10000000 /
FOB Price:
Unit
Unit
Port: SHANGHAI
Port: SHANGHAI
US $1000000 - 10000000 /
Unit
Min.Order: 1 Unit/Units
Min.Order: 1 Unit/Units
Port: SHANGHAI
Min.Order: 1 Unit/Units
Professional manufacturer
100kw biomass generators
FOB Price:
Professional manufacturer
200kw biomass electric power
generator
US $1000000 - 10000000 /
FOB Price:
US $1000000 - 10000000 /
Unit
US $1000000 - 10000000 /
Unit
Port: SHANGHAI
Unit
Port: SHANGHAI
Min.Order: 1 Unit/Units
Port: SHANGHAI
Min.Order: 1 Unit/Units
FOB Price:
Min.Order: 1 Unit/Units
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FOB Price:
US $1000000 - 10000000 /
US $1000000 - 10000000 /
US $1000000 - 10000000 /
Unit
Unit
Unit
Port: SHANGHAI
Port: SHANGHAI
Port: SHANGHAI
Min.Order: 1 Unit/Units
Min.Order: 1 Unit/Units
Min.Order: 1 Unit/Units
FOB Price:
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About 5401 results: Electricity Generation (1908) , Energy Projects (4) , Other Energy Related Products (48) , Solar Energy Systems (26) , Coal (2)
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professional 100kw rice husk generator small gasifier biomass power plant
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Payment Terms:
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Company Profile
Company Profile
Product Detail
Quick Details
Place of Origin:
Brand Name:
Type:
Generator
WinStar
100 KW
1000 KW
capacity:
100kw
biomass:
equipment material:
steel
using life:
long
by products:
gas,heat,ash etc
certificate:
CE,ISO9001
efficiency:
high
automatic:
automatic
Model Number:
WS041230
Delivery Detail:
60days
Specifications
professional 100kw rice husk generator small gasifier biomass power plant
professional 100kw rice husk generator small gasifier biomass power plant
Brief introduction to biomass gasification power generation system
As a technology of utilizing renewable energy, biomass power, converts farm wastes (such as rice husk, wood chips, stalks,
animal manure, domestic garbage, sewage, ect.) into combustible gases by means of gasification technology. The gases, after
the processes of dust/tar removal, dewatering and cooling, are sent into gas engine for combustion to drive generators, thus
concerting the thermal energy into electrical power.
Coponent
CO
H2
CH4
CmHn
H2S
CO2
O2
N2
Amount
18-20%
10-13%
2-4%
0.80%
16.4mg/Nm3
13%
1%
46%
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If you have any questions about this product, feel free to contact me .
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Professional manufacturer
biomass gasifier for power
generator
FOB Price:
FOB Price:
US $1000000 - 10000000 /
Unit
US $1000000 - 10000000 /
Unit
FOB Price:
Port: SHANGHAI
Port: SHANGHAI
Unit
Min.Order: 1 Unit/Units
Min.Order: 1 Unit/Units
Port: SHANGHAI
US $1000000 - 10000000 /
Min.Order: 1 Unit/Units
Professional manufacturer
100kw biomass generators
FOB Price:
Professional manufacturer
200kw biomass electric power
generator
US $1000000 - 10000000 /
FOB Price:
US $1000000 - 10000000 /
Unit
Unit
Port: SHANGHAI
US $1000000 - 10000000 /
Unit
Min.Order: 1 Unit/Units
Port: SHANGHAI
Min.Order: 1 Unit/Units
FOB Price:
Port: SHANGHAI
Min.Order: 1 Unit/Units
FOB Price:
FOB Price:
US $1000000 - 10000000 /
US $1000000 - 10000000 /
US $1000000 - 10000000 /
Unit
Unit
Unit
Port: SHANGHAI
Port: SHANGHAI
Port: SHANGHAI
Min.Order: 1 Unit/Units
Min.Order: 1 Unit/Units
Min.Order: 1 Unit/Units
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Brand Name:
Type:
Plant
DSCD
Model Number:
DSCD-PP045
Seaworthy packing
Delivery Detail:
Specifications
We DSCD provide design, equipment supply, technical guidance and training during civil, installation and commissioning.
To Our Customers
Certified and authorized by Chinese Govenment we, DSCD, are a leading Engineering company involved in the metallurgical & coal industry and associated power
generation applications. We are committed to provide our customers with a myriad of optimized power plants. With its experience in the domestic power projects, we have at our
disposal proven experience.
Our goal is to provide technically advanced and cost-effective power plant with design, equipment supply and services based on experience and expertise accumulated by
executing numerous power plant projects. We try to harmonize "the human & the engineering" and also provide all the needs of the power industry. The customer's satisfaction
is our goal.
Service Provided
Feasibility studies
Project planning
Basic/Detail Design & Engineering
Construction Management
Plant Testing & Start-up
Quality Assurance & Quality Control Services
Procurement Services
Plant Improvement and life extension
Training Services for engineers and Operators
Environmental Services
Civil and Architectural Construction & Construction Engineering Services
Construction Supervision Services
Research & Development
HRSG & FBC boilers
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Continuous Casting
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Oxygen Plant
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Home > Products > Electrical Equipment & Supplies > Generators > Gas Turbine Generators (17840)
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Place of Origin:
Brand Name:
Westinghouse
Model Number:
W251B11
Frequency:
50 Hz
Rated Power:
Rated Voltage:
11kV
Specifications
2 x Westinghouse 48MW gas turbine (operation on HFO / Gas - c/w HFO fuel treatment) and 1 x 36 MW steam turbine
2 x Westinghouse 48,000 kW (rated capacity)
1 x Steam Turbine 36,000 kW (rated capacity)
Running Hrs: approx. 33,000 Hrs
Voltage / Freq.: 11kV / 50 Hz
Power plant commissioned in May 2000 and stopped operation in August 2007
Last overhaul Dec. 2006 and May 2007
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Place of Origin:
United States
Brand Name:
General Electric
Model Number:
Frame 6B
Output Type:
AC Three Phase
Speed:
5114
Frequency:
50
Rated Power:
37 MW
Rated Voltage:
11 KV
Delivery Detail:
3 - 5 Mounth
Specifications
Used 132 MW Combined Cycle Power Plant for sale
Condution: Excellent.
Gas Turbines
Gt - 1
Brand: General Electric
Model: Frame 6B
Year: 1997
Speed: 5114 RPM
Output Power: Design 34.79 (Upgraded TO 37MW)
Gt - 2
Brand: General Electric
Model: Frame 6B
Year: 1997
Speed: 5114 RPM
Output Power: Design 35.62 (Upgraded TO 37MW)
Gas Turbine Generator
Electricity & Industry 2013, Page 141
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GT - 1 Generator
Brand: GEC ALSTHOM
Year: 1997
Output Power: 54.375 MVA
Frequency: 50 Hz
Voltage: 11 kV
Power Factor: 0.8
GT - 2 Generator
Brand: GEC ALSTHOM
Year: 1997
Output Power: 54.375 MVA
Frequency: 50 Hz
Voltage: 11 kV
Power Factor: 0.8
Waste Heat Boiler
Brand Name: BW & G
Year: 1997
steam Turbine
Brand: General Electric
Year: 1997
Output Power: 39.565
Speed: 3000
Vapor Pressure and Temperature: 60 bar, 504 C
Steam Turbine
Brand: General Electric
Type: One combine Casing
Year: 1997
Rating MW: 39,565
Speed: 3000 RPM
HP Steam: 60 bar 504C
Cooling System
Demineralized Water Unit
Dealkalized Water Unit
Transformers
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Select All
Ms. Vivian Ji
Tangshan TOYODA Technology
Mr. Tony Li
Jinan Jichai Huanneng Gas Gen
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Raytheon Power Machinery (Suz
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Place of Origin:
Brand Name:
LIda
Model Number:
GL-011
Type:
Plant
Brand:
Lida
frequency:
50 or 60HZ
6300
turbine efficiency:
generator efficiency:
93%
Runner material:
89%
ZG0Cr13Ni4Mo
MOQ:
packaging:
export standard
lifespan:
1 set
50 years
color:
OEM:
welcome
up to customer
Delivery Detail:
5-6 month
Specifications
small hydro power plant
Certificate ISO9001`2008
Lifespan 20~40years
Efficiency 93%
efficiency up 90%
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force acts through a distance (work) and the diverted water flow is left with diminished energy.
Prior to hitting the turbine blades, the water's pressure (potential energy) is converted to kinetic energy by a nozzle and focused
on the turbine. No pressure change occurs at the turbine blades, and the turbine doesn't require a housing for operation.
Newton's second law describes the transfer of energy for impulse turbines.
Impulse turbines are often used in very high (>300m/984 ft) head applications .
Company brief
1.water turbine generator
We specialize in water turbine manufacturing for over 40years. The water turbines we supplies severs a wide range of costumers
in and out of China.
2.easy installation & operation
We have a wide range of water turbines for building hydraulic generator systems.It is designed of
easy installation and operation.
3.high efficacy
The water powder generator can be applied in varies place and environment.Our water turbine is produced with high efficacy via
our long years experience of research and development.
4. Oversea project
we have exported water turbine generator sets to
VietnamApril,2007(2*3200KW)
PeruNovember,2007(2*1250KW)
BurmaDecember,2008(2*400KW)
BurmaNovember,2009(2*200KW)
AlbaniaJuly,2011(2*1250KW,1*630KW,2*400KW)
Indonensia----August,2012(1X4400KW)
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Verified Information
This information was Verified by
Bureau Veritas and is valid for the following period: 2013/03/26 --- 2014/03/26
The information below covers both the Gold Supplier and its related companies, which are defined according to china laws and regulations, and which will also be clearly displayed in the full report
>>
Production Capacity:
Product Line Name
Generator
USD2,558,871
Revenue(Previous Year)
Southeast Asia
USD 301,452
11.78
Western Europe
USD 200,968
7.85
Domestic Market
USD 2,056,451
80.37
Production Machinery:
Machine Name
Cutting machine
Quantity
Condition
1.8
Acceptable
Bending machine
W11NC-30*2500
1.8
Acceptable
Welding machine
YD-350FR
25
3.0
Acceptable
Horizontal lathe
XW61140
1.8
Acceptable
Vertical lathe
CQ5240-H
6.4
Acceptable
Boring lathe
TPX6113X2
6.4
Acceptable
Milling lathe
FX5045
2.2
Acceptable
Grinding machine
M1450
4.8
Acceptable
Drilling machine
No information
3.0
Acceptable
Testing Machinery:
Machine Name
Quantity
Condition
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Caliper
No information
48
4.0
Acceptable
Micrometer
No information
20
4.0
Acceptable
Depth indicator
No information
15
4.0
Acceptable
Angle ruler
No information
4.0
Acceptable
Ohmmeter
ZC48
2.0
Acceptable
DC hi-pot tester
AGF6000
1.1
Acceptable
Production Flow:
Material cutting
Bending
Welding
Turing
Milling
Certification:
Certified Picture
Certification Name
Certified By
Certificate No.
Testing Report:
Report Picture
Report Name
Report By
Report Date
Sichuan Pump
Product And
General
Test Report
Machine Product
Quality
Supervision
2011/09/01
Inspection
Station
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Generator
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Home > Products > Electrical Equipment & Supplies > Generators > Alternative Energy Generators (103866)
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I'm Away
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Quick Details
Place of Origin:
Brand Name:
Hummer
Model Number:
H6.4-5kw
Type:
Rated power(W):
5000
7500
110/220/380
2.5
Generator weight(kg):
147
10
Generator efficiency:
>0.8
Patents:
Certification:
CE,BV etc.
plywood containers
Delivery Detail:
20 working days
Specifications
1Light,small,high efficiency
2Lower noise
3.easy installation
4Siemens PLC control
5.ULand CE certificated,ISO standar
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5000
7500
240
110/220/380
2.5
10
325
50
Generator efficiency
>0.8
0.4
Generator type
147
Blade material/quantity
GRP/3
6.4
Yawing+Electromagnetism braking(Optional
hydraulic braking)
Manual+Automatic
3.
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8.Tower Options
(1)Guyed Tower
(3)Hydraulic Tower
9.FAQ:
1.What's the delivery time ?
15 working days after your deposite
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Port: shanghai
Port: shanghai
Min.Order: 1 Set/Sets
Min.Order: 1 Set/Sets
Min.Order: 1 Set/Sets
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5/18/2013 8:39 PM
COSTREPORT
COSTANDPERFORMANCEDATAFOR
POWERGENERATION
TECHNOLOGIES
Preparedforthe
NationalRenewableEnergyLaboratory
FEBRUARY2012
Black&VeatchHoldingCompany2011.Allrightsreserved.
NATIONALRENEWABLEENERGYLABORATORY(NREL)|COSTANDPERFORMANCEDATAFORPOWERGENERATION
TECHNOLOGIES
TableofContents
1Introduction...............................................................................................................................................................................3
1.1Assumptions...........................................................................................................................................................3
1.2EstimationofDataandMethodology...........................................................................................................5
2CostEstimatesandPerformanceDataforConventionalElectricityTechnologies......................................9
2.1NuclearPowerTechnology..............................................................................................................................9
2.2CombustionTurbineTechnology...............................................................................................................11
2.3CombinedCycleTechnology........................................................................................................................13
2.4CombinedCycleWithCarbonCaptureandSequestration..............................................................15
2.5PulverizedCoalFiredPowerGeneration................................................................................................17
2.6PulverizedCoalFiredPowerGenerationWithCarbon
CaptureandSequestration............................................................................................................................19
2.7GasificationCombinedCycleTechnology...............................................................................................21
2.8GasificationCombinedCycleTechnologyWithCarbon
CaptureandSequestration............................................................................................................................23
2.9FlueGasDesulfurizationRetrofitTechnology.......................................................................................25
3CostEstimatesandPerformanceDataforRenewableElectricityTechnologies.......................................27
3.1BiopowerTechnologies..................................................................................................................................27
3.2GeothermalEnergyTechnologies..............................................................................................................31
3.3HydropowerTechnologies............................................................................................................................34
3.4OceanEnergyTechnologies..........................................................................................................................35
3.5SolarEnergyTechnologies............................................................................................................................38
3.6WindEnergyTechnologies............................................................................................................................45
4CostandPerformanceDataforEnergyStorageTechnologies..........................................................................51
4.1CompressedAirEnergyStorage(CAES)Technology.........................................................................52
4.2PumpedStorageHydropowerTechnology............................................................................................54
4.3BatteryEnergyStorageTechnology..........................................................................................................56
5References...............................................................................................................................................................................59
AppendixA.EnergyEstimateforWaveEnergyTechnologies..............................................................................61
ResourceEstimate.....................................................................................................................................................61
CostofEnergyEstimate..........................................................................................................................................69
AppendixB.EnergyEstimateforTidalStreamTechnologies................................................................................80
ResourceEstimate.....................................................................................................................................................80
CostofEnergyEstimate..........................................................................................................................................82
AppendixC.BreakdownofCostforSolarEnergyTechnologies............................................................................92
SolarPhotovoltaics...................................................................................................................................................92
BLACK&VEATCHCORPORATION|TableofContents
Electricity & Industry 2013, Page 163
NATIONALRENEWABLEENERGYLABORATORY(NREL)|COSTANDPERFORMANCEDATAFORPOWERGENERATION
TECHNOLOGIES
ConcentratingSolarPower....................................................................................................................................99
AppendixD.TechnicalDescriptionofPumpedStorageHydroelectricPower.............................................102
DesignBasis..............................................................................................................................................................102
StudyBasisDescriptionandCost.....................................................................................................................103
OtherCostsandContingency.............................................................................................................................104
OperatingandMaintenanceCost.....................................................................................................................104
ConstructionSchedule..........................................................................................................................................105
OperatingFactors...................................................................................................................................................105
BLACK&VEATCHCORPORATION|TableofContents
Electricity & Industry 2013, Page 164
ii
NATIONALRENEWABLEENERGYLABORATORY(NREL)|COSTANDPERFORMANCEDATAFORPOWERGENERATION
TECHNOLOGIES
1Introduction
Black&VeatchcontractedwiththeNationalRenewableEnergyLaboratory(NREL)in2009to
providethepowergeneratingtechnologycostandperformanceestimatesthataredescribedinthis
report.Thesedataweresynthesizedfromvarioussourcesinlate2009andearly2010andtherefore
reflecttheenvironmentandthinkingatthattimeorsomewhatearlier,andnotofthepresentday.
Manyfactorsdrivethecostandpriceofagiventechnology.Maturetechnologiesgenerallyhavea
smallerbandofuncertaintyaroundtheircostsbecausedemand/supplyismorestableand
technologyvariationsarefewer.Formatureplants,theprimaryuncertaintyisassociatedwiththe
ownerdefinedscopethatisrequiredtoimplementthetechnologyandwiththesitespecificvariable
costs.Thesearesitespecificitems(suchaslaborrates,indoorversusoutdoorplant,watersupply,
accessroads,laborcamps,permittingandlicensing,orlaydownareas)andownerspecificitems
(suchassalestaxes,financingcosts,orlegalcosts).Maturepowerplantcostsaregenerallyexpected
tofollowtheoverallgeneralinflationrateoverthelongterm.
Overthelasttenyears,therehasbeendoublinginthenominalcostofallpowergeneration
technologiesandanevensteeperincreaseincoalandnuclearbecausethepriceofcommoditiessuch
asiron,steel,concrete,copper,nickel,zinc,andaluminumhaverisenataratemuchgreaterthan
generalinflation;constructioncostspeakin2009foralltypesofnewpowerplants.Eventhecostof
engineersandconstructorshasincreasedfasterthangeneralinflationhas.Withtherecenteconomic
recession,therehasbeenadecreaseincommoditycosts;somedegreeoflevelingoffisexpectedas
theUnitedStatescompleteseconomicrecovery.
Itisnotpossibletoreasonablyforecastwhetherfuturecommoditypriceswillincrease,decrease,or
remainthesame.Althoughthecostsin2009aremuchhigherthanearlierinthedecade,formodeling
purposes,thecostspresentedheredonotanticipatedramaticincreasesordecreasesinbasic
commoditypricesthrough2050.Costtrajectorieswereassumedtobebasedontechnologymaturity
levelsandexpectedperformanceimprovementsduetolearning,normalevolutionarydevelopment,
deploymentincentives,etc.
Black&Veatchdoesnotencourageuniversalusesolelyoflearningcurveeffects,whichgiveacost
reductionwitheachdoublinginimplementationdependentonanassumeddeploymentpolicy.Many
factorsinfluenceratesofdeploymentandtheresultingcostreduction,andincontrasttolearning
curves,alinearimprovementwasmodeledtotheextentpossible.
1.1ASSUMPTIONS
Thecostestimatespresentedinthisreportarebasedonthefollowingsetofcommonofassumptions:
1. Unlessotherwisenotedinthetext,costsarepresentedin2009dollars.
2. Unlessotherwisenotedinthetext,theestimateswerebasedononsiteconstructioninthe
MidwesternUnitedStates.
3. Plantswereassumedtobeconstructedongreenfieldsites.Thesiteswereassumedtobe
reasonablylevelandclear,withnohazardousmaterials,nostandingtimber,nowetlands,andno
endangeredspecies.
4. Budgetaryquotationswerenotrequestedforthisactivity.ValuesfromtheBlack&Veatch
proprietarydatabaseofestimatetemplateswereused.
5. Theconceptscreeninglevelcostestimatesweredevelopedbasedonexperienceandestimating
factors.Theestimatesreflectanovernight,turnkeyEngineeringProcurementConstruction,
directhire,open/meritshop,contractingphilosophy.
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6. Demolitionofanyexistingstructureswasnotincludedinthecostestimates.
7. Siteselectionwasassumedtobesuchthatfoundationswouldrequirecastinplaceconcretepiers
atelevationstobedeterminedduringdetaileddesign.Allexcavationswereassumedtobe
rippablerockorsoils(i.e.,noblastingwasassumedtoberequired).Pilingwasassumedunder
majorequipment.
8. Theestimateswerebasedonusinggranularbackfillmaterialsfromnearbyborrowareas.
9. ThedesignoftheHVACandcoolingwatersystemsandfreezeprotectionsystemsreflectedasite
locationinarelativelycoldclimate.Withtheexceptionofgeothermalandsolar,theplantswere
designedasindoorplants.
10. Thesiteswereassumedtohavesufficientareaavailabletoaccommodateconstructionactivities
includingbutnotlimitedtoconstructionoffices,warehouses,laydownandstagingareas,field
fabricationareas,andconcretebatchplantfacilities,ifrequired.
11. Procurementswereassumedtonotbeconstrainedbyanyownersourcingrestrictions,i.e.,global
sourcing.Manufacturersstandardproductswereassumedtobeusedtothegreatestextent
possible.
12. Gasplantswereassumedtobesinglefuelonly.Naturalgaswasassumedtobeavailableatthe
plantfenceattherequiredpressureandvolumeasapipelineconnection.Coalplantswerefueled
withaMidwesternbituminouscoal.
13. Waterwasassumedtobeavailableattheplantfencewithapipelineconnection.
14. Theestimatesincludedanadministration/controlbuilding.
15. Theestimateswerebasedon2009costs;therefore,escalationwasnotincluded.
16. Directestimatedcostsincludedthepurchaseofmajorequipment,balanceofplant(BOP)
equipmentandmaterials,erectionlabor,andallcontractorservicesforfurnishanderect
subcontractitems.
17. Sparepartsforstartupandcommissioningwereincludedintheownerscosts.
18. Constructionpersonhourswerebasedona50hourworkweekusingmerit/openshop
craftspersons.
19. ThecompositecrewlaborratewasfortheMidwesternstates.Ratesincludedpayrollandpayroll
taxesandbenefits.
20. Projectmanagement,engineering,procurement,qualitycontrol,andrelatedserviceswere
includedintheengineeringservices.
21. Fieldconstructionmanagementservicesincludedfieldmanagementstaffwithsupportingstaff
personnel,fieldcontractadministration,fieldinspectionandqualityassurance,andproject
control.Alsoincludedwastechnicaldirectionandmanagementofstartupandtesting,cleanup
expensefortheportionnotincludedinthedirectcostconstructioncontracts,safetyandmedical
services,guardsandothersecurityservices.
22. Engineering,procurement,andconstruction(EPC)contractorcontingencyandprofitallowances
wereincludedwiththeinstallationcosts.
23. Constructionmanagementcostestimateswerebasedonapercentageofcraftlaborpersonhours.
Constructionutilitiesandstartuputilitiessuchaswater,power,andfuelweretobeprovidedby
theowner.Onsiteconstructiondistributioninfrastructuresfortheseutilitieswereincludedin
theestimate.
24. Ownerscostswereincludedasaseparatelineitem.
25. Operationalsparepartswereincludedasanownerscost.
26. Projectinsurances,includingBuildersAllRiskinsurance,wereincludedintheestimatesasan
ownerscost.
27. Constructionpermitswereassumedtobeownerscosts.
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28. Theestimatesincludedanyproperty,salesorusetaxes,grossreceipttax,importorexportduties,
exciseorlocaltaxes,licensefees,valueaddedtax,orothersimilartaxesintheownerscosts.
29. Coststoupgraderoads,bridges,railroads,andotherinfrastructureoutsidethesiteboundary,for
equipmenttransportationtothefacilitysite,wereincludedintheownerscosts.
30. Costsofland,andallrightofwayaccess,wereprovidedintheownersCosts.
31. Allpermittingandlicensingwereincludedintheownerscosts.
32. Allcostswerebasedonscopeendingatthestepuptransformer.Theelectricswitchyard,
transmissiontapline,andinterconnectionwereexcluded.
33. Similarly,theinterestduringconstruction(IDC)wasexcluded.
34. Otherownerscostswereincluded.
Insomecases,ablendedaveragetechnologyconfigurationwasusedastheproxyforarangeof
possibletechnologiesinagivencategory.Forexample,anumberofconcentratingsolarpower
technologiesmaybecommercializedoverthenext40years.Black&Veatchusedtroughtechnology
fortheearlytrajectoryandtowertechnologyforthelaterpartofthetrajectory.Thecostswere
meanttorepresenttheexpectedcostofarangeofpossibletechnologysolutions.Similarly,many
marinehydrokineticoptionsmaybecommercializedoverthenext40years.Nosingletechnology
offeringismodeled.
Fortechnologiessuchasenhancedgeothermal,deepoffshorewind,ormarinehydrokineticwhere
thetechnologyhasnotbeenfullydemonstratedandcommercialized,estimateswerebasedonNth
plantcosts.Thedateoffirstimplementationwasassumedtobeafteratleastthreefullscaleplants
havesuccessfullyoperatedfor35years.ThefirstNthplantswerethereforemodeledatafuturetime
beyond2010.Forthesenewandcurrentlynoncommercialtechnologies,demonstrationplantcost
premiumsandearlyfinancialpremiumswereexcluded.Inparticular,althoughcostsarein2009
dollars,severaltechnologiesarenotcurrentlyinconstructionandcouldnotbeonlinein2010.
Thecostdatapresentedinthisreportprovideafuturetrajectorypredictedprimarilyfromhistorical
pricingdataasinfluencedbyexistinglevelsofgovernmentandprivateresearch,development,
demonstration,anddeploymentincentives.
Black&Veatchestimatedcostsforfullydemonstratedtechnologieswerebasedonexperience
obtainedinEPCprojects,engineeringstudies,ownersengineerandduediligencework,and
evaluationofpowerpurchaseagreement(PPA)pricing.Costsforothertechnologiesoradvanced
versionsofdemonstratedtechnologieswerebasedonengineeringstudiesandotherpublished
sources.Amorecompletediscussionofthecostestimatingdataandmethodologiesfollows.
1.2ESTIMATIONOFDATAANDMETHODOLOGY
ThebestestimatesavailabletoBlack&VeatchwereEPCestimatesfromprojectsforwhichBlack&
Veatchperformedconstructionorconstructionmanagementservices.Secondbestwereprojectsfor
whichBlack&Veatchwastheownersengineerfortheprojectowner.Theseestimatesprovidedan
understandingofthedetaileddirectandindirectcostsforequipment,materialsandlabor,andthe
relationshipbetweeneachofthesecostsatalevelofdetailrequiringlittlecontingency.These
detailedconstructionestimatesalsoallowedanunderstandingoftheownerscostsandtheirimpact
ontheoverallestimate.Black&Veatchtracksthedetailedestimatesandoftenusesthesetoperform
studiesanddevelopestimatesforprojectsdefinedatlowerlevelsofdetail.Black&Veatchisableto
staycurrentwithmarketconditionsthroughduediligenceworkitdoesforfinancialinstitutionsand
othersandwhenitreviewsenergypricesfornewPPAs.Finally,Black&Veatchalsoprepares
proposalsforprojectsofasimilarnature.Currentmarketinsightisusedtoadjustdetailedestimates
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asrequiredtokeepthemuptodate.Thus,itisanimportantpartofthecompanysbusinessmodelto
staycurrentwithcostsforalltypesofprojects.Projectcostsforsitespecificengineeringstudiesand
formoregenericengineeringstudiesarefrequentlyadjustedbyadding,orsubtracting,specificscope
itemsassociatedwithaparticularsitelocation.Thus,Black&Veatchhasanunderstandingofthe
rangeofcoststhatmightbeexpectedforparticulartechnologyapplications.(SeeTextBox1fora
discussionofcostuncertaintybands.)
Black&Veatchisabletoaugmentitsdataandtointerpretitusingpublishedthirdpartysources;
Black&Veatchisalsoabletounderstandpublishedsourcesandapplyjudgmentininterpreting
thirdpartycostreportsandestimatesinordertounderstandthemarketplace.Reportedcostsoften
differfromBlack&Veatchsexperience,butBlack&Veatchisabletoinferpossiblereasons
dependinguponthesourceanddetailofthecostdata.Black&Veatchalsousesitscostdataand
understandingofthatdatatopreparemodelsandtools.
Thoughfuturetechnologycostsarehighlyuncertain,theexperiencesandexpertisedescribedabove
enableBlack&Veatchtomakereasonablecostandperformanceprojectionsforawidearrayof
generationtechnologies.Thoughtechnologycostscanvaryregionally,costdatapresentedinthis
reportareinstrongagreementwithothertechnologycostestimates(FERC2008,Keltonetal.2009,
Lazard2009).Thisreportdescribestheprojectedcostdataandperformancedataforelectric
generationtechnologies.
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TextBox1.WhyEstimatesAreNotSinglePoints
Inarecentutilitysolicitationfor(engineering,procurementandconstruction)EPCandpowerpurchaseagreement
(PPA)bidsforthesamewindprojectataspecificsite,thebidsvariedby60%.Moretypically,whenbidderspropose
ontheexactscopeatthesamelocationforthesameclient,theirbidsvarybyontheorderof10%ormore.Why
doesthisvariabilityoccurandwhatdoesitmean?Differentbiddersmakedifferentassumptions,theyoftenobtain
bidsfrommultipleequipmentsuppliers,differentconstructioncontractors,theyhavedifferentoverheads,different
profitrequirementsandtheyhavebetterorworsecapabilitiestoestimateandperformthework.Thesefactorscan
allshowupasarangeofbidstoaccomplishthesamescopeforthesameclientinthesamelocation.
Proposingfordifferentclientsgenerallyresultsinincreasedvariability.Utilities,PrivatePowerProducers,Stateor
Federalentities,allcanhavedifferentrequirementsthatimpactcosts.Sparingrequirements,assumptionsusedfor
economictradeoffs,aclientssalestaxstatus,orfinancialandeconomicassumptions,equipmentwarranty
requirements,orplantperformanceguaranteesinformbidcosts.Bidderscontractingphilosophycanalsointroduce
variability.Somewillcontractlumpsumfixedpriceandsomewillcontractusingcostplus.Somewillusemany
contractorsandconsultants;somewillwantasinglesource.Somemanagewithinhouseresourcesandaccountfor
thoseresources;someuseallexternalresources.Thisvariationalonecanimpactcostsstillanother10%ormore
becauseitimpactsthevisibilityofcosts,theallocationofrisksandprofitmargins,andtheextenttowhichprofits
mightoccuratseveraldifferentplacesintheprojectstructure.
Changethesiteandvariabilityincreasesstillfurther.Differentlocationscanhavedifferingrequirementsforuseof
unionornonunionlabor.Overallproductivityandlaborcostvaryindifferentregions.Salestaxratesvary,local
marketconditionsvary,andevenprofitmarginsandperceivedriskcanvary.
Sitespecificscopeisalsoanissue.Accessroads,laydownareas,1transportationdistancestothesiteandavailability
ofutilities,indoorvs.outdoorbuildings,ambienttemperaturesandmanyothersitespecificissuescanaffectscope
andspecificequipmentneedsandchoices.
OwnerswillalsohavespecificneedsandtheircostswillvaryforacostcategoryreferredtoasOwnerscosts.The
ElectricPowerResearchInstitute(EPRI)standardownerscostsinclude1)paiduproyaltyallowance,2)
preproductioncosts,3)inventorycapitaland4)landcosts.However,thistotalconstructioncostortotalcapital
requirementbyEPRIdoesnotincludemanyoftheotherownerscoststhatacontractorlikeBlack&Veatchwould
includeinprojectcostcomparisons.Theseadditionalelementsincludethefollowing:
Sparepartsandplantequipmentincludesmaterials,suppliesandparts,machineshopequipment,rolling
stock,plantfurnishingsandsupplies.
Utilityinterconnectionsincludenaturalgasservice,gassystemupgrades,electricaltransmission,
substation/switchyard,wastewaterandsupplywaterorwellsandrailroad.
Projectdevelopmentincludesfuelrelatedprojectmanagementandengineering,siteselection,preliminary
engineering,landandrezoning,rightsofwayforpipelines,laydownyard,accessroads,demolition,
environmentalpermittingandoffsets,publicrelations,communitydevelopment,sitedevelopmentlegal
assistance,mancamp,heliport,bargeunloadingfacility,airstripanddieselfuelstorage.
Ownersprojectmanagementincludesbiddocumentpreparation,ownersprojectmanagement,
engineeringduediligenceandownerssiteconstructionmanagement.
1Alaydownyardorareaisanareawhereequipmenttobeinstalledistemporarilystored.
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Taxes/ins/advisoryfees/legalincludessales/useandpropertytax,marketandenvironmentalconsultants
andratingagencies,ownerslegalexpenses,PPA,interconnectagreements,contractprocurementand
construction,propertytransfer/title/escrowandconstructionallriskinsurance.
Financingincludesfinancialadvisor,marketanalystandengineer,loanadministrationandcommitmentfees
anddebtservicereservefund.
Plantstartup/constructionsupportincludesownerssitemobilization,operationandmaintenance(O&M)
stafftrainingandprecommercialoperation,startup,initialtestfluids,initialinventoryofchemicaland
reagents,majorconsumablesandcostoffuelnotcoveredrecoveredinpowersales.
Someoverlapcanbeseeninthecategoriesabove,whichisanothercontributortovariabilitydifferentestimators
prepareestimatesusingdifferentformatsandmethodologies.
Anotherformofvariabilitythatexistsinestimatesconcernstheuseofdifferentclassesofestimateandassociated
typesofcontingency.Thereareindustryguidelinesfordifferentclassesofestimatethatprovidelevelsof
contingencytobeappliedfortheparticularclass.Afinalestimatesuitableforbiddingwouldhavelotsofdetail
identifiedandwouldincludea5to10%projectcontingency.Acompleteprocessdesignmighthavelessdetail
definedandincludea10to15%contingency.Thelowestlevelofconceptualestimatemightbebasedonatotal
plantperformanceestimatewithsomesitespecificconditionsanditmightincludea20to30%contingency.
Contingencyismeanttocoverbothitemsnotestimatedanderrorsintheestimateaswellasvariabilitydealingwith
sitespecificdifferences.
Givenallthesesourcesofvariability,contractorsnormallyspeakintermsofcostrangesandnotspecificvalues.
Modelers,ontheotherhand,oftenfinditeasiertodealwithsinglepointestimates.Whilemodelersoften
convenientlythinkofoneprice,competitioncanresultinmanyprice/costoptions.Itisnotpossibletoestimatecosts
withasmuchprecisionasmanythinkitispossibletodo;further,theideaofanationalaveragecostthatcanbe
applieduniversallyisactuallyproblematic.Onecancalculateahistoricalnationalaveragecostforanything,but
predictingafuturenationalaveragecostwithsomecertaintyforadevelopingtechnologyandgeographicallydiverse
marketsthatareevolvingisfarfromstraightforward.
Implications
Becausecostestimatesreflectthesesourcesofvariability,theyarebestthoughtofasrangesthatreflectthe
variabilityaswellasotheruncertainties.Whenthecostestimaterangesfortwotechnologiesoverlap,either
technologycouldbethemostcosteffectivesolutionforanygivenspecificownerandsite.Ofcourse,capitalcosts
maynotreflecttheentirevaluepropositionofatechnology,andothercostcomponents,likeO&Morfuelcostswith
theirownsourcesofvariabilityanduncertainty,mightbenecessarytoincludeinacostanalysis.
Formodels,weoftensimplifycalculationsbyusingpointsinsteadofrangesthatreflectvariabilityanduncertainty,so
thatwecanmoreeasilyaddressotherimportantcomplexitiessuchasthecostoftransmissionorsystemintegration.
However,wemustrememberthatwhenactualdecisionsaremade,decisionmakerswillincludeimplicitorexplicit
considerationofcapitalcostuncertaintywhenassessingtechnologytradeoffs.Thisiswhytwoadjacentutilitieswith
seeminglysimilarneedsmayprocuretwocompletelydifferenttechnologysolutions.Economicoptimizationmodels
generallycannotbereliedonasthefinalbasisforsitespecificdecisions.Oneofthereasonsisestimateuncertainty.
Arelativelyminorchangeincostcanresultinachangeintechnologyselection.Becauseofunknownsatparticular
siteandcustomerspecificsituations,itisunlikelythatallcustomerswouldswitchtoaspecifictechnologysolutionat
thesametime.Therefore,modelersshouldensurethatmodelalgorithmsorinputcriteriadonotallowmajorshifts
intechnologychoiceforsmalldifferencesintechnologycost.Inaddition,genericestimatesshouldnotbeusedin
sitespecificuserspecificanalyses.
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2CostEstimatesandPerformanceDataforConventional
ElectricityTechnologies
Thissectionincludesdescriptionandtabulardataonthecostandperformanceprojectionsfor
conventionalnonrenewabletechnologies,whichincludefossiltechnologies(naturalgas
combustionturbine,naturalgascombinedcycle,andpulverizedcoal)withandwithoutcarbon
captureandstorage,andnucleartechnologies.Inaddition,costsforfluegasdesulfurization2(FGD)
retrofitsarealsodescribed.
2.1NUCLEARPOWERTECHNOLOGY
Black&Veatchsnuclearexperiencespansthefullrangeofnuclearengineeringservices,including
EPC,modificationservices,designandconsultingservicesandresearchsupport.Black&Veatchis
currentlyworkingunderserviceagreementarrangementswithMHIforbothgenericandplant
specificdesignsoftheUnitedStatesAdvancedPressurizedWaterReactor(USAPWR).Black&Veatch
historicaldataandrecentmarketdatawereusedtomakeadjustmentstostudyestimatestoinclude
ownerscosts.ThenuclearplantproxywasbasedonacommercialWestinghouseAP1000reactor
designproducing1,125netMW.Thecapitalcostin2010wasestimatedat6,100$/kW+30%.We
anticipatethatadvanceddesignscouldbecommercializedintheUnitedStatesundergovernment
sponsoredprograms.Whilewedonotanticipatecostsavingsassociatedwiththeseadvanced
designs,weassumedacostreductionof10%forpotentialimprovedmetallurgyforpipingand
vessels.Table1presentscostandperformancedatafornuclearpower.Figure1showsthe2010cost
breakdownforanuclearpowerplant.
2Fluegasdesulfurization(FGD)technologyisalsoreferredtoasSO scrubbertechnology.
2
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6,100
2050
127
127
127
127
127
127
127
127
127
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
Construction
Schedule
(Months)
6.00
6.00
6.00
6.00
6.00
6.00
6.00
6.00
6.00
POR
(%)
4.00
4.00
4.00
4.00
4.00
4.00
4.00
4.00
4.00
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
FOR Min.Load
(%)
(%)
BLACK&VEATCHCORPORATION|2CostEstimatesandPerformanceDataforConventionalElectricityTechnologies
Allcostsin2009$
9,720
9,720
9,720
9,720
9,720
9,720
9,720
9,720
9,720
HeatRate
(Btu/kWh)
O&M=operationandmaintenance
b
POR=plannedoutagerate
c
FOR=forcedoutagerate
6,100
2045
6,100
2040
6,100
2025
6,100
6,100
2020
2035
6,100
2015
6,100
6,100
2010
2030
6,230
2008
CapitalCost FixedO&M
Year
($/kW)
($/kWyr)
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
SpinRamp
Rate
(%/min)
Table1.CostandPerformanceProjectionforaNuclearPowerPlant(1125MW)
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
QuickStart
RampRate
(%/min)
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1165$/KW, 19%
Figure1.Capitalcostbreakdownforanuclearpowerplant
ThetotalplantlaborandinstallationisincludedintheYard/Cooling/Installationcostelement.The
powerplantisassumedtobeasingleunitwithnoprovisionforfutureadditions.Switchyard,
interconnectionandinterestduringconstructionarenotincluded.OwnerscostsaredefinedinText
Box1above.
2.2COMBUSTIONTURBINETECHNOLOGY
Naturalgascombustionturbinecostswerebasedonatypicalindustrialheavydutygasturbine,GE
Frame7FAorequivalentofthe211netMWsize.Theestimatedidnotincludethecostofselective
catalyticreduction(SCR)/carbonmonoxide(CO)reactorforNOxandCOreduction.Thecombustion
turbinegeneratorwasassumedtoincludeadry,lowNOxcombustionsystemcapableofrealizing9
partspermillionbyvolume,dry(ppmvd)@15%O2atfullload.A2010capitalcostwasestimatedat
651$/kW+25%.Costuncertaintyforthistechnologyislow.Althoughitispossiblethatadvanced
configurationswillbedevelopedoverthenext40years,theeconomicincentivefornewdevelopment
hasnotbeenapparentinthelastfewdecades(Shelley2008).Costestimatesdidnotincludeanycost
orperformanceimprovementsthrough2050.Table2presentscostandperformancedataforgas
turbinetechnology.Table3presentsemissionratesforthetechnology.Figure2showsthe2010
capitalcostbreakdownbycomponentforanaturalgascombustionturbineplant.
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11
651
651
651
651
2035
2040
2045
2050
29.9
29.9
29.9
29.9
29.9
29.9
29.9
29.9
29.9
10,390
10,390
10,390
10,390
10,390
10,390
10,390
10,390
10,390
HeatRate
(Btu/kWh)
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
Construction
Schedule
(Months)
5.00 3.00
5.00 3.00
5.00 3.00
5.00 3.00
5.00 3.00
5.00 3.00
5.00 3.00
5.00 3.00
5.00 3.00
POR FOR
(%) (%)
NOx
(Lb/mmbtu)
0.033
SO2
(Lb/mmbtu)
0.0002
0.006
PM10
(Lb/mmbtu)
117
CO2
(Lb/mmbtu)
Table3.EmissionRatesforaGasTurbinePowerPlant
5.26
5.26
5.26
5.26
5.26
5.26
5.26
5.26
5.26
FixedO&M
($/kWyr)
BLACK&VEATCHCORPORATION|2CostEstimatesandPerformanceDataforConventionalElectricityTechnologies
651
651
2020
2030
651
2015
651
651
2010
2025
671
2008
CapitalCost VariableO&M
Year
($/kW)
($/MWh)
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
Min.Load
(%)
Table2.CostandPerformanceProjectionforaGasTurbinePowerPlant(211MW)
8.33
8.33
8.33
8.33
8.33
8.33
8.33
8.33
8.33
SpinRamp
Rate
(%/min)
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22.20
22.20
22.20
22.20
22.20
22.20
22.20
22.20
22.20
QuickStart
RampRate
(%/min)
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$110/kW , 17%
$258/kW , 40%
Gas turbine
$20/kW , 3%
Balance of plant
Engineering, procurement,
construction management services
Owner's cost
$263/kW , 40%
Figure2.Capitalcostbreakdownforagasturbinepowerplant
2.3COMBINEDCYCLETECHNOLOGY
Naturalgascombinedcycle(CC)technologywasrepresentedbya615MWplant.Costswerebased
ontwoGE7FAcombustionturbinesorequivalent,twoheatrecoverysteamgenerators(HRSGs),a
singlereheatsteamturbineandawetmechanicaldraftcoolingtower.ThecostincludedaSCR/CO
reactorhousedwithintheHRSGsforNOxandCOreduction.Thecombustionturbinegeneratorwas
assumedtoincludedrylowNOxcombustionsystemcapableofrealizing9ppmvd@15%O2atfull
load.
2010capitalcostwasestimatedtobe1,230$/kW+25%.CostuncertaintyforCCtechnologyislow.
AlthoughitispossiblethatadvancedconfigurationsforCCcomponentswillbedevelopedoverthe
next40years,theeconomicincentivefornewdevelopmenthasnotbeenapparentinthelastfew
decades.Thecostestimatesdidnotincludeanycostreductionthrough2050.Table4presentscost
andperformancedataforcombinedcycletechnology.Table5presentsemissiondataforthe
technology.The2010capitalcostbreakdownforthecombinedcyclepowerplantisshowninFigure
3.
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1230
1230
2045
2050
3.67
3.67
3.67
3.67
3.67
3.67
3.67
3.67
3.67
6,705
6,705
6,705
6,705
6,705
6,705
6,705
6,705
6,705
41
41
41
41
41
41
41
41
41
6.00 4.00
6.00 4.00
6.00 4.00
6.00 4.00
6.00 4.00
6.00 4.00
6.00 4.00
6.00 4.00
6.00 4.00
POR FOR
(%) (%)
NOX
(LB/mmbtu)
0.0073
SO2
(Lb/mmbtu)
0.0002
0.0058
PM10
(Lb/mmbtu)
117
CO2
(Lb/mmbtu)
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
Min.Load
(%)
Table5.EmissionRatesforaCombinedCyclePowerPlant
6.31
6.31
6.31
6.31
6.31
6.31
6.31
6.31
6.31
FixedO&M
($/kWYr)
Construction
Schedule
(Months)
BLACK&VEATCHCORPORATION|2CostEstimatesandPerformanceDataforConventionalElectricityTechnologies
1230
2040
1230
2025
1230
1230
2020
2035
1230
2015
1230
1230
2010
2030
1250
CapitalCost VariableO&M
($/kW)
($/MWh)
2008
Year
HeatRate
(Btu/kWh)
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
SpinRamp
Rate
(%/min)
Table4.CostandPerformanceProjectionforaCombinedCyclePowerPlant(580MW)
NATIONALRENEWABLEENERGYLABORATORY(NREL)|COSTANDPERFORMANCEDATAFORPOWERGENERATIONTECHNOLOGIES
2.50
2.50
2.50
2.50
2.50
2.50
2.50
2.50
2.50
QuickStart
RampRate
(%/min)
14
NATIONALRENEWABLEENERGYLABORATORY(NREL)|COSTANDPERFORMANCEDATAFORPOWERGENERATION
TECHNOLOGIES
$209/kW , 17%
$177/kW , 14%
$57/kW , 5%
Gas turbines
$68/kW , 6%
Steam Turbines
Balance of plant
Engineering, procurement,
construction management services
Owner's cost
Figure3.Capitalcostbreakdownforacombinedcyclepowerplant
2.4COMBINEDCYCLEWITHCARBONCAPTUREANDSEQUESTRATION
Carboncaptureandsequestration(CCS)wasaddedtotheaboveCC.Black&VeatchhasnoEPC
estimatesforCCSsinceitisnotcommercialatthistime.However,Black&Veatchhasparticipatedin
engineeringandcoststudiesofCCSandhassomeunderstandingoftherangeofexpectedcostsfor
CO2storageindifferentgeologicconditions.TheCCcostswerebasedontwocombustionturbines,a
singlesteamturbineandwetcoolingtowerproducing580netMWaftertakingintoconsideration
CCS.ThisisthesamecombinedcycledescribedabovebutwithCCSaddedtoachieve85%capture.
CCSisassumedtobecommerciallyavailableafter2020.2020capitalcostwasestimatedat
3,750$/kW+35%.CostuncertaintyishigherthanfortheCCwithoutCCSduetotheuncertainty
associatedwiththeCCSsystem.AlthoughitispossiblethatadvancedCCconfigurationswillbe
developedoverthenext40years,theeconomicincentivefornewgasturbineCCdevelopmenthas
notbeenapparentinthelastdecade.Further,whilecostimprovementsinCCSmaybedeveloped
overtime,itisexpectedthatgeologicconditionswillbecomemoredifficultasinitialeasiersitesare
used.Thecostofperpetualstorageinsurancewasnotestimatedorincluded.Table4presentscost
andperformancedataforcombinedcyclewithcarboncaptureandsequestrationtechnology.Table5
presentsemissiondataforthetechnology.
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3750
3750
3750
3750
3750
3750
3750
2010
2015
2020
2025
2030
2035
2040
2045
2050
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
18.4
18.4
18.4
18.4
18.4
18.4
18.4
FixedO&M
($/kWyr)
10,080
10,080
10,080
10,080
10,080
10,080
10,080
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
Const.
HeatRate Schedule
(Btu/kWh) (Months)
6.00 4.00
6.00 4.00
6.00 4.00
6.00 4.00
6.00 4.00
6.00 4.00
6.00 4.00
POR FOR
(%) (%)
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
MinLoad
(%
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
SpinRamp
Rate
(%/min)
0.0073
0.0002
0.0058
PM10
(Lb/mmbtu)
18
CO2
(Lb/mmbtu)
BLACK&VEATCHCORPORATION|2CostEstimatesandPerformanceDataforConventionalElectricityTechnologies
NOx
(LB/mmbtu)
SO2
(Lb/mmbtu)
Table7.EmissionRatesforaCombinedCyclePowerPlantwithCarbonCaptureandSequestration
3860
2008
Year
CapitalCost VariableO&M
($/kW)
($/MWh)
2.50
2.50
2.50
2.50
2.50
2.50
2.50
QuickStart
RampRate
(%/min)
Table6.CostandPerformanceProjectionforaCombinedCyclePowerPlant(580MW)withCarbonCaptureandSequestration
NATIONALRENEWABLEENERGYLABORATORY(NREL)|COSTANDPERFORMANCEDATAFORPOWERGENERATIONTECHNOLOGIES
16
NATIONALRENEWABLEENERGYLABORATORY(NREL)|COSTANDPERFORMANCEDATAFORPOWER
GENERATIONTECHNOLOGIES
2.5PULVERIZEDCOALFIREDPOWERGENERATION
Pulverizedcoalfiredpowerplantcostswerebasedonasinglereheat,condensing,tandem
compound,fourflowsteamturbinegeneratorset,asinglereheatsupercriticalsteam
generatorandwetmechanicaldraftcoolingtower,aSCR,andairqualitycontrolequipment
forparticulateandSO2control,alldesignedastypicalofrecentU.S.installations.The
estimateincludedthecostofaSCRreactor.Thesteamgeneratorwasassumedtoinclude
lowNOxburnersandotherfeaturestocontrolNOx.Netoutputwasapproximately606MW.
2010capitalcostwasestimatedat2,890$/kW+35%.Costcertaintyforthistechnologyis
relativelyhigh.Overthe40yearanalysisperiod,a4%improvementinheatratewas
assumed.Table8presentscostandperformancedataforpulverizedcoalfiredtechnology.
Table9presentsemissionsratesforthetechnology.The2010capitalcostbreakdownfor
thepulverizedcoalfiredpowerplantisshowninFigure4.
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2890
2890
2890
2890
2035
2040
2045
2050
23.0
23.0
23.0
23.0
23.0
23.0
23.0
23.0
23.0
9,000
9,000
9,000
9,000
9,000
9,000
9,370
9,370
9,370
55
55
55
55
55
55
55
55
55
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
FOR
(%)
NOx
(Lb/mmbtu)
0.05
SO2
(Lb/mmbtu)
0.055
0.011
PM10
(Lb/mmbtu)
90
215
Hg
CO2
(%removal) (Lb/mmbtu)
Table9.EmissionRatesforaPulverizedCoalFiredPowerPlant
3.71
3.71
3.71
3.71
3.71
3.71
3.71
3.71
3.71
FixedO&M
($/kWYr)
Construction
Schedule
POR
(Months)
(%)
BLACK&VEATCHCORPORATION|2CostEstimatesandPerformanceDataforConventionalElectricityTechnologies
2890
2890
2020
2030
2890
2015
2890
2890
2010
2025
3040
CapitalCost VariableO&M
($/kW)
($/MWh)
2008
Year
HeatRate
(Btu/kWh)
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
MinLoad
(%)
Table8.CostandPerformanceProjectionforaPulverizedCoalFiredPowerPlant(606MW)
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
SpinRamp
Rate
(%/min)
NATIONALRENEWABLEENERGYLABORATORY(NREL)|COSTANDPERFORMANCEDATAFORPOWERGENERATIONTECHNOLOGIES
18
NATIONALRENEWABLEENERGYLABORATORY(NREL)|COSTANDPERFORMANCEDATAFORPOWER
GENERATIONTECHNOLOGIES
$490/kW , 17%
$150/kW , 5%
$265/kW , 9%
Turbine equipment
Boiler equipment
$215/kW , 8%
Balance of plant/Installation
Engineering, procurement,
construction management services
Owner's cost
$1,770/kW , 61%
Figure4.Capitalcostbreakdownforapulverizedcoalfiredpowerplant
2.6PULVERIZEDCOALFIREDPOWERGENERATIONWITHCARBON
CAPTUREANDSEQUESTRATION
Black&Veatchisaleadingdesignerofelectricgeneratingstationsandtheforemost
designerandconstructorofcoalfueledpowergenerationplantsworldwide.Black&
Veatchscoalfueledgeneratingstationexperienceincludes10,000MWofsupercritical
pulverizedcoalfiredpowerplantprojects.
Thepulverizedcoalfiredpowerplantcostswerebasedonasupercriticalsteamcycleand
wetcoolingtowerdesigntypicalofrecentU.S.installations,thesameplantdescribedabove
butwithCCS.Netoutputwasapproximately455MW.CCSwouldbebasedon85%CO2
removal.CCSwasassumedtobecommerciallyavailableafter2020.2020capitalcostwas
estimatedat6,560$/kW45%and+35%.Costuncertaintyishigherthanforthepulverized
coalfiredplantonlyduetotheuncertaintyassociatedwiththeCCS.
Weassumeda4%improvementinheatratetoaccountfortechnologypotentialalready
existingbutnotfrequentlyusedintheUnitedStates.Thecostofperpetualstorage
insurancewasnotestimatedorincluded.Table8presentscostandperformancedatafor
pulverizedcoalfiredwithcarboncaptureandsequestrationtechnology.
Table911presentsemissionsratesforthetechnology.
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6560
5640
5640
5640
5640
5640
5640
2010
2015
2020
2025
2030
2035
2040
2045
2050
6.02
6.02
6.02
6.02
6.02
6.02
6.02
35.2
35.2
35.2
35.2
35.2
35.2
35.2
FixedO&M
($/kWyr)
12,100
12,100
12,100
12,100
12,100
12,100
12,600
HeatRate
(Btu/kWh)
66
66
66
66
66
66
66
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
Construction
Schedule
POR
(Months)
(%)
FOR
(%)
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
MinLoad
(%)
0.05
0.055
0.011
PM10
(Lb/mmbtu)
90
32
Hg
CO2
(%removal) (Lb/mmbtu)
BLACK&VEATCHCORPORATION|2CostEstimatesandPerformanceDataforConventionalElectricityTechnologies
NOx
(Lb/mmbtu)
(Lb/mmbtu)
SO2
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
SpinRamp
Rate
(%/min)
Table11.EmissionRatesforaPulverizedCoalFiredPowerPlantwithCarbonCaptureandSequestration
6890
2008
Year
CapitalCost VariableO&M
($/kW)
($/MWh)
Table10.CostandPerformanceProjectionforaPulverizedCoalFiredPowerPlant(455MW)withCarbonCaptureandSequestration
NATIONALRENEWABLEENERGYLABORATORY(NREL)|COSTANDPERFORMANCEDATAFORPOWERGENERATIONTECHNOLOGIES
20
NATIONALRENEWABLEENERGYLABORATORY(NREL)|COSTANDPERFORMANCEDATAFORPOWER
GENERATIONTECHNOLOGIES
2.7GASIFICATIONCOMBINEDCYCLETECHNOLOGY
Black&Veatchisaleadingdesignerofelectricgeneratingstationsandtheforemost
designerandconstructorofcoalfueledpowergenerationplantsworldwide.Black&
Veatchscoalfueledgeneratingstationexperienceincludesintegratedgasification
combinedcycletechnologies.Black&Veatchhasdesigned,performedfeasibilitystudies,
andperformedindependentprojectassessmentsfornumerousgasificationandgasification
combinedcycle(GCC)projectsusingvariousgasificationtechnologies.Black&Veatch
historicaldatawereusedtomakeadjustmentstostudyestimatestoincludeownerscosts.
Specialcarewastakentoadjustto2009dollarsbasedonmarketexperience.TheGCC
estimatewasbasedonacommercialgasificationprocessintegratedwithaconventional
combinedcycleandwetcoolingtowerproducing590netMW.2010capitalcostwas
estimatedat4,010$/kW+35%..Costcertaintyforthistechnologyisrelativelyhigh.We
assumeda12%improvementinheatrateby2025.Table812presentscostand
performancedataforgasificationcombinedcycletechnology.
Table913presentsemissionsratesforthetechnology.TheBlack&VeatchGCCestimateis
consistentwiththeFERCestimaterange.
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4010
4010
4010
4010
4010
4010
4010
4010
4010
2010
2015
2020
2025
2030
2035
2040
2045
2050
31.1
31.1
31.1
31.1
31.1
31.1
31.1
31.1
31.1
7,950
7,950
7,950
7,950
7,950
7,950
9,030
9,030
9,030
HeatRate
(Btu/kWh)
57
57
57
57
57
57
57
57
57
Construction
Schedule
(Months)
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
POR FOR
(%) (%)
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
MinLoad
(%)
NOx
(Lb/mmbtu)
0.085
SO2
(Lb/mmbtu)
0.065
0.009
PM10
(Lb/mmbtu)
90
215
Mercury
CO2
(%Removal) (Lb/mmbtu)
SpinRamp
Rate
(%/min)
Table13.EmissionRatesforanIntegratedGasificationCombinedCyclePowerPlant
6.54
6.54
6.54
6.54
6.54
6.54
6.54
6.54
6.54
FixedO&M
($/kWyr)
BLACK&VEATCHCORPORATION|2CostEstimatesandPerformanceDataforConventionalElectricityTechnologies
4210
2008
CapitalCost VariableO&M
Year
($/kW)
($/MWh)
2.50
2.50
2.50
2.50
2.50
2.50
2.50
2.50
2.50
QuickStart
RampRate
(%/min)
Table12.CostandPerformanceProjectionforanIntegratedGasificationCombinedCyclePowerPlant(590MW)
NATIONALRENEWABLEENERGYLABORATORY(NREL)|COSTANDPERFORMANCEDATAFORPOWERGENERATIONTECHNOLOGIES
22
NATIONALRENEWABLEENERGYLABORATORY(NREL)|COSTANDPERFORMANCEDATAFORPOWER
GENERATIONTECHNOLOGIES
2.8GASIFICATIONCOMBINEDCYCLETECHNOLOGYWITHCARBON
CAPTUREANDSEQUESTRATION
Black&Veatchisaleadingdesignerofelectricgeneratingstationsandtheforemost
designerandconstructorofcoalfueledpowergenerationplantsworldwide.Black&
Veatchscoalfueledgeneratingstationexperienceincludesintegratedgasification
combinedcycletechnologies.Black&Veatchhasdesigned,performedfeasibilitystudies,
andperformedindependentprojectassessmentsfornumerousgasificationandIGCC
projectsusingvariousgasificationtechnologies.Black&Veatchhistoricaldatawereusedto
makeadjustmentstostudyestimatestoincludeownerscosts.TheGCCwasbasedona
commercialgasificationprocessintegratedwithaconventionalCCandwetcoolingtower,
thesameplantasdescribedabovebutwithCCS.Netcapacitywas520MW.Carboncapture,
sequestration,andstoragewerebasedon85%carbonremoval.Carboncaptureandstorage
isassumedtobecommerciallyavailableafter2020.2020capitalcostwasestimatedat
6,600$/kW+35%.Thecostofperpetualstorageinsurancewasnotestimatedorincluded.
Table814presentscostandperformancedataforgasificationcombinedcycletechnology
integratedwithcarboncaptureandsequestration.
Table915presentsemissionsratesforthetechnology.
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6,600
6,600
6,600
6,600
6,600
6,600
6,600
2010
2015
2020
2025
2030
2035
2040
2045
2050
10.6
10.6
10.6
10.6
10.6
10.6
10.6
44.4
44.4
44.4
44.4
44.4
44.4
44.4
FixedO&M
($/kWyr)
10,380
10,380
10,380
10,380
10,380
10,380
11,800
HeatRate
(Btu/KWh)
59
59
59
59
59
59
59
Construction
Schedule
(Months)
12.0 8.00
12.0 8.00
12.0 8.00
12.0 8.00
12.0 8.00
12.0 8.00
12.0 8.00
FOR POR
(%) (%)
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
MinLoad
(%)
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
SpinRamp
Rate
(%/min)
2.50
2.50
2.50
2.50
2.50
2.50
2.50
2.50
2.50
QuickStart
Ramp
Rate(%/min)
0.085
0.065
0.009
PM10
(Lb/mmbtu)
90%
32
Hg
CO2
(%Removal) (Lb/mmbtu)
BLACK&VEATCHCORPORATION|2CostEstimatesandPerformanceDataforConventionalElectricityTechnologies
NOx
(Lb/mmbtu)
SO2
(Lb/mmbtu)
Table15.EmissionRatesforanIntegratedGasificationCombinedCyclePowerPlantwithCarbonCaptureandSequestration
6,930
2008
CapitalCost VariableO&M
Year
($/kW)
($/MWh)
24
Table14.CostandPerformanceProjectionforanIntegratedGasificationCombinedCyclePowerPlant(520MW)withCarbonCaptureandSequestration
NATIONALRENEWABLEENERGYLABORATORY(NREL)|COSTANDPERFORMANCEDATAFORPOWERGENERATIONTECHNOLOGIES
NATIONALRENEWABLEENERGYLABORATORY(NREL)|COSTANDPERFORMANCEDATAFORPOWER
GENERATIONTECHNOLOGIES
2.9FLUEGASDESULFURIZATIONRETROFITTECHNOLOGY
Fluegasdesulfurization(FGD)retrofitwasassumedtobeacommercialdesigntoachieve
95%removalofsulfurdioxideandequipmentwasaddedtomeetcurrentmercuryand
particulatestandards.AwetlimestoneFGDsystem,afabricfilter,andapowderedactivated
carbon(PAC)injectionsystemwereincluded.Itisalsoassumedthattheexistingstackwas
notdesignedforawetFGDsystem;therefore,anewstackwasincluded.Black&Veatch
estimatedretrofitcapitalcostin2010tobe360$/kW+25%withnocostreduction
assumedthrough2050.Table16presentscostsandaconstructionscheduleforfluegas
desulfurizationretrofittechnology.
Table16.CostandScheduleforaPowerPlant(606MW)withFlueGas
DesulfurizationRetrofitTechnology
Year
RetrofitCost VariableO&M
($/kW)
($/MWh)
FixedO&M
($/kWyr)
ConstructionSchedule
(Months)
2008
371
2010
360
3.71
23.2
36
2015
360
3.71
23.2
36
2020
360
3.71
23.2
36
2025
360
3.71
23.2
36
2030
360
3.71
23.2
36
2035
360
3.71
23.2
36
2040
360
3.71
23.2
36
2045
360
3.71
23.2
36
2050
360
3.71
23.2
36
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NATIONALRENEWABLEENERGYLABORATORY(NREL)|COSTANDPERFORMANCEDATAFORPOWER
GENERATIONTECHNOLOGIES
TextBox2.CyclingConsiderations
Cyclingincreasesfailuresandmaintenancecost.
Powerplantsofthefuturewillneedincreasedflexibilityandincreased
efficiency;thesequalitiesruncountertoeachother.
Highertemperaturesrequiredforincreasedefficiencymeanslowerramprates
andlessabilitytooperateoffdesign.Similarly,environmentalfeaturessuchas
baghouses,SCR,gasturbineNOxcontrol,FGD,andcarboncapturemakeit
moredifficulttooperateatoffdesignconditions.
Earlylessefficientpowerplantswithoutmodernenvironmentalemissions
controlsprobablyhavemoreabilitytocyclethannewermorehighlytuned
designs.
Peaktemperatureandrateofchangeoftemperaturearekeylimitationsfor
cycling.Waterchemistryisanissue.
Thenumberofdiscretepulverizersisalimitationforpulverizedcoalpower
plantsandthenumberofmodulesinaddonsystemsthatmustbeintegrated
toachieveenvironmentalcontrolisalimitation.
Theramprateforcoalplantsisnotlinearasitisafunctionofbringingpulverizerson
lineasloadincreases.A600MWpulverizedcoalfiredunit(e.g.,PowderRiverBasin)
canhavesixpulverizers.AssuminganN+1sparingphilosophy,fivepulverizersare
requiredforfullloadsoeachpulverizercanprovidefuelforabout20%offullload.
Fromminimumstableloadatabout40%tofullload,itisthejudgmentofBlack&
Veatch,basedonactualexperienceincoalplantoperations,thattherampratewillbe5
MW/minuteathighloads.Thisisabout1%/minuteforaunitwhenat500MW.
Theramprateforacombinedcycleplantisacombinationofcombustionturbineramp
rateandsteamturbineramprate.Theconventionalwarmstartwilltakeabout76
minutesfromstartinitiationtofullloadonthecombinedcycle.Thecombinedramp
ratefromminute62tominute76isshownbyGEtobeabout5%/minuteforawarm
conventionalstartup.
GEshowsthatthetotaldurationofa"rapidresponse"combinedcyclestartup
assumingacombustionturbinefaststartis54minutesascomparedtoaconventional
startdurationof76minutesforawarmstart.TheramprateisshownbyGEtobe
slowerduringarapidstartup.Theoveralldurationisshorterbutthehighload
combinedramprateis2.5%.
Aftertheunithasbeenonlineanduptotemperature,wewouldexpecttheramprate
tobe5%.
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NATIONALRENEWABLEENERGYLABORATORY(NREL)|COSTANDPERFORMANCEDATAFORPOWER
GENERATIONTECHNOLOGIES
3CostEstimatesandPerformanceDataforRenewable
ElectricityTechnologies
Thissectionincludescostandperformancedataforrenewableenergytechnologies,
includingbiopower(biomasscofiringandstandalone),geothermal(hydrothermaland
enhancedgeothermalsystems),hydropower,oceanenergytechnologies(waveandtidal),
solarenergytechnologies(photovoltaicsandconcentratingsolarpower),andwindenergy
technologies(onshoreandoffshore).
3.1BIOPOWERTECHNOLOGIES
3.1.1BiomassCofiring
Frominitialtechnologyresearchandprojectdevelopment,throughturnkeydesignand
construction,Black&Veatchhasworkedwithprojectdevelopers,utilities,lenders,and
governmentagenciesonbiomassprojectsusingmorethan40differentbiomassfuels
throughouttheworld.Black&Veatchhasexceptionaltoolstoevaluatetheimpactsof
biomasscofiringontheexistingfacility,suchastheVISTAmodel,whichevaluatesimpacts
tothecoalfueledboilerandbalanceofplantsystemsduetochangesinfuels.
Althoughthemaximuminjectionofbiomassdependsonboilertypeandthenumberand
typesofnecessarymodificationstotheboiler,biomasscofiringwasassumedtobelimited
toamaximumof15%forallcoalplants.Forthebiomasscofiringretrofit,Black&Veatch
estimated2010capitalcostsof990$/kW50%and+25%.Costuncertaintyissignificantly
impactedbythedegreeofmodificationsneededforaparticularfuelandboiler
combination.Significantlylessboilermodificationmaybenecessaryinsomecases.Black&
Veatchdidnotestimateanycostimprovementovertime.Table17presentscofiringcost
andperformancedata.Inthepresentconvention,thecapitalcosttoretrofitacoalplantto
cofirebiomassisappliedtothebiomassportiononly3.Similarly,O&Mcostsareappliedto
thenewretrofittedcapacityonly.Table17showsrepresentativeheatrates;the
performancecharacteristicsofaretrofittedplantwereassumedtobethesameasthatof
thepreviouslyexistingcoalplant.Manyvariationsarepossiblebutwerenotmodeled.Table
18showstherangeofcostsusingvariouscofiringapproachesoverarangeofcofiringfuel
levelsvaryingfrom5%to30%.Emissionscontrolequipmentperformancelimitationsmay
limittheoverallrangeofcofiringpossible.
3Forexample,retrofittinga100MWcoalplanttocofireupto15%biomasshasacostof100MWx
15%x$990,000/MW=$14,850,000.
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NATIONALRENEWABLEENERGYLABORATORY(NREL)|COSTANDPERFORMANCEDATAFORPOWER
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Table17.CostandPerformanceProjectionforBiomassCofiringTechnology
Year
Variable FixedO&M
CapitalCost O&MCost
Cost
($/kW)
($/MWh) ($/kWYr)
HeatRate
(Btu/KWh)
Construction
Schedule
(Months)
POR
(%)
FOR
(%)
2008
1,020
2010
990
20
10,000
12
2015
990
20
10,000
12
2020
990
20
10,000
12
2025
990
20
10,000
12
2030
990
20
10,000
12
2035
990
20
10,000
12
2040
990
20
10,000
12
2045
990
20
10,000
12
2050
990
20
10,000
12
Table18.CostsforCoFiringMethodsversusFuelAmount
CofiringLevel FuelBlending
(%)
($/kW)
SeparateInjection
($/kW)
Gasification
($/kW)
10001500
13001800
25003500
10
8001200
10001500
20002500
20
600
7001100
18002300
30
7001100
17002200
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3.1.2BiomassStandalone
Black&Veatchisrecognizedasoneofthemostdiverseprovidersofbiomass(solid
biomass,biogas,andwastetoenergy)systemsandservices.Frominitialtechnology
researchandprojectdevelopment,throughturnkeydesignandconstruction,Black&
Veatchhasworkedwithprojectdevelopers,utilities,lenders,andgovernmentagencieson
biomassprojectsusingmorethan40differentbiomassfuelsthroughouttheworld.This
backgroundwasusedtodevelopthecostestimatesvettedintheWesternRenewable
EnergyZone(WREZ)stakeholderprocessandtosubsequentlyupdatethatpricingand
adjustownerscosts.
AstandardRankinecyclewithwetmechanicaldraftcoolingtowerproducing50MWnetis
initiallyassumedforthestandalonebiomassgenerator.4Black&Veatchassumedthe2010
capitalcosttobe3,830$/kW25%and+50%.Costcertaintyishighforthismature
technology,buttherearemorehighcostthanlowcostoutliersduetouniquefuelsand
technologysolutions.Formodelingpurposes,itwasassumedthatgasificationcombined
cyclesystemsdisplacethedirectcombustionsystemsgraduallyresultinginanaverage
systemheatratethatimprovesby14%through2050.However,additionalcostislikely
requiredinitiallytoachievethisheatrateimprovementandthereforenoimprovementin
costwasassumedforthecosts.Table19presentscostandperformancedatafora
standalonebiomasspowerplant.Thecapitalcostbreakdownforthebiomassstandalone
powerplantisshowninFigure5.
4Standalonebiomassgeneratorsarealsoreferredtoasdedicatedplantstodistinguishthemfrom
cofiredplants.
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4,020
3,830
3,830
3,830
3,830
3,830
3,830
3,830
3,830
3,830
Year
2008
2010
2015
2020
2025
2030
2035
2040
2045
2050
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
Variable
O&MCost
($/MWh)
95
95
95
95
95
95
95
95
95
FixedO&M
Cost
($/kWYr)
12,500
12,800
13,000
13,200
13,500
13,800
14,000
14,200
14,500
HeatRate
(Btu/KWh)
36
36
36
36
36
36
36
36
36
Construction
Schedule
(Months)
BLACK&VEATCHCORPORATION|3CostEstimatesandPerformanceDataforRenewableElectricityTechnologies
CapitalCost
$/kW
7.6
7.6
7.6
7.6
7.6
7.6
7.6
7.6
7.6
POR
(%)
FOR
(%)
Table19.CostandPerformanceProjectionforaStandAloneBiomassPowerPlant(50MWNet)
NATIONALRENEWABLEENERGYLABORATORY(NREL)|COSTANDPERFORMANCEDATAFORPOWERGENERATIONTECHNOLOGIES
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
Minimum
Load
(%)
30
NATIONALRENEWABLEENERGYLABORATORY(NREL)|COSTANDPERFORMANCEDATAFORPOWER
GENERATIONTECHNOLOGIES
$730 /kW, 19%
$650/kW , 17%
Turbine
Boiler
Balance of plant
Engineering, procurement,
construction management services
Owner's cost
$575/kW , 15%
$880/kW , 23%
$995/kW , 26%
Figure5.Capitalcostbreakdownforastandalonebiomasspowerplant
3.2GEOTHERMALENERGYTECHNOLOGIES
Hydrothermaltechnologyisarelativelymaturecommercialtechnologyforwhichcost
improvementwasnotassumed.Forenhancedgeothermalsystems(EGS)technology,Black
&Veatchestimatedfuturecostimprovementsbasedonimprovementsofgeothermalfluid
pumpsanddevelopmentofmultiple,contiguousEGSunitstobenefitfromeconomyofscale
forEGSfielddevelopment.Thequalityofgeothermalresourcesaresiteandresource
specific,thereforecostsofgeothermalresourcescanvarysignificantlyfromregionto
region.Thecostestimatesshowninthisreportaresinglevaluegenericestimatesandmay
notberepresentativeofanyindividualsite.Table20andTable21presentcostand
performancedataforhydrothermalandenhancedgeothermalsystems,respectively,based
onthesesinglevalueestimates.
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Table20.CostandPerformanceProjectionforaHydrothermalPowerPlant
CapitalCost VariableO&M
($/kW)
($/MWh)
Year
FixedO&M
($/kWYr)
Construction
Schedule
POR FOR
(Months)
(%) (%)
2008
6,240
2010
5,940
31
36
2.41 0.75
2015
5,940
31
36
2.41 0.75
2020
5,940
31
36
2.41 0.75
2025
5,940
31
36
2.41 0.75
2030
5,940
31
36
2.41 0.75
2035
5,940
31
36
2.41 0.75
2040
5,940
31
36
2.41 0.75
2045
5,940
31
36
2.41 0.75
2050
5,940
31
36
2.41 0.75
Table21.CostandPerformanceProjectionforanEnhancedGeothermalSystemsPowerPlant
Year
CapitalCost VariableO&M
($/kW)
($/MWh)
FixedO&M
($/kWYr)
Construction
Schedule
(Months)
POR
(%)
FOR
(%)
2008
10,400
31
36
2.41
0.75
2010
9,900
31
36
2.41
0.75
2015
9,720
31
36
2.41
0.75
2020
9,625
31
36
2.41
0.75
2025
9,438
31
36
2.41
0.75
2030
9,250
31
36
2.41
0.75
2035
8,970
31
36
2.41
0.75
2040
8,786
31
36
2.41
0.75
2045
8,600
31
36
2.41
0.75
2050
8,420
31
36
2.41
0.75
Thecapitalcostbreakdownforthehydrothermalgeothermalpowerplantisshownin
Figure6.
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$1,010/kW , 17%
Wells
$1,520/kW , 26%
$505/kW , 8%
Gathering system
Heat exchanger
Turbine
Balance of plant
$505/kW , 8%
$1,520/kW , 26%
$130/kW , 2%
Engineering, procurement,
construction management services
Owner's cost
Total: $5,940/kW
$750/kW , 13%
Figure6.Capitalcostbreakdownforahydrothermalgeothermalpowerplant
Thecapitalcostbreakdownfortheenhancedgeothermalsystempowerplantisshownin
Figure7.
$1,690/kW , 17%
$3,890/kW , 39%
Wells
$700/kW , 7%
Gathering system
Heat exchanger
Turbine
Balance of plant
$1,520/kW , 15%
$750/kW , 8%
Total: $9,910/kW
$130/kW , 1%
$1,230/kW , 13%
Engineering, procurement,
construction management services
Owner's cost
Figure7.Capitalcostbreakdownforanenhancedgeothermalsystempowerplant
Enhancedgeothermalsystemcostreductionswilloccurprimarilyinthewells,turbine,and
BOPcategoriesovertime.
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3.3HYDROPOWERTECHNOLOGIES
Nearly500hydropowerprojectstotalingmorethan50,000MWhavebeenservedbyBlack
&Veatchworldwide.TheBlack&Veatchhistoricaldatabaseincorporatesagood
understandingofhydroelectriccosts.Black&Veatchusedthishistoricalbackgroundto
developthecostestimatesvettedintheWREZ(PletkaandFinn2009)stakeholderprocess
andtosubsequentlyupdatethatpricingandadjustownerscostsasnecessary.
Similartogeothermaltechnologies,thecostofhydropowertechnologiescanbesite
specific.Numerousoptionsareavailableforhydroelectricgeneration;repoweringan
existingdamorgenerator,orinstallinganewdamorgenerator,areoptions.Assuch,the
costestimatesshowninthisreportaresinglevalueestimatesandmaynotbe
representativeofanyindividualsite.2010capitalcostfora500MWhydropowerfacility
wasestimatedat3,500$/kW+35%.Table22presentscostandperformancedatafor
hydroelectricpowertechnology.
Table22.CostandPerformanceDataforaHydroelectricPowerPlant(500MW)
Year
CapitalCost VariableO&M
($/kW)
($/MWh)
FixedO&M
($/kWYr)
Construction
Schedule
POR FOR
(Months)
(%) (%)
2008
3,600
2010
3,500
15
24
1.9
5.0
2015
3,500
15
24
1.9
5.0
2020
3,500
15
24
1.9
5.0
2025
3,500
15
24
1.9
5.0
2030
3,500
15
24
1.9
5.0
2035
3,500
15
24
1.9
5.0
2040
3,500
15
24
1.9
5.0
2045
3,500
15
24
1.9
5.0
2050
3,500
15
24
1.9
5.0
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ThecapitalcostbreakdownforthehydroelectricpowerplantisshowninFigure8.
$810/kW , 23%
Reservoir
$911/kW , 26%
Tunnel
Powerhouse and shafts
Powerhouse equipment
$238/kW , 7%
$486/kW , 14%
Engineering, procurement,
construction management services
Owner's cost
$556/kW , 16%
$499/kW , 14%
Figure8.Capitalcostbreakdownforahydroelectricpowerplant
Hydroelectricpowerplantcostreductionswillbeprimarilyinthepowerblockcost
categoryovertime.
3.4OCEANENERGYTECHNOLOGIES
Waveandtidalcurrentresourceassessmentandtechnologycostsweredevelopedbasedon
Europeandemonstrationandhistoricaldataobtainedfromstudies.Aseparateassessment
ofthehydrokineticresourceuncertaintyisincludedinAppendicesAandB,informedbya
Black&Veatchanalysisthatincludesanupdatedresourceassessmentforwaveandtidal
currenttechnologiesandassumptionsusedtodeveloptechnologycostestimates.Wave
capitalcostin2015wasestimatedat9,240$/kW30%and+45%.Thisisanemerging
technologywithmuchuncertaintyandmanyoptionsavailable.Acostimprovementof63%
wasassumedthrough2040andthenacostincreasethrough2050reflectingtheneedto
developlowerqualityresources.Tidalcurrenttechnologyissimilarlyimmaturewithmany
technicaloptions.Capitalcostin2015wasestimatedat5,880$/kW10%and+20%.A
costimprovementof45%wasassumedastheresourceestimatedtobeavailableisfully
utilizedby2030.EstimatedO&Mcostsincludeinsurance,seabedrentals,andother
recurringcoststhatwerenotincludedintheonetimecapitalcostestimate.WaveO&M
costsarehigherthantidalcurrentcostsduetomoresevereconditions.Table23and
Table24presentcostandperformanceforwaveandtidalcurrenttechnologies,
respectively.Thecapitalcostbreakdownforwaveandcurrentpowerplantsareshownin
Figure9andFigure10,respectively.
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Table23.CostandPerformanceProjectionforOceanWaveTechnology
Year
CapitalCost
($/kW)
FixedO&M
($/kWyr)
Construction
Schedule
(Months)
2015
9,240
474
24
2020
6,960
357
24
2025
5,700
292
24
2030
4,730
243
24
2035
3,950
203
24
2040
3,420
175
24
2045
4,000
208
24
2050
5,330
273
24
POR
(%)
FOR
(%)
Table24.CostandPerformanceProjectionforOceanTidalCurrentTechnology
Year
CapitalCost
($/kW)
FixedO&M
($/kWyr)
Construction
Schedule
(Months)
POR
(%)
FOR
(%)
2015
5,880
198
2020
4,360
147
24
1.0
6.5
2025
3,460
117
24
1.0
6.5
2030
3,230
112
24
1.0
6.5
2035
112
24
1.0
6.5
2040
112
24
1.0
6.5
2045
112
24
1.0
6.5
2050
112
24
1.0
6.5
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$1,660/kW , 18%
Hydrodynamic absorber
$925/kW , 10%
$3,140/kW , 34%
Power takeoff
Control
Reaction/Fixation
$740/kW , 8%
Engineering, procurement,
construction management services
Owner's cost
$185/kW , 2%
$2,590/kW , 28%
Figure9.Capitalcostbreakdownforanoceanwavepowerplant
$940/kW , 16%
$880/kW , 15%
Hydrodynamic absorber
Power takeoff
Control
Reaction/Fixation
$1,060/kW , 18%
$1,060/kW , 18%
$350/kW , 6%
Engineering, procurement,
construction management services
Owner's cost
$1,590/kW , 27%
Figure10.Capitalcostbreakdownforanoceantidalpowerplant
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AppendicesAandBhighlighttheuncertaintyassociatedwithestimatesofwaveandtidal
energyresources.Theyformthebasisfortheestimatesabove.
3.5SOLARENERGYTECHNOLOGIES
3.5.1SolarPhotovoltaicTechnologies
Black&Veatchhasbeeninvolvedinthedevelopmentofutilityscalesolarphotovoltaic(PV)
systems,includingsitingsupport,interconnectionsupport,technologyduediligence,and
conceptuallayout.SpecificallyBlack&Veatchhasperformedduediligenceonmorethan
200MWofutilityscalePVprojectsforlendersandownersaswellasassistedinthe
developmentofmorethan1,500MWofprojectsforutilitiesanddevelopers.Black&Veatch
hasbeentheindependentengineerfor35distributedPVprojectstotaling16MWin
CaliforniaandanindependentengineerfortwoofthelargestPVsystemsinNorthAmerica.
IthasalsoreviewedsolarPVnewPPApricinganddoneprojectandmanufacturerdue
diligenceinvestigations.Thisbackgroundwasusedtodevelopthecostestimatesvettedin
theWREZstakeholderprocessandtosubsequentlyupdatethatpricingandadjustowners
costs.
Estimatesforanumberofdifferentresidential,commercialandutilityoptionsrangingfrom
40KW(directcurrent(DC))to100MW(DC)areprovided.Thecapitalcostswereassumed
tohaveuncertaintiesof+25%.Costuncertaintyisnothighforcurrentofferingsbutover
time,anumberofprojected,potentialtechnologyimprovementsmayaffectcostsforthis
technology.ChoosingthenontrackingutilityPVwitha100MW(DC)sizeasa
representativecase,a35%reductionincostwasexpectedthrough2050.Table25presents
costandperformancedataforawiderangeofPVsystems.Table25includes2008coststo
illustratetheimpact(inconstant2009dollars)ofthecommoditypricedropthatoccurred
between2008and2010.Formostgenerationtechnologies,thedeclineincommodityprices
overthetwoyearsresultsina3%5%reductionincapitalcost.AsseeninTable25,the
dropinPVtechnologycostsissignificantlygreater.ForPV,the2008costswerebasedon
actualmarketdataadjustedto2009dollars.Overthesetwoyears,PVexperiencedadrastic
fallincosts,duetotechnologyimprovements,economiesofscale,increasedsupplyinraw
materials,andotherfactors.ThecapitalcostbreakdownforthePVpowerplant(non
trackingUtilityPVwitha10MW(DC)installsize)isshowninFigure11.Notethat100MW
utilityPVsystemsrepresentingnthplantconfigurationsarenotavailablein2010.
Table25.CostandPerformanceProjectionforSolarPhotovoltaicTechnology
Year
CapitalCost
($/kW)
VariableO&M
($/MWh)
FixedO&M
($/kWyr)
Construction
Schedule
(Months)
POR
(%)
FOR
(%)
ResidentialPVwitha4kW(DC)installsize
2008
7690
2010
5950
50
2.0
2.0
0.0
2015
4340
48
1.9
2.0
0.0
2020
3750
45
1.8
2.0
0.0
2025
3460
43
1.7
2.0
0.0
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CapitalCost
($/kW)
VariableO&M
($/MWh)
FixedO&M
($/kWyr)
Construction
Schedule
(Months)
POR
(%)
FOR
(%)
2030
3290
41
1.6
2.0
0.0
2035
3190
39
1.5
2.0
0.0
2040
3090
37
1.5
2.0
0.0
2045
3010
35
1.4
2.0
0.0
2050
2930
33
1.3
2.0
0.0
Year
CommercialPVwitha100kW(DC)installsize
2008
5610
2010
4790
50
6.0
2.0
0.0
2015
3840
48
5.7
2.0
0.0
2020
3340
45
5.4
2.0
0.0
2025
3090
43
5.1
2.0
0.0
2030
2960
41
4.9
2.0
0.0
2035
2860
39
4.6
2.0
0.0
2040
2770
37
4.4
2.0
0.0
2045
2690
35
4.2
2.0
0.0
2050
2620
33
4.0
2.0
0.0
NonTrackingUtilityPVwitha1MW(DC)InstallSize
2008
4610
2010
3480
50
8.0
2.0
0.0
2015
3180
48
7.6
2.0
0.0
2020
3010
45
7.2
2.0
0.0
2025
2880
43
6.9
2.0
0.0
2030
2760
41
6.5
2.0
0.0
2035
2660
39
6.2
2.0
0.0
2040
2570
37
5.9
2.0
0.0
2045
2490
35
5.6
2.0
0.0
2050
2420
33
5.3
2.0
0.0
NonTrackingUtilityPVwitha10MW(DC)InstallSize
2008
3790
2010
2830
50
12.0
2.0
0.0
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CapitalCost
($/kW)
VariableO&M
($/MWh)
FixedO&M
($/kWyr)
Construction
Schedule
(Months)
POR
(%)
FOR
(%)
2015
2550
48
11.4
2.0
0.0
2020
2410
45
10.8
2.0
0.0
2025
2280
43
10.3
2.0
0.0
2030
2180
41
9.8
2.0
0.0
2035
2090
39
9.3
2.0
0.0
2040
2010
37
8.8
2.0
0.0
2045
1940
35
8.4
2.0
0.0
2050
1870
33
8.0
2.0
0.0
Year
NonTrackingUtilityPVwitha100MW(DC)InstallSize
2008
3210
2010
2015
2357
48
17.1
2.0
0.0
2020
2220
45
16.2
2.0
0.0
2025
2100
43
15.4
2.0
0.0
2030
1990
41
14.7
2.0
0.0
2035
1905
39
13.9
2.0
0.0
2040
1830
37
13.2
2.0
0.0
2045
1760
35
12.6
2.0
0.0
2050
1700
33
11.9
2.0
0.0
1AxisTrackingUtilityPVwitha1MW(DC)InstallSize
2008
5280
2010
3820
50
10.0
2.0
0.0
2015
3420
48
9.5
2.0
0.0
2020
3100
45
9.0
2.0
0.0
2025
2940
43
8.6
2.0
0.0
2030
2840
41
8.1
2.0
0.0
2035
2750
39
7.7
2.0
0.0
2040
2670
37
7.4
2.0
0.0
2045
2590
35
7.0
2.0
0.0
2050
2520
33
6.6
2.0
0.0
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Year
CapitalCost
($/kW)
VariableO&M
($/MWh)
FixedO&M
($/kWyr)
Construction
Schedule
(Months)
POR
(%)
FOR
(%)
1AxisTrackingUtilityPVwitha10MW(DC)InstallSize
2008
4010
2010
3090
50
14.0
2.0
0.0
2015
2780
48
13.3
2.0
0.0
2020
2670
45
12.6
2.0
0.0
2025
2560
43
12.0
2.0
0.0
2030
2380
41
11.4
2.0
0.0
2035
2380
39
10.8
2.0
0.0
2040
2300
37
10.3
2.0
0.0
2045
2230
35
9.8
2.0
0.0
2050
2170
33
9.3
2.0
0.0
1AxisTrackingUtilityPVwitha100MW(DC)InstallSize
2008
3920
2010
2015
2620
48
13.3
2.0
0.0
2020
2510
45
12.6
2.0
0.0
2025
2410
43
12.0
2.0
0.0
2030
2310
41
11.4
2.0
0.0
2035
2230
39
10.8
2.0
0.0
2040
2160
37
10.3
2.0
0.0
2045
2090
35
9.8
2.0
0.0
2050
2030
33
9.3
2.0
0.0
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$55 /kW, 2%
$140/kW , 5%
$1,400/kW , 49%
$185/kW , 7%
Modules
Structures
$240/kW , 8%
Inverters
Balance of S
Engineering, procurement,
construction management services
$810/kW , 29%
Owner's cost
Figure11.Capitalcostbreakdownforasolarphotovoltaicpowerplant
AppendixCpresentsfurtherbreakdownsforphotovoltaiccosts.
3.5.2ConcentratingSolarPowerTechnologies
Black&Veatchhasparticipatedinnumerousconcentratingsolarpower(CSP)pilotplant
andstudyactivitiessincethe1970s.Thecompanyhasbeentheindependentengineerfor
CSPprojectsandhasperformedduediligenceonCSPmanufacturers.Black&Veatchhas
alsoreviewedcostsinnewCSPpurchaseagreements.Thishistoricalknowledgeandrecent
marketdatawasusedtodevelopthecostestimatesvettedintheWREZstakeholderprocess
andtosubsequentlyupdatethatpricingandmakeadjustmentstoownerscosts.
MultipleCSPoptionswererepresented,includingCSPwithoutstorageandCSPwith
storage.TheCSPwithoutstorageoptionwasassumedtoberepresentedbytroughsystems
forallyears.FortheCSPoptionwithstorage,thecostdatarepresentedtroughsystemsuntil
2025,afterwhich,towersystemswererepresented.Thesemodelassumptionsdonot
representCSPtechnologychoicepredictionsbyBlack&Veatch.Thelocationassumedfor
costingofCSPsystemsistheSouthwestUnitedStates,nottheMidwestasusedforother
technologies.AllCSPsystemswerebasedondrycooledtechnologies.Thecostand
performancedatapresentedherewerebasedon200MWnetpowerplants.Multiple
towerswereusedinthetowerconfiguration.
Black&Veatchestimatedcapitalcoststobe4,910$/kW35%and+15%withoutstorage
and7,060$/kW35%and+15%withstoragefor2010.Thereisgreaterdownsidepotential
thanupsidecostgrowthduetotheexpectedemergenceofnewtechnologyoptions.New
CSPtechnologiesareexpectedtobecommercializedbefore2050,and30%33%capital
costimprovementswereassumedforallsystemsthrough2050.Table26andTable
27presentcostandperformancedataforCSPpowerplantswithoutandwithstorage,
respectively.Forthewithstorageoption,troughcostswererepresentedinyearsuptoand
including2025;towercostswereprovidedafter2025.Capitalcostbreakdownforthe2010
CSPplantswithstorageareshowninFigure12andFigure13fortroughandtowersystems,
respectively.
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Table26.CostandPerformanceProjectionforaConcentratingSolarPowerPlantwithoutStoragea
Year
CapitalCost
($/kW)
Variable
O&MCost
($/MWh)
Fixed
O&MCost
($/kWYr)
Construction
Schedule
(Months)
POR
(%)
FOR
(%)
2008
5,050
2010
4,910
50
24
2015
4,720
50
24
2020
4,540
50
24
2025
4,350
50
24
2030
4,170
50
24
2035
3,987
50
24
2040
3,800
50
24
2045
3,620
50
24
2050
3,430
50
24
Concentratingsolarpowerdrycooling,nostorage,andasolarmultipleof1.4.
Table27.CostandPerformanceProjectionforaConcentratingSolarPowerPlantwithStoragea
Year
CapitalCost
($/kW)
Variable
O&MCost
($/MWh)
2008
7280
2010
7060
50
24
2015
6800
50
24
2020
6530
50
24
2025
5920
50
24
2030
5310
50
24
2035
4700
50
24
2040
4700
50
24
2045
4700
50
24
2050
4700
50
24
Fixed
O&MCost
($/kWYr)
Construction
Schedule
(months)
POR
(%)
FOR
(%)
Concentratingsolarpowerdrycooling,6hourstorage,andasolarmultipleof2.
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$1,090/kW , 16%
$2,820/kW , 40%
Solar Field
$544/kW , 8%
Heat Transfer Fluid (HTF) System
Power Block
Storage
Engineering, procurement,
construction management services
$642/kW , 9%
Owner's cost
$1,300/kW , 18%
$664/kW , 9%
Figure12.Capitalcostbreakdownforatroughconcentratingsolarpowerplantwithstorage
$1,090/kW , 15%
$2,700/kW , 38%
Heliostat Field
Receiver
$540/kW , 8%
Tower
Power block
$490/kW , 7%
Thermal Storage
Contingency
$420/kW , 6%
$950/kW , 14%
$680/kW , 10%
$170/kW , 2%
Engineering, procurement,
construction management services
Owner's cost
Figure13.Capitalcostbreakdownforatowerconcentratingsolarpowerplantwithstorage
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3.6WINDENERGYTECHNOLOGIES
Black&Veatchhasexperienceachievedin10,000MWofwindengineering,development,
andduediligenceprojectsfrom2005to2010.Inaddition,significantunderstandingofthe
detailsofwindcostestimateswasobtainedbyperforming300MWofdetaileddesignand
300MWofconstructionservicesin2008.Black&Veatchalsohasreviewedwindproject
PPApricing.ThisbackgroundwasusedtodevelopthecostestimatesvettedintheWREZ
stakeholderprocessandtosubsequentlyupdatethatpricingandadjustownerscosts.Costs
areprovidedforonshore,fixedbottomoffshoreandfloatingplatformoffshorewind
turbineinstallations.Thesecostandperformanceestimatesareslightlymoreconservative
thanestimatesidentifiedinOConnellandPletka2007forthe20%WindEnergyby2030
study.Improvementsseensince2004to2006havebeensomewhatlessthanpreviously
estimatedasthetechnologymorefullymatures.Additionalimprovementisexpectedbutat
aslightlyslowerpace.Thereisbothincreasedcostandincreasedperformanceuncertainty
forfloatingplatformoffshoresystems.
3.6.1OnshoreTechnology
Black&Veatchestimatedacapitalcostat1,980$/kW+25%.Costcertaintyisrelatively
highforthismaturingtechnologyandnocostimprovementswereassumedthrough2050.
Capacityfactorimprovementswereassumeduntil2030;furtherimprovementswerenot
assumedtobeachievableafter2030.
3.6.2FixedBottomOffshoreTechnology
Fixedbottomoffshorewindprojectswereassumedtobeatadepththatallowserectionofa
talltowerwithafoundationthattouchestheseafloor.Historicaldataforfixedbottom
offshorewindEPCprojectsarenotgenerallyavailableintheUnitedStates,butNREL
reviewedengineeringstudiesandpublisheddataforEuropeanprojects.Black&Veatch
estimatedacapitalcostat3,310$/kW+35%.Costandcapacityfactorimprovementswere
assumedtobeachievablebefore2030;costimprovementsofapproximately10%were
assumedthrough2030andcapacityfactorimprovementswereassumedforlowerwind
classesthrough2030.
3.6.3FloatingPlatformOffshoreTechnology
Floatingplatformoffshorewindtechnologywasassumedtobeneededinwaterdepths
whereatalltowerandfoundationisnotcosteffective/feasible.Black&Veatchviewedthe
floatingplatformwindturbinecostestimatesasmuchmorespeculative.Thistechnology
wasassumedtobeunavailableintheUnitedStatesuntil2020.Fewerstudiesandpublished
sourcesexistcomparedwithonshoreandfixedbottomoffshoresystems.Black&Veatch
estimateda2020capitalcostat4,200$/kW+35%.Costimprovementsof10%were
assumedthrough2030andcapacityfactorimprovementswereassumedforlowerwind
classesuntil2030.
Table28throughTable33presentwindcostandperformancedata,includingcapacity
factors,foronshore,fixedbottomoffshore,andfloatingplatformoffshoretechnologies.
CapitalcostbreakdownsforthesetechnologiesareshowninFigure14throughFigure16.
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Table28.CostandPerformanceProjectionforOnshoreWindTechnology
Year
CapitalCost VariableO&M
($/kW)
($/MWh)
FixedO&M
($/kWyr)
Construction
Schedule
(Months)
POR FOR
(%) (%)
2008
2,060
2010
1,980
60
12
0.6
2015
1,980
60
12
0.6
2020
1,980
60
12
0.6
2025
1,980
60
12
0.6
2030
1,980
60
12
0.6
2035
1,980
60
12
0.6
2040
1,980
60
12
0.6
2045
1,980
60
12
0.6
2050
1,980
60
12
0.6
Table29.CapacityFactorProjectionforOnshoreWindTechnology
CapacityFactor(%)
Year Class3
Class4
Class5
Class6
Class7
2010
32
36
41
44
46
2015
33
37
41
44
46
2020
33
37
42
44
46
2025
34
38
42
45
46
2030
35
38
43
45
46
2035
35
38
43
45
46
2040
35
38
43
45
46
2045
35
38
43
45
46
2050
35
38
43
45
46
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Table30.CostandPerformanceProjectionforFixedbottomOffshoreWindTechnology
Year
CapitaCost
($/kW)
VariableO&M
($/MWh)
FixedO&M
($/kWyr)
Construction
Schedule
(Months)
2008
3,410
2010
3,310
100
12
0.6
2015
3,230
100
12
0.6
2020
3,150
100
12
0.6
2025
3,070
100
12
0.6
2030
2,990
100
12
0.6
2035
2,990
100
12
0.6
2040
2,990
100
12
0.6
2045
2,990
100
12
0.6
2050
2,990
100
12
0.6
POR FOR
(%) (%)
Table31.CapacityFactorProjectionforFixedbottomOffshoreWindTechnology
CapacityFactor(%)
Year Class3
Class4
Class5
Class6
Class7
2010
36
39
45
48
50
2015
36
39
45
48
50
2020
37
39
45
48
50
2025
37
40
45
48
50
2030
38
40
45
48
50
2035
38
40
45
48
50
2040
38
40
45
48
50
2045
38
40
45
48
50
2050
38
40
45
48
50
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Table32.CostandPerformanceProjectionforFloatingPlatformOffshoreWindTechnology
Year
CapitalCost VariableO&M
($/kW)
($/MWh)
FixedO&M
($/kWYr)
Construction
Schedule
(Months)
POR FOR
(%) (%)
2020
4,200
130
12
0.6
2025
4,090
130
12
0.6
2030
3,990
130
12
0.6
2035
3,990
130
12
0.6
2040
3,990
130
12
0.6
2045
3,990
130
12
0.6
2050
3,990
130
12
0.6
Table33.CapacityFactorProjectionforFloatingPlatformOffshoreWindTechnology
CapacityFactor(%)
Year
Class3
Class4
Class5
Class6
Class7
2020
37
39
45
48
50
2025
37
40
45
48
50
2030
38
40
45
48
50
2035
38
40
45
48
50
2040
38
40
45
48
50
2045
38
40
45
48
50
2050
38
40
45
48
50
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$100/kW , 5%
$79/kW , 4%
Wind turbine
$257/kW , 13%
Distribution
Balance of plant/Erection
Engineering, procurement,
construction management services
Owner's cost
$198/kW , 10%
$1,346/kW , 68%
Figure14.Capitalcostbreakdownforanonshorewindpowerplant
$189/kW , 6%
$165/kW , 5%
Wind turbine
$894/kW , 27%
Distribution
Balance of plant/Erection
Engineering, procurement,
construction management services
Owner's cost
$1,665/kW , 50%
$397/kW , 12%
Figure15.Capitalcostbreakdownforafixedbottomoffshorewindpowerplant
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$252/kW , 6%
$252/kW , 6%
$1,890/kW , 45%
Wind turbine
Distribution
Balance of plant/Erection
Engineering, procurement,
construction management services
Owner's cost
$1,260/kW , 30%
$546/kW , 13%
Figure16.Capitalcostbreakdownforafloatingplatformoffshorewindpowerplant
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4CostandPerformanceDataforEnergyStorage
Technologies
Selectingarepresentativeprojectdefinitionforcompressedairenergystorage(CAES)and
pumpedstoragehydropower(PSH)technologiesthatcanthenbeusedtoidentifya
representativecostisextremelydifficult;oneproblemisthataverylowcostcanbe
estimatedforthesetechnologiesifthebestcircumstancesareassumed(e.g.,useofexisting
infrastructure).Forexample,anassumptioncanbemadeforCAESthatalmostnobelow
groundcostiscontributedwhenbuildingasmallprojectthatcanbeaccommodatedbyan
abandonedgaswellofadequatesize.ForPSH,onecanassumeonlytwoexistingreservoirs
needtobeconnectedwithapumpandturbineatthelowerreservoir.Theselowcost
solutionscanbecomparedtohighcostsolutions;forCAES,excavationofanentirecavern
outofhardrockcouldbeassumed,andforPSHconstructionofnewreservoirsandsupply
ofpump/turbineandinterconnectionsbetweenreservoirscouldbeassumed.These
scenariosareentirelydifferentfrompossiblelowcostormidcostoptions.Whilethis
situationmakesidentifyingarepresentative,oraverage,projectdifficult,thisselectionmust
bemadebeforethediscussionofcostscanbeopened.Thedesignoptionsandassociated
costsforCAESandPSHareunlimited.Historyisnohelpbecausecircumstancesarenow
differentfromthosethatexistedwhenthepreviousgenerationofpumpedhydropowerwas
builtandbecausetherearenotalargenumberofexistingCAESunitstoreview.Another
issuewithPSHisthattransmissionhasbeenequallychallengingwithcostand
environmentalissueslimitingpumpedoptions.
NoCAESorPSHplantshavebeenbuiltrecently.Further,inthecaseofPCH,theElectric
PowerResearchInstitutehasindicated,scarcityofsuitablesurfacetopographythatis
environmentallyacceptableislikelytoinhibitfurthersignificantdomesticdevelopmentof
utilitypumpedhydrostorage.5
Black&VeatchinitiallyselectedpointestimatesforCAESandPSHwithrangesaround
pointsthatcancaptureabroadrangeofprojectconfigurationassumptions.The
disadvantageofthestorageestimatesinitiallyselectedisthattheymightnotadequately
reflecttheverylowestcostoptionsthatmayeventuallybeavailable.However,the
advantageisthattheyareexamplesofwhatrealdevelopershaverecentlyconsideredfor
development;developershaveconsideredprojectswiththesecostsanddescriptionstobe
worthyofstudy.Theyarenottheleastcostexamplesthatcouldsomedaybeavailablefor
considerationbydevelopers,buttheyarerecentexamplesofsiteandtechnology
combinationsthatdevelopersactuallyhavehadavailableforconsideration.Inaddition,the
PSHexampleisofrelativelysmallcapacitythatmaybesuitableinalargernumberof
locations;itisnotalessexpensive,largercapacitysystemthatmaynotbeasavailablein
manypartsofthecountry.Lastly,becauseBlack&Veatchviewsthecostsasmidrange,they
maybeconsideredreasonablyconservative.Black&Veatchrecognizesthatitcouldhave
chosenlowercostcases,butthecasesinitiallyshownherearerepresentativeofprojects
thatdevelopershaveactuallyrecentlyconsidered.
5PumpedHydroelectricStorage,http://www.rkmaonline.com/utilityenergystorageSAMPLE.pdf
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4.1COMPRESSEDAIRENERGYSTORAGE(CAES)TECHNOLOGY
AconfidentialCAESinhousereferencestudyforanindependentpowerproducerhasbeen
usedforthepointestimate,andtherangewasbasedonhistoricaldata.Atwounit
recuperatedexpanderwithstorageinasolutionminedsaltdomewasassumedforthis
estimate.Approximately262MWnetwith15hoursofstoragewasassumedtobeprovided.
Fivecompressorswereassumedtobeincluded.A2010capitalcostwasestimatedat900
$/kW30%+75%.Nocostimprovementwasassumedovertime.Table34presentscosts
andperformancedataforCAES.Table535presentsemissiondataforthetechnology.
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4910
4910
4910
4910
2035
2040
2045
2050
900
900
900
900
900
900
900
900
927
11.6
11.6
11.6
11.6
11.6
11.6
11.6
11.6
Fixed
O&M
($/kW-year)
1.25
1.25
1.25
1.25
1.25
1.25
1.25
1.25
RoundTrip
Efficiency
FOR
(%)
POR
(%)
NOX
(lb/hr)
47
SO2
(lb/ hr)
3.4
Hg
Micro
(lb/hr)
11.6
PM10
(lb/hr)
135
CO2
(kpph)
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
Construction
Schedule
(Months)
Table35.EmissionRatesforCompressedAirEnergyStorage
1.55
1.55
1.55
1.55
1.55
1.55
1.55
1.55
Variable
O&M
($/MWh)
BLACK&VEATCHCORPORATION|4CostandPerformanceDataforEnergyStorageTechnologies
4910
2030
2015
4910
4910
2010
2025
2008
4910
4910
Year
2020
Heat
Rate
(Btu/kWh)
Capit
al
Cost
($/kW)
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
Min.
Load
(%)
Table34.CostandPerformanceProjectionforaCompressedAirEnergyStoragePlant(262MW)
NATIONALRENEWABLEENERGYLABORATORY(NREL)|COSTANDPERFORMANCEDATAFORPOWERGENERATIONTECHNOLOGIES
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
Spin
Ramp
Rate
(%/min.)
53
Quick
Start
Ramp
Rate
(%/min.)
NATIONALRENEWABLEENERGYLABORATORY(NREL)|COSTANDPERFORMANCEDATAFORPOWER
GENERATIONTECHNOLOGIES
ThecapitalcostbreakdownfortheCAESplantisshowninFigure17.
$60/kW , 7%
$30kW , 3%
Turbine
$270/kW , 30%
Compressor
Balance of plant
Cavern
Engineering, procurement,
construction management services
$360/kW , 40%
$130/kW , 14%
Owner's cost
$50/kW , 6%
Figure17.Capitalcostbreakdownforacompressedairenergystoragepowerplant
CAESplantcostsavingswilloccurinallcostcategoriesovertime.
4.2PUMPEDSTORAGEHYDROPOWERTECHNOLOGY
Aconfidentialinhousereferencestudyforanindependentpowerproducerwasusedfor
thepointestimate,andtherangewasestablishedbasedonhistoricaldata.ThePSHcost
estimateassumedanetcapacityof500MWwith10hoursofstorage.A2010capitalcost
wasestimatedat2,004$/kW+50%.AppendixDprovidesadditionaldetailoncost
considerationsforPSHtechnologies.Thisisamaturetechnologywithnocostimprovement
assumedovertime..AlistofcurrentFERCpreliminarylicensesindicatesanaveragesize
between500and800MW.CostandperformancedataforPSHarepresentedinTable36.
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2230
2230
2230
2230
2035
2040
2045
2050
Variable
O&M
($/MWh)
30.8
30.8
30.8
30.8
30.8
30.8
30.8
30.8
30.8
Fixed
O&M
($/kWyr)
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
RoundTrip
Efficiency
(%)
3.00
3.00
3.00
3.00
3.00
3.00
3.00
3.00
3.00
FOR
(%)
BLACK&VEATCHCORPORATION|4CostandPerformanceDataforEnergyStorageTechnologies
2230
2030
2015
2230
2230
2010
2025
2230
2008
2230
2297
Year
2020
Capital
Cost
($/kW)
3.80
3.80
3.80
3.80
3.80
3.80
3.80
3.80
3.80
POR
(%)
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
Construction
Schedule
(Months)
33
33
33
33
33
33
33
33
33
Min.
Load
(%)
Table36.CostandPerformanceProjectionforaPumpedStorageHydropowerPlant(500MW)
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
Spin
Ramp
Rate
(%/min.)
NATIONALRENEWABLEENERGYLABORATORY(NREL)|COSTANDPERFORMANCEDATAFORPOWERGENERATIONTECHNOLOGIES
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
Quick
Start
Ramp
Rate
(%/min.)
55
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GENERATIONTECHNOLOGIES
Thecapitalcostbreakdownforthepumpedstoragehydropowerplantisshownin
Figure18.
$370/kW , 17%
$420/kW , 19%
Upper reservoir
Tunels
$135 , 6%
$80 , 4%
Powerhouse excavation
Powerhouse
Engineering, procurement,
construction management services
$390/kW , 17%
Owner's cost
$835/kW , 37%
Figure18.CapitalCostbreakdownforapumpedstoragehydropowerplant
Pumpedhydroelectricpowerplantcostsavingswilloccurprimarilyinthepowerhouse
categoryovertime.
4.3BATTERYENERGYSTORAGETECHNOLOGY
Aconfidentialinhousereferencestudyforanindependentpowerproducerhasbeenused
forthepointestimate,andtherangehasbeenestablishedbasedonhistoricaldata.The
batteryproxywasassumedtobeasodiumsulfidetypewithanetcapacityof7.2MW.The
storagewasassumedtobe8.1hours.Acapitalcostisestimatedat3,990$/kW(or1,000
$/kWand350$/kWh)+75%.Costimprovementovertimewasassumedfordevelopment
ofasignificantnumberofnewbatteryoptions.Table37presentscostandperformance
dataforbatteryenergystorage.TheO&Mcostincludesthecostofbatteryreplacement
every5,000hours.
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3690
3590
3490
3390
3290
3190
2025
2030
2035
2040
2045
2050
59
59
59
59
59
59
59
59
59
Variable
O&M
($/MWh)
25.2
25.2
25.2
25.2
25.2
25.2
25.2
25.2
25.2
Fixed
O&M
($/kWyr)
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
RoundTrip
Efficiency
(%)
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
FOR
(%)
BLACK&VEATCHCORPORATION|4CostandPerformanceDataforEnergyStorageTechnologies
3790
2010
2020
3990
2008
3890
4110
(Year)
2015
Capital
Cost
($/kW)
0.55
0.55
0.55
0.55
0.55
0.55
0.55
0.55
0.55
POR
(%)
Construction
Schedule
(Months)
Min.
Load
(%)
Table37.CostandPerformanceProjectionforaBatteryEnergyStoragePlant(7.2MW)
20
20
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ThecapitalcostbreakdownforthebatteryenergystorageplantisshowninFigure19.
$600/kW,15%
$1920/kW,48%
$140/kW,4%
Owner'sCost
Engineering,Procurement,
ConstructionManagement
Services
PowerConversion
Battery
$1330/kW,33%
Figure19.CapitalCostBreakdownforaBatteryEnergyStoragePlant
Batteryenergystorageplantcostreductionswilloccurprimarilyinthebatterycost
categoryovertime.
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5References
Kane,M.(2005,April).CaliforniaSmallHydropowerandOceanWaveEnergy:Resourcesin
Supportofthe2005IntegratedEnergyPolicyReport.StaffpaperpresentedattheCalifornia
EnergyCommission,May9,2005.CEC5002005074.Sacramento,CA:CaliforniaEnergy
Commission.
Coulomb,L.;Neuhoff,K.(2006,February).LearningCurvesandChangingProduct
Attributes:theCaseofWindTurbines.CWPE0618andEPRG0601.Cambridge:Electricity
PolicyResearchGroup,UniversityofCambridge.
Delaquil,P.;Goldstein,G.;Wright,E.(n.d.).USTechnologyChoices,CostsandOpportunities
undertheLiebermanWarnerClimateSecurityAct:AssessingCompliancePathways.
http://docs.nrdc.org/globalWarming/files/glo_08051401a.pdf.
InternationalEnergyAgency(EIA).(2000).ExperienceCurvesforEnergyTechnologyPolicy.
ISBN92641765002000.Paris:InternationalEnergyAgency.http://www.iea
.org/textbase/nppdf/free/2000/curve2000.pdf.
ElectricPowerResearchInstitute(EPRI).(n.d.).Tidalenergyreports.
http://oceanenergy.epri.com/streamenergy.html
#reports.
EPRI.(n.d.).Waveenergyreports.http://oceanenergy.epri.com/waveenergy.html#reports
FERC(FederalEnergyRegulatoryCommission).(2008,June).IncreasingCostsinElectric
Markets.http://www.ferc.gov/legal/staffreports/061908costelectric.pdf.
FolleyM.;ElsaesserB.;WhittakerT.(2009,September)AnalysisoftheWaveEnergy
ResourceattheEuropeanMarineEnergyCentre.Belfast:Belfast:QueensUniversityBelfast;
RPSGroupPlc.
GTP(GeothermalTechnologiesProgram),U.S.DepartmentofEnergy(DOE).(2008a).Multi
YearResearch,DevelopmentandDemonstrationPlan:20092015withProgramActivitiesto
2025(DRAFT).Washington,DC:U.S.DepartmentofEnergy,EnergyEfficiencyand
RenewableEnergy.https://www1.eere.energy.gov/geothermal/pdfs/gtp_myrdd_2009
complete.pdf.
GTP.(2008b).AnEvaluationofEnhancedGeothermalSystemsTechnology.Washington,
DC:U.S.DepartmentofEnergy,EnergyEfficiencyandRenewableEnergy.http://www1.eere.
energy.gov/geothermal/pdfs/evaluation_egs_tech_2008.pdf.
Hagerman,G.;Bedard,R.;Previsic,M.(2004a,June)."E2IEPRISurveyandCharacterization
ofPotentialOffshoreWaveEnergySitesinMaine.PaloAlto,CA:ElectricPowerResearch
Institute.E2IEPRIWP003ME.http://oceanenergy.epri.com/
attachments/wave/reports/003_Maine_Site_Report_Rev_1.pdf
EPRI.(2004b,May)."E2IEPRISurveyandCharacterizationofPotentialOffshoreWave
EnergySitesinWashington.PaloAlto,CA:ElectricPowerResearchInstitute.E2IEPRIWP
WA003.http://oceanenergy.epri.com/attachments/wave/reports/003_Washington_
Site_Report.pdf
EPRI.(2004c,May)."E2IEPRISurveyandCharacterizationofPotentialOffshoreWave
EnergySitesinOregon.PaloAlto,CA:ElectricPowerResearchInstitute.E2IEPRIWPOR
003.http://oceanenergy.epri.com/attachments/wave/reports/003_Oregon_Site_
Report.pdf
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IHSCambridgeEnergyResearchAssociates(CERA).(2009).PowerCapitalCostsIndexShows
ConstructionCostsPeakingin2009forAllTypesOfNewPowerPlants.June23,2009.
http://www.cera.com/aspx/cda/public1/news/pressReleases/pressReleaseDetails.aspx
?CID=10429.AccessedSeptember24,2010.
Kelton,S.;Sturgeon,J.I.;Richman,B.(2009,October).WhichWayForward?Alternative
PathsforGeneratingElectricityinAmericasHeartland:HowwillMissouri,Oklahoma,
NebraskaandKansasCopewiththeChallengesandOpportunitiesthatLieAhead?Economic
ConsultingSolutions,Inc.
Lazard(2009,February).LevelizedCostofEnergyAnalysisVersion3.0.
Lovekin,J.;Pletka,R.(2010).GeothermalAssessmentasPartofCalifornia'sRenewable
EnergyTransmissionInitiative(RETI).InproceedingsoftheWorldGeothermalCongress
2010,Bali,Indonesia,April2529,2010.
OConnell,R.;Pletka,R.(2007).20PercentWindEnergyPenetrationintheUnitedStates:A
TechnicalAnalysisoftheEnergyResource.144864.PreparedbyBlack&Veatch,Overland
Park,KS.Washington,DC:AmericanWindEnergyAssociation.
Pletka,R.;Finn,J.(2009,October).WesternRenewableEnergyZones,Phase1:QRA
IdentificationTechnicalReport.NREL/SR6A246877.WorkperformedbyBlack&Veatch
Corporation,OverlandPark,KS.Golden,CO:NationalRenewableEnergyLaboratory.
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Shelley,S.(2008).BuyingaGasTurbine,NoQuickPick.TurbomachineryInternational
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AppendixA.EnergyEstimateforWaveEnergy
Technologies
RESOURCEESTIMATE
ThisappendixdocumentsananalysisofthewaveenergyresourceintheUnitedStatesand
providesthebasisforinformationpresentedinSection0above.
CoastlineoftheUnitedStates
UsingGoogleEarth,Black&VeatchsketchedaroughoutlineoftheEastandWestCoastsof
theUnitedStates,anddividedeachintocoastalsegmentstomatchtheavailablewavedata,
asdescribedinFigureA1andTableA1.ThestatesofAlaskaandHawaiiwerenotincluded.
FigureA1.DesignatedCoastalSegments
W1:NeahBay,WA(26.5kW/m@?m)
E1:Portland,ME(4.9kW/m@19m)
E2:Middle(13.8kW/m@74m)
W2:Coquille,OR(21.2kW/m@64m)
W3:SanFrancisco,CA(20kW/m@52m) E3:SouthEast(kW/m@m)
TableA1.LengthofCoastlinesinUnitedStates
CoastalSegment CoastlineLength(km)
Description
W1
238
Washington
W2
492
Oregon
W3
1322
California
WestTotal
2052
E1
465
MaineMassachusetts
E2
942
MassachusettsNorthCarolina
E3
1390
NorthCarolinaFlorida
EastTotal
2797
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WaveEnergyResource
WaveenergyresourcedataforWestCoastsites(Washington,Oregon,andCalifornia)and
northernEastCoastsites(MaineandMassachusetts)wereextractedfromseveralrelevant
reports(EPRIn.d.).
Inadditiontodatafromasmallnumberofspecificbuoys,EPRI(n.d.)containedannual
averagepowerforsitesalongthecoastsofselectedstates,asshownonFigureA2.These
datawereusedtoestimatethewaveenergyresourceforthecontiguousUnitedStates.
Maine(E1)
(Hagermanetal.2004a)
Washington(W1)
(Hagermanetal.2004b)
Oregon(W2)
(Hagermanetal.2004c)
FigureA2.WaveFluxforMaine,Washington,andOregon
InadditiontotheEPRIdata,wavefluxresults(inkW/m),fromKane(2005,Table8)were
alsousedtoestimateCaliforniaswaveenergyresourceasshowninFigureA3.Mostsites
assessedinKanearedeeperthan100m,butapproximately3ofthe10sitesarefrom
shallowerbuoys,includingDelNorte(60m),Mendocino(82m),andSantaCruz(13m,60
80m).
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Del Norte
27.8
Humboldt
33.7
Mendocino
28.5
Sonoma
32.2
SanFrancisco
30.3
Monterey
28
Santa Barbara
29.7
Los Angeles
26.4
San Diego
32.2
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
FigureA3.WaveFluxforCalifornia
(CoastalsegmentW3,FigureA1)(Kane2005,Table8)
Theavailabledatawereusedtoestimateanaveragewaveenergyresourceforeachcoastal
segment.Asaspotcheck,theEPRI(n.d.)cites20kW/mwavefluxat52mdepthattheSan
Franciscosite,whichapproximatelymatchesthe30kW/mcitedbyKane(2005,Table8)for
SanFranciscoatadeepsite.Consequently,bothstudieswereusedwithrelativeconfidence.
Nowaveresourcedatawerefoundforthecentral(E2,FigureA1)andsouthern(E3)East
Coast.
Normalizingto50mDepth
Allwaveresourceswerenormalizedtoa50mdepthcontour.Thisdepthisbelievedto
representforthenext10yearstheaveragedepthtargetedbymostwaveenergydevelopers,
andisthebasisforthecostestimatespresentedbelow.Withinthenext50years,exploiting
thewaveenergyresourceatgreaterdepthswilllikelybepossible.Whilemoreenergymay
beavailableatdeepersites,itmightnotbeascommerciallyexploitable,asthewave
directionwouldbemorevariableandgridconnectioncostswouldincreasesignificantly.
Thewaveenergydatapresentedabovearesourcedfromdeepwateroffthecontinental
shelf.ResultsfromastudybyQueensUniversityBelfast&RPSGroup(Folleyetal.2009)
wereusedtoestimatetheresourceat50mdepth.Usingwavedataandmodelingforthe
EuropeanMarineEnergyCentre(EMEC)siteinScotland,Folleyetal.calculatedthegross
(omnidirectional),net(directionallyresolved),andexploitable(netpowerlessthanfour
timesthemeanpowerdensity)foranumberofsitedepths.Figure
A4showstheresultsfromthisstudy.
Giventhelackofotheravailabledata,Black&VeatchassumedtheEMECresultsapplytothe
UnitedStatesandusedthemtoestimategrosspowerat50mdepthfromU.S.offshorewave
datafromthepreviouslymentionedsources(takentobeoffshorealldirections).By
multiplyingtheU.S.offshoredataby23.5/41(asreadfromFigureA4),thewavefluxwas
normalizedto50mdepth.
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45
Offshore (all directions)
Offshore
50m deep wave site
30m deep wave site
10m deep wave site
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Gross power
Net power
Exploitable power
FigureA4.Grossv.ExploitablePoweratVaryingSeaDepths
(Folleyetal.2009,p.7)
However,theparticularsiteconditionsattheEMECsitemightmeantheseconclusionsare
notapplicabletoallsites.Localbathymetrycancreatehighandlowresourceareas,andthe
seabedslopeisrelativelysteepattheEMECsite,whichreducesthedistancebetweendeep
andshallowsitesandtheenergydissipatedbetweenthem.Itis,forexample,clearfrom
FigureA2thatthewaveenergyresourcedissipationfromoffshoretonearshoreismuch
higherinOregonthanitisinWashington.
AdditionalstudiesareneededtoestablishthevalidityofthisrelationshipfortheU.S.
coastline,butitisbelievedtobeareasonablefirstestimate.
Directionality
Black&VeatchwasnotabletolocatedirectionalwavedataforU.S.sites;adirectionalityof
0.9,whichhashistoricallybeenusedforUKwaveenergysites,wasthereforeassumedfor
theBaseCase.
APessimisticScenario(lowdeployment)andanOptimisticScenario(highdeployment)were
developedtoreflecttheuncertaintyintheU.S.waveresource.InthePessimisticScenarioand
theOptimisticScenario,factorsof0.8and1.0respectivelywereappliedtoreflectthefactthat
atsomesitesthewaveresourceismorefocusedthanatothers(particularlyinshallower
waters)andthatsomewavedevicesareabletocopewithdirectionalitymoreefficientlythan
others(e.g.,pointabsorbers).
Spacing
Thespacingbetweenthedeviceswasnotconsideredintheestimateofthewaveenergy
resource,astheresourcestudyisbasedonavailablewaveenergyperwavefront.Hence,no
farmconfigurationwasconsideredforthewavedevices,andenergyavailableisbasedonly
onapercentageofextractionfromtheavailableresource.
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ConversionfromAbsorbedPowertoElectricalPower
Awaveenergyconverterefficiencyof70%fromtheabsorbedpowertotheelectricalpower
generatedatshorewasgenerallyassumed,as70%isthetypicalvalueusedforwavedevices.
InthePessimisticScenario,efficiencyof60%isassumedand80%isassumedinthe
OptimisticScenario.
ExploitableCoastline
IntheBaseCase,50%ofthecoastlinelengthwasestimatedtobeexploitable.Inthe
OptimisticScenario,thefulllengthofcoastlinewasconsideredexploitable,reflectingthefact
thatifasitewouldnotbesuitablefordevelopmentat50minthenextfewyears,itmightbe
exploitableatdeeperorshallowerwatersinthenext50years.UnderthePessimistic
Scenario,25%ofthecoastlinewasconsideredexploitable.
ExtractableEnergyfromtheWaveResource
Clearly,thewholeenergyresourcecannotbeextractedfromthewavefrontwithout
impactingtheenvironmentandtheprojecteconomics.Black&Veatchdidnotconsider
environmentalissuesandsetthecriteriaforextractablewaveenergyontheeconomicalcut
offpoint.Asawaveenergyprojectisbelievedtobeuneconomicalforwaveresourcelower
thana15kW/mthreshold,thepercentageofextractablepowercomparedtotheavailable
resourcewassettoensuretheavailablewaveresourcedoesnotdropbelowthiseconomic
threshold.
WaveEnergyRegime
ThewaveresourcewasclassifiedintowaveenergyregimesasshowninTableA2.
TableA2.WaveEnergyRegimeClassification
WaveEnergyRegime
WaveFluxat50mDepth(kW/m)
VeryLow
<15
Low
1520
Medium
2025
High
>25
Thewaveenergyresource(inkW/m)datawerereviewedforeachsite,andasplitinthe
resourcewasestimated(TableA3).Forexample,becauseapproximately10ofthe13data
pointsfortheW2(Oregon)coastlinehaveawaveenergyresourceabove25kW/m,75%of
theresourcewasestimatedashigh,withtheremainderbeingestimatedasmedium.
TableA3.WaveEnergyRegimeSplit
VeryLow
Low
Medium
High
W1
100%
0%
W2
25%
75%
W3
100%
E1
100%
E2
100%
E3
100%
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CoastalsegmentE1(FigureA1),withapeakaverageoffshorewaveenergyresourceofless
than20kW/m,correspondingtoanequivalentwaveenergyresourceoflessthan11kW/m
at50m,wasclassifiedasverylowandwasnotcountedinthewaveresourceestimate.
CoastalsegmentsE2andE3werebothassumedtohaveamilderwaveregimethanE1,and
thereforetoalsofallintotheverylowcategoryandwerenotincludedintheresource
estimate.
WaveEnergyMeanAnnualResource
Bymultiplyingtheaveragewaveenergyresource(at50mdepth)foreachsegmentbythe
coastallength,andthewaveenergyregimesplit(TableATable3),theU.S.waveenergy
resourcewasestimatedfortheBaseCaseasshowninTableA4.Thisestimatedoesnot
construeanydevicecapacityfactorsbutdoestakeintoaccountthedirectionality,
efficiencies,andexploitablepercentageexplainedabove.ThevaluesaregiveninMW,and
hencetheyrepresentmeanannualelectricalpower.
TableA4.MeanAnnualU.S.WaveEnergyResource(MW)BaseCase
CoastalSegment
Low
Medium
High
Total
W1
707
707
W2
476
1,429
1,905
W3
1,539
1,539
WestTotal
1,500
1,200
1,400
4,100
EastTotal
1,500
1,200
1,400
4,100
TOTAL
Asexplainedabove,themeanannualU.S.waveenergyresourceforthePessimisticand
OptimisticScenariosareshowninTableA5andTableA6respectively,consistentwiththe
directionality,thespacing,andthepercentageofcoastlineexploitableassumptionsforthese
Scenariosdescribedabove.
TableA5.MeanAnnualU.S.WaveEnergyResource(MW)PessimisticScenario
CoastalSegment
Low
Medium
High
Total
W1
269
269
W2
181
544
726
W3
586
586
WestTotal
600
500
500
1,600
EastTotal
600
500
500
1,600
TOTAL
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TableA6.MeanAnnualU.S.WaveEnergyResource(MW)OptimisticScenario
Coastal Segment
Low
Medium
High
Total
W1
1,795
1,795
W2
1,210
3,629
4,838
W3
3,908
3,908
West Total
3,900
3,000
3,600
10,500
East Total
3,900
3,000
3,600
10,500
TOTAL
CapacityFactor
TheU.S.waveresourceissmallerthantheUKresource.Black&Veatchbaseditscost
estimatesonUKbasedtechnologiesdesignedmostlyforUKsites.Theratedpowerand
powermatrixthatisbeingusedinthiscostestimatewasdevelopedforanaverageUKsiteof
approximately30kW/m,whichishigherthanforanyU.S.site.Typically,technology
developerswouldchangetheratedpowerconditionsandtuningoftheirdevicetomatcha
lowerpowerresourcesite,however,inthisanalysisthetechnologieshavenotbeen
optimizedforthedifferentsiteconditions.
TableA7showsthecapacityfactorsthatwereappliedinthecostestimatesforthedifferent
resourcebands.Asexplainedabove,thesearelowerthantheywouldbeifthedevicewere
optimizedspecificallyforaU.S.siteratherthanforaUKsite,butthisisnotexpectedtomake
asignificantdifferencetotheresults,bearinginmindtheotherpotentialuncertaintiesinthe
analysis.
TableA7.CapacityFactorsfortheDifferentResourceBandsintheUnitedStates
ResourceBand
RepresentativeSite
CapacityFactor
Low(15kW/m20kW/m)
Massachusetts
15%
Medium(20kW/m25kW/m)
Oregon
20%
High(25kW/m30kW/m)
UK
25%
InstalledCapacityLimitsintheUnitedStates
ThevaluesinTablesA4toA6areannualaveragepowergenerationastheywerecalculated
fromtheannualwaveenergyresourceavailablefromthewavefront.Toestimatethe
correspondinginstalledcapacity,thevaluesstatedaboveweredividedbythecapacity
factorsgiveninTableA7.Clearly,majoruncertaintiesareinherenttothewaveresourcein
theUnitedStates,andhencethetotalwaveenergyresourcerangesfrom9,000MWto55,000
MWelectricalinstalledcapacity(includingefficiencies),asshowninTableA8and
FigureA5.
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Low (15-20 kW/m)
60000
50000
40000
30000
20000
10000
0
Pessimistic
Base
Optimistic
FigureA5
TableA8.U.S.WaveEnergyResource(MW)InstalledCapacitySummaryforallScenarios
Scenario
LowBand
MediumBand
HighBand
Total
(1520kW/m)
(2025kW/m)
(>25kW/m)
Pessimistic
4,000
3,000
2,000
9,000
BaseCase
10,000
6,000
6,000
22,000
Optimistic
26,000
15,000
14,000
55,000
60000
50000
40000
30000
20000
10000
0
Pessimistic
Base
Optimistic
FigureA5.Waveresourceestimatefordifferentscenarios
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COSTOFENERGYESTIMATE
ToforecastthefuturecostofenergyofwavepowerintheUnitedStates,anumberofkey
assumptionsmustbemade.Initially,adeploymentscenariomustbegeneratedtoforecast
thepotentialgrowthoftheindustry;astartingcostofenergymustbedeterminedbasedon
thecurrentmarketcosts;and,alearningrateorcurveisrequiredtoreflectpotential
reductionsinthecostofenergywithtime.ThissectiondetailsBlack&Veatchsmethodsto
determineafutureforecastofthepotentialeconomicsofthewavepowerindustryinthe
UnitedStates.
Giventherelativeuncertaintiesduetotheearlystageofthewavepowermarket,an
OptimisticScenario,aBaseCase,andaPessimisticScenariowereconsideredforthe
deploymentrates,costofelectricity,andlearningrates.TheBaseCaserepresentsBlack&
Veatchsmostlikelyestimate,whiletheOptimisticandPessimisticScenariosrepresentthe
potentialrangeoftheprimaryuncertaintiesintheanalysis.
WaveDeploymentEstimate
GlobalDeployment
Globaldeploymentisrequiredtodrivethelearningrateofatechnology;therefore,Black&
Veatchdevelopedanassumptionforthedeploymentofwaveenergyconvertersgloballyto
2050.Thisestimatewasmadeidentifyingtheplannedshortterm(to2030)future
deploymentsoftheleadingwaveenergyconvertertechnologies.Thegrowthratefrom2020
to2030wasthenusedasabasistoestimatethegrowthto2050.Thisgrowthratewas
decreasedannuallyby1%from2030andeachsubsequentyearinordertorepresenta
naturalslowingofgrowththatislikelytooccur.Theyear2030waschosenasthestartdate
fortheslowdownasthiswouldrepresentapproximately20yearsofhighgrowth,whichis
reasonablebasedonslowdownsexperiencedinotherindustries(e.g.,wind)thathave
reflectedresourceandsupplychainconstraints.
Notalldevelopersarelikelytoprovesuccessful,andnaturally,notallplannedinstallations
willproceed.Assuch,weightingfactorswereappliedtoreflecttheuncertaintyrelatedto
boththedeveloperspotentialsuccessandtheirprojectssuccess.
DeploymentintheUnitedStates
DeploymentintheUnitedStateshasbeenbasedonthegrowthrateofglobaldeployment.
Thecurrentinstalledcapacityandtheplannedinstalledcapacityfor2010intheUnited
Stateswerecalculated.Thesestartingvalueswerethenusedincombinationwiththeglobal
growthratetodeterminethescenariosforU.S.deploymentto2050.Thegrowthratesforthe
OptimisticScenario,theBaseCase,andthePessimisticScenariowerebasedon25%ofhigh,
16%ofbase,and8%oflowglobaldeploymentscenariosrespectivelyandthereforeeach
wasassignedauniquegrowthrate.Thetotalresourceinstalledcapacitiesestimatesforthe
scenarioscalculatedabovewereapplied.FigureA6showstheresultsoftheanalysis.
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60000
50000
MW Installed
40000
30000
20000
10000
0
2048
2043
2038
2033
2028
2023
2018
2013
Year
FigureA6.DeploymentScenariosforWavePowerintheUnitedStatesto2050
TheanalysisshowsthattheUnitedStatescouldinstalltoapproximately13gigawatt(GW)by
2050intheBaseCasewithanOptimisticdeploymentscenarioofapproximately28.5GW;the
Pessimisticdeploymentscenarioinstalled2.5GWby2050;noneofthescenariosreachesits
respectivedeploymentlimit.Thegrowthratesvaryamongthedeploymentscenarios;these
differentratesarethemajorcontributingfactortothelargevarianceamongthescenarios
andreflectthecurrentlackofunderstandingoftheU.S.resourceandtheearlystageof
developmentofthewaveenergyconverterindustry.
DeploymentAssumption
GiventherelativelylowenergydensityofU.S.waveresourcesites,itwasassumedthat1)
developerswouldaimtomaximiseprojecteconomicsforearlyprojectsandwouldthus
deployonlyatsitesinthehighbandwaveresource,2)thatwhenthisisexhausted,the
mediumbandresourcesiteswouldbeexploited,and3)thatthelowresourcesiteswouldbe
usedonlyafterthemediumbandresourcewasexhausted.Itisalsoassumedthattheeffects
ofthelearningcurvewillmakethemediumandlowresourcesitesmorefeasibleinthe
future.Thisorderofexploitationisakeyassumptionusedthroughoutthecostmodelling
andwillnaturallyresult,asseenbelow,indistinctoffsetsincostofelectricityprojectionsat
thepointsoftransitionbetweentheresourcebands.
DeploymentConstraints
Thedeploymentgrowthislimitedonlybytheresourceconstraints.Itwasassumedthatall
otherfactorsimpactingdeploymentwouldbeaddressed,includingbutnotlimitedto:
financialrequirements,supplychaininfrastructure,sitespecificrequirements,planning,and
supportinggridinfrastructure.
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Learning
Toformajudgmentastothelikelylearningratesthatcanreasonablybeassumedforthe
comingyears,itisappropriatetofirstconsiderempiricallearningratesfromotheremerging
renewableenergyindustries.Thissectionprovidesanoverviewoflearningexperiencefrom
similardevelopingindustries,suggestsapplicablelearningratesforwavetechnology,and
considersscenariosforfuturegenerationcosts.FigureA7showslearningratedatafora
rangeofemergingrenewableenergytechnologies.
FigureA7.LearninginRenewableEnergyTechnologies
(IEA2000)
Costandcumulativecapacityareobservedtoexhibitastraightlinewhenplottedonaloglog
diagram;mathematically,thisstraightlineindicatesthatanincreasebyafixedpercentageof
cumulativeinstalledcapacitygivesaconsistentpercentagereductionincost.Forexample,
theprogressratioforphotovoltaicsduring19851995wasapproximately65%(learning
rateapproximately35%),andtheprogressratioforwindpowerbetween1980and1995
was82%(learningrate18%).
Anydiscussionastothelikelylearningratesthatmaybeexperiencedinthewaveenergy
industrywillbesubjective.Theclosestanalogyforthewaveindustryhasbeenassumedto
bethewindindustry.Aprogressratioaslowaswindenergy(82%)isnotexpectedforthe
waveindustryforthefollowingreasons:
Inwind,muchofthelearningwasaresultofdoingthesamethingbiggerorupsizing
ratherthandoingthesameorsomethingnew.Thisupsizinghasprobablybeenthe
singlemostimportantcontributortocostreductionforwind,contributingapproximately
7%tothe18%learningrate.6Mostwaveenergydevices(particularlyresonantdevices)
donotworkinthisway.Acertainsizeofdeviceisrequiredforaparticularlocationto
minimizetheenergycost,andsimplymakinglargerdevicesdoesnotreduceenergycosts
inthesameway.Nevertheless,wavedevicescanbenefitfromtheeconomiesofscalesof
buildingfarmswithlargerdevicesandlargernumbersofdevices.
See,forexample,CoulombandNeuhoff2006,whichcalculatesan11%learningrateforwind
excludinglearningduetoupsizing.
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Unlikewindinwhichthemarketasmostlyadoptedasingletechnicalsolution(3bladed
horizontalaxisturbine),therearemanydifferenttechnologyoptionsforwaveenergy
devicesandthereislittleindicationatthisstageastowhichtechnologyisthebest
solution.Thisindicatesthatlearningratereductionswilltakelongertorealizewhen
measuredagainstcumulativeindustrycapacity.
Thelearningratesforwaveenergyconvertershavebeendevelopedaspertheabove
discussionandarepresentedinTableA9.ThelearningratesfortheUnitedStateswere
assumedtobe1%lessthanwhatwouldbeexpectedintheUK,astheenergydensitiesofthe
perspectivesitesarelower(whichsuggeststhattheremaybelessroomforcost
improvement).
TableA9.LearningRates
Scenario
LearningRate
Optimistic
15%
BaseCase
11.5%
Pessimistic 8%
CostofEnergy
CostInputData
Black&Veatchuseditsexperienceinthewaveenergyconverterindustrytodevelopacost
ofelectricityforafirst10MWfarmassuming50MWinstalledglobally,whicheffectively
representsthecostoftheinitialcommercialfarm;thesecostsarepresentedinTableA10.
Thecostspresentedareconsideredanindustryaveragecoveringbothoffshoreandnear
shorewavetechnologies.Learningrateswereappliedtothecostofelectricityonlyafterthe
50MWofcapacitywasinstalledworldwide.
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62
50
BaseCase
Optimistic
81
68
56
BaseCase
Optimistic
53
Optimistic
Pessimistic
66
BaseCase
3.8
4.4
5.0
3.5
4.1
4.8
3.4
3.9
4.6
Operating
(annual)
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ThePessimisticandOptimisticScenariosweregeneratedtoindicatetheuncertaintiesintheanalysis.
LowbandResource
(1520kW/m)
(2025kW/m)
77
73
Capital
Pessimistic
Costs
MediumbandResource Pessimistic
HighbandResource
(2530kW/m)
Resource
Costs($million)
17%
15%
14%
22%
20%
18%
28%
25%
23%
CapacityFactor
Performance(%)
TableA10.CostEstimatefora10MWWaveFarmafterInstallationof50MW
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95%
92%
88%
95%
92%
88%
95%
92%
88%
Availability
73
69
94
127
49
67
91
37
50
69
CostofElectricity(c/kWh)
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GENERATIONTECHNOLOGIES
GeneralAssumptions
Thesegeneralassumptionswereusedforthisanalysis:
Projectlife:20years
Discountrate:8%.
Deviceavailability:90%intheBaseCase,92%intheOptimisticScenario,and88%inthe
PessimisticScenario.
Also,thecostofelectricitypresentedisin2008dollarsandfutureinflationhasnotbeen
accountedfor.
CostofEnergy
Thecostofelectricitydirectlydependsonthelearningcurveandthedeploymentrate.Figure
A8showsthecostofelectricityforecastfortheBaseCaselearningrateandtheBaseCase
deploymentscenario(TableA9andFigureA6respectively)basedontheOptimistic,Base
Case,andPessimisticcosts(TableA8).TheOptimisticandPessimisticcurvesinthefigure
representtheupperandlowercostuncertaintybandsfortheBaseCasedeployment
assumptionandlearningrate.
Base
Optimistic
Pessimistic
90
80
70
CoE (c/kWh)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1
10
100
1,000
10,000
100,000
MW Installed
FigureA8.CostofenergyprojectionwithinstalledcapacityforBaseCasedeploymentandlearningrates
TheBaseCasecostofenergyfallsto17c/kWhafterapproximately5.5GWisinstalled
however,thecostofelectricitythenincreasesasthebestsiteshavebeenexploitedandis
27c/kWhafter13GWisinstalled(2050).Thetwospikesinthegraphshowtheeffectof
movingfromthehighbandresourcetothemediumbandresourceandfromthemedium
bandtothelowbandresource.
FigureA9showstheOptimisticdeploymentscenarioandlearningrateswiththeOptimistic,
BaseCase,andPessimisticcosts.Theseassumptionshaveaconsiderableeffectonthecostof
electricity,withtheOptimisticcostofelectricityreducingtoalowpointofapproximately
8c/kWh(BaseCase12c/kWh)afterapproximately14GWisinstalledbeforerisingasthe
highbandresourceisexhaustedandthemediumbandresourceisused;thecostof
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electricitythenfallstoapproximately9c/kWh(BaseCase13c/kWh)after28.5GWis
installed.Sufficientresourceisconsideredtobeavailablesothatthelowbandresourceis
notrequiredby2050.
Base
Optimistic
Pessimistic
90
80
70
CoE (c/kWh)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1
10
100
1,000
10,000
100,000
MW installed
FigureA9.Costofenergy(projectionwithinstalledcapacityforOptimistic
deploymentandlearningrates
FigureA10showsthePessimisticdeploymentandlearningrateswiththeOptimistic,Base
Case,andPessimisticcosts.Inthisscenario,therearenohighbandresourcesites;therefore,
theanalysisstartsfromthemediumbandresourcebeforemovingtothelowbandresource.
ThePessimisticcostofelectricityfallstoalowpointofapproximately34c/kWh(BaseCase
24c/kWh)afterapproximately2GWisinstalled;theinstallationsthenrequirethelowband
resourcewherethecostofelectricityfinisheson42c/kWh(BaseCase31c/kWh)after2.5GW
isinstalled.
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Base
80
Optimistic
Pessimistic
70
CoE (c/kWh)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1
10
100
1,000
10,000
100,000
MW Installed
FigureA10.Costofenergy(c/kWh)overprojectionwithinstalledcapacityfor
Pessimisticdeploymentandlearningrates
CapitalandOperatingCosts
ThecapitalcostsfortheBaseCase,Optimistic,andPessimisticScenariosandtheBaseCase
operatingexpenditurecoststo2050areshowninTableA11.Asstatedabove,developers
wereassumedtoinstallfirstatsitesinthehighbandresource,thenatsitesinmediumband
resources,andfinallyatsitesinthelowbandresource;inTableA11,thecostshighlighted
ingreen,orange,andredcorrespondtoahigh,mediumandlowresourcebands,
respectively.TheconstructionscheduleandoutageratesrelatetotheBaseCase.Thedatain
TableA11relatedirectlytothecostsprojectedinFigureA8;theBaseCaseovernightcosts
weretakenfromtheBaseCase(middle)curveinFigureA8;thelowovernightcostswere
takenfromthebestcase(lowercurve)oftheOptimisticScenario(FigureA9);and,thehigh
overnightcostsweretakenfromtheworstcase(uppercurve)ofthePessimisticScenario
(FigureA10).
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25%
25%
25%
25%
25%
25%
20%
15%
2015
2020
2025
2030
2035
2040
2045
2050
5,379
4,094
3,451
3,989
4,782
5,756
7,030
9,336
14,579
Base Case
Overnight Cost
($/kW)
1,727
1,888
1,662
2,015
2,564
3,282
4,283
6,252
11,400
8,318
6,603
7,059
7,746
8,714
9,886
11,308
13,558
18,482
Pessimistic
Overnight Cost
Low
Deployment/
Learning Rate
273
208
175
203
243
292
357
474
741
Base Case
Fixed O&M
($/kW-Yr)
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
Construction
Schedule
(Months)
1%
1%
1%
1%
1%
1%
1%
1%
1%
Planned
Outage Rate
(%)
7%
7%
7%
7%
7%
7%
7%
7%
7%
Forced Outage
Rate (%)
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ThedatafortheBaseCaseandOptimisticScenarioswhichassumethesame(BaseCase)costofelectricitystartingpointin2015,alongwiththeestimated
cumulativeinstalledcapacityintheUnitedStatesarealsopresentedinTableA12.ThefollowingresultsaretakenfromthemidcasesoftheBaseCase
andOptimisticScenarios).
25%
2010
2008
Year
Base Case
Capacity
Factor (%)
Optimistic
Overnight Cost
High
Deployment/
Learning Rate
TableA11.CapitalandOperatingCoststo2050
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881
735
2045
2050
5,379
4,039
3,451
3,989
4,782
5,756
7,030
9,336
273
205
175
203
243
292
357
474
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670
2040
371
2020
2035
19
2015
140
2010
2030
2008
37
Year
2025
MW Installed (in
U.S.)
Base Case
1,592
1,910
1,452
804
304
80
41
11
MW Installed (in
U.S.)
2,565
2,804
2,482
3,009
3,830
4,902
6,397
9,336
Optimistic Scenario
TableA12.CapitalandOperatingCoststo2050(SameStartingCostsMiddleCases)
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78
130
142
126
153
195
249
325
474
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GENERATIONTECHNOLOGIES
DataConfidenceLevels
Theuncertaintyassociatedwiththeresourcedataisdiscussedintheresourceestimatesection
above.Thegreatestuncertaintyforresourceestimatesstemsfromthefactthattheavailabledatais
locatedmostlyinverydeepregionsthatwouldnotbesuitableforinstallationofwaveenergy
devices.Asaconsequence,thedatawereextrapolatedtoshallowerregions.Thismajoruncertainty
fortheWestCoastresourcecouldbereducedbyusinghydrodynamicmodelstoestimatethewave
energyresourceatdifferentdepths7.Thetotallackofdataforthemiddle(E2,FigureA1)and
lower(E3)EastCoastoftheUnitedStatesalsoaddsuncertaintytotheresourceandcostestimates.
However,becausethewaveenergyresourceisbelievedtoberelativelysmallintheseregions,the
U.S.resourceassessmentcouldbeimprovedbyinvestigatingtheremainingareas(E1,FigureA2)
toconfirmthatthewaveenergyresourceisnotsignificantontheEastCoast.
ThecostdataprovidedinthisreportwerebasedonBlack&Veatchsexperienceworkingwith
leadingwavetechnologydevelopers,substantiatedbyearlyprototypecostsandsupplychain
quotes.Thesedataarebelievedtorepresentaviableestimateoffuturecosts;however,theindustry
isstillinitsinfancy;andthereforethesecostsareinthemainestimates.Thisuncertaintyis
reflectedintherelativelylargeerrorbands.
Thedeploymentscenarioswerebasedonpotentialinstallationsgloballydeemedrealistic;however,
theyareaforecastandthereforesubjecttosignificantuncertainty.Deploymentwillultimatelybe
drivenbynumerousvariables,includingfinancing,gridconstraints,governmentpolicy,andthe
strengthofthesupplychain.
Summary
Thedeploymentanalysisindicatesthatapproximately12.5GWofwavegenerationcouldbe
installedintheUnitedStatesby2050intheBaseCasewithapproximately27GWby2050underan
Optimistic(highdeployment)scenario,and2.5GWby2050underaPessimistic(lowdeployment)
scenario.Noneofthescenariosreachtheirrespectiveresourceceilings.
Thecostofelectricityanalysisestimatesa17c/kWhcostofelectricityforBaseCaseassumptions
afterapproximately5GWisinstalled(2050BaseCaseinstalledcapacity);afterapproximately13
GWisinstalledthecostofelectricityis27c/kWh.IntheOptimisticScenario(deploymentrate,
learningrate,andcosts)),thecostofelectricityisestimatedtobeaslowas9c/kWhafter
approximately28.5GWisinstalled(2050).InthePessimisticScenario,thecostofelectricityafter
approximately2.5GWisinstalled(2050)isestimatedat42c/kWh.
7Notonlythemeanwavepower(kW/m)mustbeassessed,buttheyearlywaveoccurrencedatatoproduce
Hs/Tescatterdiagramsmustalsobeassessed,asthesearecrucialtoapplytodeviceperformancetoestimate
capacityfactors.
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AppendixB.EnergyEstimateforTidalStreamTechnologies
ThisappendixdocumentsananalysisofthetidalenergyresourceintheUnitedStatesandprovides
thebasisforinformationpresentedinSection0above.
RESOURCEESTIMATE
RawResourceAssessment
Black&VeatchsourcedtidalstreamenergydatafromexistingEPRItidalstreamenergyliterature
(EPRIn.d.)forWestCoastsites(WashingtonandCalifornia)andnorthernEastCoastsites(Maine
andMassachusetts).TheresultsaresummarizedinTableB1forthecontiguousUnitedStates.
TableB1.RawResourceAssessmentSummary
State
Site
Depth
(m)
MeanAnnualised
PowerDensity
(kW/m2)
Cross
section
Area(m2)
MeanAnnualised
AvailablePower
(MW)
0.93
18.2
0.02
MuskegetChannel
25
0.95
14000
13.3
WoodsHolePassage
1.32
350
0.5
CapeCodCanal
11
2.11
1620
3.4
LubecNarrows
5.5
750
4.1
WesternPassage
55to75
2.2
16300
35.9
OuterCobscookBay
18to36
1.64
14500
23.8
3inNarrow
18to24off
Castine
1.94
400
0.8
PenobscotRiver
18to21
0.73
5000
3.7
KennebecRiverentrance
9to20
0.44
990
0.4
PiscataquaRiver
10to14
1.48
2300
3.4
Massachusetts BlynmanCanal
Maine
BagaduceNarrows
Washington
Washington
42
1.7
62600
106.4
California
California
90
3.2
74100
237.1
ThesiteshighlightedinTableB1wereretainedafterconsideringdepthandresourceconstraints.
Onlysitesofdepthgreaterthanapproximately20mandpowerdensitygreaterthan1kW/mwere
believedtobesuitableforcommercialtidalstreamenergyextraction.Inanycase,thesitesnot
highlightedhaveanegligiblecontributiontothetotal)
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BasedonanunderstandingthatEPRIfocuseditsresearchonthemostpromisingstates,noother
datathanthatfromEPRIwerereviewedandthereforethepotentialtidalstreamresourceforother
locationswasnotassesseddirectly..AcursoryinvestigationoftheU.S.coastlinerevealedother
potentiallysuitablesitessuchasLongIslandSound,ChesapeakeBay,andRhodeIsland.
AssumptionsaboutthetotalU.S.potentialarediscussedintheresourcelimitssectionbelow.
Toestimatetheamountofenergythatmightbeactuallyproducedfromtidalenergyconverters
(TECs),threesignificantimpactfactor(SIF)8valueswereappliedtoallsitescorrespondingtothe
threedifferentscenariosasfollows:10%SIFwasappliedtothePessimisticScenario,20%SIFtothe
BaseCase,and50%totheOptimisticScenario.Theextractablepowerresultsaresummarizedin
TableB2.
TableB2.ExtractableResourceAssessmentSummary
State
Sites
Base Case
Optimistic
Scenario
Muskeget Channel
Western Passage
18
12
Washington
Washington
11
21
53
California
California
24
47
119
42
83
208
Massachusetts
Maine
Total
Thetotalextractableresourcevariesfromapproximately40MWto200MW
(approximately80MWfortheBaseCase).
ResourceLimits
Toaccountforyettobediscoveredsites,acoefficientwasappliedtothethreetotalvaluesobtained
intherawresourceassessmentsectionabove.TheresultsareshowninTableB3.
TableB3.EstimatedResourceLimits
ExtractablePower(MW)
PessimisticScenario
BaseCase
OptimisticScenario
Total
42
83
208
Multiplier
10
GrandTotal
42
167
2082
8In2004and2005,aspartoftheUKMarineEnergyChallenge(MEC),Black&Veatchdefinedasignificant
impactfactor(SIF)toestimatethetidalresourceextractableintheUnitedKingdom,representingthe
percentageofthetotalresourceatasitethatcouldbeextractedwithoutsignificanteconomic,environmental,
orecologicaleffects.
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Astherearesignificantuncertaintiesassociatedwiththeresourcedataassociatedwiththese
estimates,anditispossiblethatthemeanannualizedpowerdensityandresourceintheCalifornia
andWashingtonsitesmighthavebeenoverestimatedintheEPRIstudies,afactorofonewas
appliedontheresourceinthePessimisticScenario.IntheBaseCaseandOptimisticScenario,this
possibilityofoverstatementofthepotentialofknowsiteswasassumedtobesignificantlysmaller
thanthepotentialofundiscoveredsites;afactorof2wasassumedintheBaseCaseandafactorof
10wasappliedintheOptimisticScenario.Basedontheseassumptions,thetotalestimatedresource
forthecontiguousUnitedStates.isclosetothetotalestimatedUKresource.
Toderiveestimatesofthecostoftidalstreamenergy,thesitesweresplitintothreecategories
basedontheirrawpowerdensity:3%ofthesitesidentifiedearlierpresentapowerdensityofless
than1.5kW/m,57%presentapowerdensitygreaterthan2.5kW/m,andtheremainingpresent
apowerdensitycomprisedbetween1.5kW/mand2.5kW/m.Giventhesmallnumberofsites,
thefactorsappliedtoaccountforundiscoveredsites,andBlack&Veatchsexperience,thesefigures
weremodifiedtobeconsistentwithamorelikelydistribution,asshowninTableB4.
TableB4.ResourceBands
Resource
ProportionofTotalExtractableResource
%Lowbandresource(<1.5kW/m2)
10%
%Mediumbandresource(>1.5kW/m2;
<2.5kW/m2)
50%
%Highbandresource(>2.5kW/m2)
40%
COSTOFENERGYESTIMATE
TidalStreamDeploymentEstimate
GlobalandU.S.Deployments
Globaldeploymentisrequiredtodrivethelearningrateofatechnology.Anassumptionwas
developedforthedeploymentofTECsgloballyto2050.Thisestimatewasmadebyidentifyingthe
plannedshortterm(to2030)futuredeploymentsoftheleadingTECtechnologies.Thegrowthrate
from2020to2030wasthenusedasabasistoestimatethegrowthto2050.Thisgrowthratewas
decreasedannuallyby1%from2030andeachsubsequentyearinordertorepresentanatural
slowingofgrowththatislikelytooccur.Theyear2030waschosenasthestartdateforthe
slowdownasthiswouldrepresentapproximately20yearsofhighgrowth,whichisreasonable
basedonslowdownsexperiencedinotherindustries(e.g.,wind)thathavereflectedresourceand
supplychainconstraints.
Notalldevelopersarelikelytoprovesuccessful,andnaturally,notallplannedinstallationswill
proceed.Assuch,weightingfactorswereappliedtoreflecttheuncertaintyrelatedtoboththe
developerspotentialsuccessandtheirprojectssuccess.
DeploymentofcommercialtidalfarmsintheUnitedStateswasassumedtobeacertainpercentage
ofthegrowthrateofthisglobaldeploymentprojection(TableB4),consistentwiththetotal
resourceceilingsidentifiedabove.
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TableB4.U.S.ContributiontoGlobalTidalStreamDeployment
Scenario
ProportionofWorldDeployment
Optimistic
30%
BaseCase
20%
Pessimistic
10%
FortheBaseCase,thefirst10MWfarmwasestimatedtobeinstalledafterapproximately50MW
hadbeeninstalledworldwide.ThedifferentdeploymentsscenariosobtainedareshowninFigure
B1.
Worst case
Mid case
Best case
8000
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
2010
2015
2020
2025
2030
2035
Time (years)
2040
2045
2050
2055
FigureB1.Deploymentscenariosfortidalstreampower(continentalwaters)intheUnitedStatesto2050
IntheBaseCaseandPessimisticScenariocases,theresourceceilingswerereachedbetween2030
and2035,whereasintheOptimisticScenariotheresourceceilingwasnotreachedevenin2050.
DeploymentAssumptions
GiventherelativelylowenergydensityofU.S.tidalresourcesites,itwasassumedthat1)
developerswouldaimtomaximiseprojecteconomicsforearlyprojectsandwouldthusdeployonly
atsitesinthehighbandwaveresource,2)thatwhenthisisexhausted,themediumbandresource
siteswouldbeexploited,and3)thatthelowresourcesiteswouldbeusedonlyafterthemedium
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bandresourcewasexhausted.Itisalsoassumedthattheeffectsofthelearningcurvewillmakethe
mediumandlowresourcesitesmorefeasibleinthefuture.
DeploymentConstraints
Thedeploymentgrowthisonlylimitedbytheresourceconstraints.Itwasassumedthatallother
factorsimpactingdeploymentareaddressed,includingbutnotlimitedto:financialrequirements,
supplychaininfrastructure,sitespecificrequirements,planning,andgridinfrastructure.
Learning
Toformajudgmentastothelikelylearningratesthatcanreasonablybeassumedforthecoming
years,itisappropriatetofirstconsiderempiricallearningratesfromotheremergingrenewable
energyindustries.Thissectionprovidesanoverviewoflearningexperiencefromsimilar
developingindustries,suggestsapplicablelearningratesfortidalstreamtechnology,andconsiders
scenariosforfuturegenerationcosts.FigureA7(AppendixA)showslearningratedataforarange
ofemergingrenewableenergytechnologies.
Costandcumulativecapacityareobservedtoexhibitastraightlinewhenplottedonaloglog
diagram;mathematically,thisstraightlineindicatesthatanincreasebyafixedpercentageof
cumulativeinstalledcapacitygivesaconsistentpercentagereductionincost.Forexample,the
progressratioforphotovoltaicsovertheperiod1985to1995wasapproximately65%(learning
rateapproximately35%)andthatforwindpowerbetween1980and1995was82%(learningrate
18%).
Anydiscussionastothelikelylearningratesthatmightbeexperiencedbythetidalstreamindustry
willbesubjective.Theclosestanalogyforthetidalstreamindustryhasbeenassumedtobethe
windindustry.Aprogressratioaslowaswindenergy(82%)isnotexpectedforthetidalstream
industryforthefollowingreasons:
Inthewindpowerindustry,muchofthelearningwasaresultofdoingthesamethingbigger
orupsizingratherthandoingthesameorsomethingnew.Thisupsizinghasprobablybeen
thesinglemostimportantcontributortocostreductionforwind,contributingapproximately
7%tothe18%learningrate.9Tidalturbines,likewindturbines,willbenefitfromincreasing
rotorsweptareasuntilthemaximumlengthoftheblades,limitedbyloadings,isreached.
However,unlikeforwindpower,theultimatephysicallimitonrotordiametercanalsobe
imposedbycavitationorlimitedwaterdepth,thelatterbeingparticularlyimportantforthe
relativelyshallowsitesof(2535m)thatarelikelytobedevelopedinthenearterm.
Muchofthelearninginwindpoweroccurredatsmallscalewithsmallscaleunits(<100kW),
oftenbyindividualswithverylowbudgets.Tidalstreamontheotherhandrequireslarge
investmentstodeployprototypesandthereforerequiresasmallernumberofmoreriskysteps
todevelop,whichtendstosuggestthatthelearningwillbeslower(andtheprogresswillbe
ratiohigher).
Tidalstreamtechnologydevelopmentisstillinitsinfancy,andlearningratesareoftenhigher
duringthisperiodoftechnologydevelopment,offsettingthepointsin(2).
9See,forexample,http://www.electricitypolicy.org.uk/pubs/wp/eprg0601.pdf,whichcalculatesan11%
learningrateforwindexcludinglearningduetoupsizing.
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GENERATIONTECHNOLOGIES
The likely range of learning rates for the tidal energy industry in the United States is believed
to be between 7% and15% (progress ratios of 85%93 %) with a mid range value of 11%.
CostofEnergy
AninhousetechnoeconomicmodelwasusedbyBlack&VeatchtoderiveAcostofelectricitywas
developedforafirst10MWfarminstalledinthethreebandresourceenvironmentdiscussedin
theresourcelimitssectionabove,assumingthisinstallationoccurredafter50MWofcapacityhad
beeninstalledworldwide.Thecostofelectricitypresentedisconsideredanindustryaveragefor
horizontalaxisaxialflowturbines.Thelearningraterangespecifiedabovewasusedtoderivethe
futurecostofelectricity.
GeneralAssumptions
Asdescribedabove,theresourcedatausedinthetechnoeconomicanalysisweresourcedfrom
EPRI(n.d.).ThethreeresourcecasesweremodelledandderivedfromtheMuskegetChannelsite
(approximately1kW/m)andfromthesitesinWashingtonandCalifornia(respectively
approximately2kW/mand3kW/m).Thecurrentvelocitydistributionsfromtherealsiteswere
slightlymodifiedtoexactlymatchthegenericresourcemidbands(1kW/m,2kW/m,and3
kW/m).Thesegeneralassumptionswereusedforthisanalysis:
Depth:40mforallthreegenericsitesconsidered
Projectlife:25years
Discountrate:8%.
Deviceavailability:92.5%intheBaseCase,95%intheOptimisticScenario,and90%inthe
PessimisticScenario.
Thecostofelectricitypresentedisin2009dollarsandfutureinflationhasnotbeenaccountedfor.
TheexchangerateusedtoconvertanycostsfromGBPtoUSDwas:1GBP=1.65USD.
CostResults
TheestimatedcostofelectricityispresentedinTableB5.Learningrateswereonlyappliedtothe
costofelectricityonlyafterthe50MWofcapacitywasinstalledworldwide.
BLACK&VEATCHCORPORATION|AppendixB.EnergyEstimateforTidalStreamTechnologies
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GENERATIONTECHNOLOGIES
TableB5.CostEstimatefora10MWTidalFarmafterInstallationof50MW
Resource
Highband
Resource
Medium
band
Resource
Lowband
Resource
Costs
Costs($million)
Performance(%)
Costof
Electricity
(c/kWh)
Capital
Operating
(annual)
Capacity
Factor
Availability
Pessimistic
69
2.5
22%
90.0%
45.0
BaseCase
59
2.0
26%
92.5%
35.8
Optimistic
54
1.5
30%
95.0%
29.3
Pessimistic
74
2.6
19%
90.0%
55.0
BaseCase
63
2.1
23%
92.5%
44.4
Optimistic
58
1.6
26%
95.0%
35.9
Pessimistic
127
4.3
21%
90.0%
84.3
BaseCase
104
3.5
25%
92.5%
66.9
Optimistic
96
2.6
29%
95.0%
55.0
Black&Veatchstechnoeconomicmodelisruninsuchawaythatthetechnology(ratedpowerof
thedevices)matchestheresource,hencetherangeofcapacityfactorsobtainedinTableB5.The
PessimisticandOptimisticScenariosweregeneratedtoindicatetheuncertaintiesintheanalysis.
ThesupplycurvesobtainedafterapplyingthelearningratestothecostofelectricityfromTableB5
areshowninFiguresB2,B3,andB4.
Best case
Mid case
Worst case
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
FigureB2.SupplycurveforaBaseCaseresourceceilingandan11%learningrate
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GENERATIONTECHNOLOGIES
FromaBaseCaseofapproximately35c/kWh,thecostofelectricitydroppedtoapproximately
20c/kWhafterapproximately250MWwereinstalled.Atthatpoint,themostenergeticsiteshad
beenexploitedandthemediumbandresourcesitesstarttobeexploited,hencetheoffsetinthe
curve.Aftertheseadditional350MWofmediumbandresourcesiteshadbeenexploited,theBase
Casecostofelectricityliesslightlyabovetheprevious20c/kWhlevel.Thelateexploitationofthe
lowbandresourcebroughtthecostofelectricitybacktotheoriginallevels(approximately
35c/kWhintheBaseCase).
Best case
50
Mid case
Worst case
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
FigureB3.SupplycurveforanOptimisticresourceceilinganda15%learningrate
FromaBaseCaseofapproximately35c/kWh,thecostofelectricitydroppedtoapproximately
10c/kWhafterapproximately3,500MWhadbeeninstalled.Atthatpoint,themostenergeticsites
hadbeenexploitedandthemediumbandresourcesitesstarttobeexploited,hencetheoffsetinthe
curve.Aftertheseextra3,500MWofmediumresourcesiteshadbeenexploited,theBaseCasecost
ofelectricitywasbackattheprevious10c/kWhlevel.
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Best case
Mid case
Worst case
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
Installed capacity (MW)
120
140
160
180
FigureB4.SupplycurveforaPessimisticresourceceilinganda7%learningrate
FromaBaseCaseofapproximately35c/kWh,thecostofelectricitydroppedtoapproximately
27c/kWhafterapproximately70MWhadbeeninstalled.Atthatpoint,themostenergeticsiteshad
beenexploitedandthemediumbandresourcesitesstarttobeexploited,hencetheoffsetinthe
curve.Aftertheseextra90MWofmediumbandresourcesiteshadbeenexploited,theBaseCase
costofelectricityreachesapproximately30c/kWhlevel.Thelateexploitationofthelowband
resourcetookthecostofelectricitytothehighestlevelsreachedinthisanalysis(approximately
48c/kWhintheBaseCase).
CapitalandOperatingCosts
ThecapitalcostsfortheBaseCase,OptimisticandPessimisticScenariosandtheBaseCaseoperating
coststo2050areshowninTableB6.Asstatedabove,developerswereassumedtoinstallfirstat
sitesinthehighbandresource,thenatsitesinmediumbandresources,andfinallyatsitesinthe
lowbandresource.InTableB6,thecostshighlightedingreen,orange,andredcorrespondtoa
high,medium,andlowresourcebands,respectively.Theconstructionscheduleandoutagerates
relatetotheBaseCase.ThedatainTableB6relatedirectlytothecostsprojectedinFiguresB2
throughB4.TheBaseCaseovernightcostsweretakenfromtheBaseCase(middlecurve)ofFigure
B2;thelowovernightcostsweretakenfromthebestcase(lowercurve)oftheOptimisticScenario
(FigureB3);and,thehighovernightcostsweretakenfromtheworstcase(uppercurve)ofthe
PessimisticScenario(FigureB4).InTableB6,inthebaseandhighovernightcostscenarios,the
lowbandresourcesiteswereexploitedbetween2030and2035andhencenoredcoloredcellsare
visible.
BLACK&VEATCHCORPORATION|AppendixB.EnergyEstimateforTidalStreamTechnologies
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88
26%
26%
26%
23%
2008
2010
2015
2020
2025
2030
2035
2040
2045
2050
3,267
3,498
4,401
5,940
BaseCase
Overnight
Cost
($/KW)
1,376
1,434
1,540
1,611
1,962
2,524
3,293
5,445
LearningRate
($/KW)
Optimistic
OvernightCost
HighDeployment/
5,381
5,661
5,843
6,930
Pessimistic
OvernightCost
LowDeployment/
LearningRate
($/KW)
Variable
O&M
($/MWh)
BaseCase
BLACK&VEATCHCORPORATION|AppendixB.EnergyEstimateforTidalStreamTechnologies
BaseCase
Capacity
Factor
Year
112
117
147
198
BaseCase
Fixed
O&M
$/KWYr
TableB6.CapitalandOperatingCoststo2050
HeatRate
(Btu/KWh)
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
Construction
Schedule
(Months)
NATIONALRENEWABLEENERGYLABORATORY(NREL)|COSTANDPERFORMANCEDATAFORPOWERGENERATIONTECHNOLOGIES
1%
1%
1%
1%
1%
1%
1%
1%
Planned
Outage
Rate
(%)
89
6.5%
6.5%
6.5%
6.5%
6.5%
6.5%
6.5%
6.5%
Forced
Outage
Rate(%)
NATIONALRENEWABLEENERGYLABORATORY(NREL)|COSTANDPERFORMANCEDATAFORPOWER
GENERATIONTECHNOLOGIES
ThedatafortheBaseCaseandOptimisticScenarioarealsopresentedinTableB7withthesame
startingpoints,alongwiththeestimatedcumulativeinstalledcapacityintheUnitedStates.The
followingresultsweretakenfromthemiddlecasesoftheBaseCaseandOptimisticScenario
(FiguresB2andB3).
TableB7.CapitalExpenditureCostandOperatingExpenditureCoststo2050
(SameStartingCostsMiddleCases)
BaseCase
Year
MW
Installed(in
U.S.)
BaseCase
Overnight
Cost($/kW)
BaseCase
FixedO&M
($/kWYr)
2008
2010
2015
10
2020
OptimisticScenario
Year
MW
Installed(in
U.S.)
BaseCase
Overnight
Cost($/kW)
BaseCase
FixedO&M
($/kWYr)
2008
2010
5,940
198
2015
15
5,940
198
61
4,401
147
2020
131
3,591
120
2025
238
3,498
117
2025
407
2,753
92
2030
493
3,267
112
2030
1,190
2,140
71
2035
2035
2,756
1,758
59
2040
2040
4,297
1,672
57
2045
2045
5,813
1,557
53
2050
2050
6,950
1,494
51
DataConfidenceLevels
Theuncertaintyassociatedwiththeresourcedataisdiscussedintheresourceestimatesection
above.TheU.S.resourceassessmentcouldbeimprovedbyinvestigatingtheremainingcoastline
thathasnotyetbeeninvestigatedandbyusinghydrodynamicmodelingonthemostpromising
sites.
ThecostdataprovidedinthisreportwerebasedonBlack&Veatchsexperienceworkingwith
leadingtidalstreamtechnologydevelopers,substantiatedbyearlyprototypecostsandsupply
chainquotes.Thesedataarebelievedtorepresentaviablecurrentestimateoffuturecosts;
however,theindustryisstillinitsinfancyandthereforethesecostsareinthemainestimates..This
uncertaintyisreflectedintherelativelylargeerrorbands.
Thedeploymentscenarioswerebasedonpotentialinstallationsgloballydeemedrealistic;however,
theyareaforecastandthereforearesubjecttosignificantuncertainty.Deploymentwillultimately
bedrivenbynumerousvariablesincludingfinancing,gridconstraints,governmentpolicy,andthe
strengthofthesupplychain.
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GENERATIONTECHNOLOGIES
Summary
Theanalysisestimatesa20c/kWhcostofelectricityforBaseCaseassumptionsafter250MWis
installed;after720MWisinstalled(BaseCasetotalresourceceiling),thecostofelectricityis
estimatedtobe34c/kWhduetothelateexploitationofthelowbandresource.IntheOptimistic
Scenario(deploymentrate,learningrate,andcosts),thecostofelectricityisestimatedtobeaslow
as10c/kWhafter7GWisinstalled(2050resourcelevel).InthePessimisticScenario,thecostof
electricityafter180MWisinstalled(PessimisticScenariototalresourceceiling)isestimatedat
48c/kWh.
ThecostoftidalstreamenergyextractionintheUnitedStatescannotbefurtherinvestigateduntila
fullnationalresourceassessmentiscompleted.
BLACK&VEATCHCORPORATION|AppendixB.EnergyEstimateforTidalStreamTechnologies
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GENERATIONTECHNOLOGIES
AppendixC.BreakdownofCostforSolarEnergyTechnologies
Thisappendixdocumentscapitalcostbreakdownsforbothphotovoltaicandconcentratingsolar
powertechnologies,andprovidesthebasisforinformationpresentedinSections0above.
SOLARPHOTOVOLTAICS
FigureC1andTableC1showcapitalcost($/W)projectionforanumberofdifferentresidential,
commercialandutilityoptionsrangingfrom40KW(directcurrent(DC))to100MW(DC),
assumingnoowner'scostsandnoextramargin.TableC2breaksthesecostsdownbycomponent.
$6.00
$5.00
$4.00
$3.00
$2.00
FigureC1.Capitalcostprojectionforsolarphotovoltaictechnology
BLACK&VEATCHCORPORATION|AppendixC.BreakdownofCostforSolarEnergyTechnologies
Electricity & Industry 2013, Page 254
92
$2.91
$2.76
$2.64
$2.53
$2.43
$2.35
$2.28
$2.22
2015
2020
2025
2030
2035
2040
2045
2050
$1.72
$1.77
$1.84
$1.91
$2.00
$2.09
$2.21
$2.34
$2.59
10MW
(DC)
$1.56
$1.61
$1.67
$1.75
$1.83
$1.92
$2.03
$2.16
$2.41
100MW
(DC)
$2.31
$2.37
$2.44
$2.52
$2.60
$2.69
$2.84
$3.14
$3.50
1MW
(DC)
BLACK&VEATCHCORPORATION|AppendixC.BreakdownofCostforSolarEnergyTechnologies
$3.19
2010
1MW
(DC)
UtilityPV
NonTracking
$1.99
$2.05
$2.11
$2.18
$2.26
$2.34
$2.44
$2.55
$2.83
10MW
(DC)
UtilityPV
1AxisTracking
$1.86
$1.91
$1.98
$2.04
$2.12
$2.20
$2.30
$2.40
$2.69
100MW
(DC)
TableC1.SolarPhotovoltaicsCapitalCosts($/W)byTypeandSizeofInstallation
NATIONALRENEWABLEENERGYLABORATORY(NREL)|COSTANDPERFORMANCEDATAFORPOWERGENERATIONTECHNOLOGIES
$2.40
$2.47
$2.54
$2.62
$2.71
$2.83
$3.06
$3.52
$4.39
100kW
(DC)
PV
Commercial
93
$2.82
$2.90
$2.98
$3.07
$3.17
$3.33
$3.60
$4.17
$5.72
4kW
(DC)
Residential
PV
9.5%
43.0%
Moduleefficiency
Groundcoverageratio
43.0%
9.5%
$0.10
$0.51
$0.51
$1.47
$2.59
$1.72
$1.77
$1.84
$1.91
$2.00
$2.09
$2.21
$2.34
$2.59
10MW(DC)
43.0%
9.5%
$0.10
$0.40
$0.49
$1.42
$2.41
$1.56
$1.61
$1.67
$1.75
$1.83
$1.92
$2.03
$2.16
$2.41
100MW(DC)
30.0%
15.0%
$0.08
$0.65
$0.56
$2.20
$3.50
$2.31
$2.37
$2.44
$2.52
$2.60
$2.69
$2.84
$3.14
$3.50
1MW(DC)
1AxistrackingUtility
BLACK&VEATCHCORPORATION|AppendixC.BreakdownofCostforSolarEnergyTechnologies
$0.10
$2.22
2050
Shipping
$2.28
2045
$0.67
$2.35
2040
Labor,engineering,andconstruction
$2.43
2035
$0.73
$2.53
2030
Balanceofsystem(BOS)
$2.64
2025
$1.68
$2.76
2020
Modules
$2.91
2015
$3.19
$3.19
2010
OvernightEPC
2010
1MW(DC)
Year
NonTrackingUtility
30.0%
15.0%
$0.06
$0.47
$0.49
$1.80
$2.83
$1.99
$2.05
$2.11
$2.18
$2.26
$2.34
$2.44
$2.55
$2.83
10MW(DC)
30.0%
15.0%
$0.06
$0.38
$0.49
$1.75
$2.69
$1.86
$1.91
$1.98
$2.04
$2.12
$2.20
$2.30
$2.40
$2.69
100MW(DC)
Commercial
50.0%
15.0%
$0.13
$1.27
$0.66
$2.33
$4.39
$2.40
$2.47
$2.54
$2.62
$2.71
$2.83
$3.06
$3.52
$4.39
94
100kW(DC)
100.0%
15.0%
$0.19
$1.77
$0.76
$3.00
$5.72
$2.82
$2.90
$2.98
$3.07
$3.17
$3.33
$3.60
$4.17
$5.72
4kW
(DC)
Residential
TableC2.SolarPhotovoltaicsCapitalCost($/W)BreakdownbyTypeandSizeofInstallationNoOwner'sCosts,NoExtraMargin
NATIONALRENEWABLEENERGYLABORATORY(NREL)|COSTANDPERFORMANCEDATAFORPOWERGENERATIONTECHNOLOGIES
43.0%
GroundCoverageRatio
$1.33
$0.74
$0.61
$0.08
12.0%
43.0%
Modules
BOS
Labor,engineering,andconstruction
Shipping
Moduleefficiency
GroundCoverageRatio
$1.23
Modules
$1.08
$2.09
43.0%
12.0%
$0.08
$0.45
$0.50
$1.17
$2.21
43.0%
11.0%
$0.09
$0.46
$0.51
$1.27
$2.34
10MW(DC)
$1.04
$1.92
43.0%
12.0%
$0.08
$0.33
$0.49
$1.13
$2.03
43.0%
11.0%
$0.09
$0.34
$0.50
$1.23
$2.16
100MW(DC)
$1.47
$2.69
30.0%
17.0%
$0.08
$0.59
$0.57
$1.60
$2.84
30.0%
16.0%
$0.08
$0.60
$0.57
$1.88
$3.14
1MW(DC)
1AxistrackingUtility
BLACK&VEATCHCORPORATION|AppendixC.BreakdownofCostforSolarEnergyTechnologies
$2.64
OvernightEPC
2025
$2.76
OvernightEPC
2020
11.0%
$0.62
Labor,engineering,andconstruction
Moduleefficiency
$0.75
BOS
$0.09
$1.45
Modules
Shipping
$2.91
1MW(DC)
OvernightEPC
2015
Year
NonTrackingUtility
$1.39
$2.34
30.0%
17.0%
$0.06
$0.41
$0.50
$1.47
$2.44
30.0%
16.0%
$0.06
$0.42
$0.51
$1.56
$2.55
10MW(DC)
$1.34
$2.20
30.0%
17.0%
$0.06
$0.32
$0.50
$1.42
$2.30
30.0%
16.0%
$0.06
$0.33
$0.50
$1.51
$2.40
100MW(DC)
Commercial
NATIONALRENEWABLEENERGYLABORATORY(NREL)|COSTANDPERFORMANCEDATAFORPOWERGENERATIONTECHNOLOGIES
$1.50
$2.83
50.0%
17.0%
$0.12
$0.72
$0.58
$1.65
$3.06
50.0%
16.0%
$0.12
$0.76
$0.63
$2.00
$3.52
95
100kW(DC)
$1.61
$3.33
100.0%
17.0%
$0.17
$0.99
$0.68
$1.76
$3.60
100.0%
16.0%
$0.18
$1.07
$0.73
$2.19
$4.17
4kW
(DC)
Residential
$0.60
$0.08
13.0%
43.0%
Labor,engineering,andconstruction
Shipping
Moduleefficiency
GroundCoverageRatio
$1.14
$0.73
$0.59
$0.07
14.0%
43.0%
Modules
BOS
Labor,engineering,andconstruction
Shipping
Moduleefficiency
GroundCoverageRatio
$1.07
$0.72
$0.58
$0.07
Modules
BOS
Labor,engineering,andconstruction
Shipping
$0.07
$0.43
$0.49
$0.93
$1.91
43.0%
14.0%
$0.07
$0.43
$0.49
$1.00
$2.00
43.0%
13.0%
$0.08
$0.44
$0.50
10MW(DC)
$0.07
$0.31
$0.47
$0.90
$1.75
43.0%
14.0%
$0.07
$0.32
$0.48
$0.96
$1.83
43.0%
13.0%
$0.08
$0.32
$0.48
100MW(DC)
$0.07
$0.57
$0.55
$1.33
$2.52
30.0%
19.0%
$0.07
$0.58
$0.56
$1.39
$2.60
30.0%
18.0%
$0.07
$0.58
$0.56
1MW(DC)
1AxistrackingUtility
BLACK&VEATCHCORPORATION|AppendixC.BreakdownofCostforSolarEnergyTechnologies
$2.43
OvernightEPC
2035
$2.53
OvernightEPC
2030
$0.73
1MW(DC)
BOS
Year
NonTrackingUtility
$0.05
$0.39
$0.49
$1.25
$2.18
30.0%
19.0%
$0.05
$0.40
$0.49
$1.32
$2.26
30.0%
18.0%
$0.06
$0.40
$0.50
10MW(DC)
$0.05
$0.30
$0.48
$1.21
$2.04
30.0%
19.0%
$0.05
$0.31
$0.49
$1.27
$2.12
30.0%
18.0%
$0.06
$0.31
$0.49
100MW(DC)
Commercial
NATIONALRENEWABLEENERGYLABORATORY(NREL)|COSTANDPERFORMANCEDATAFORPOWERGENERATIONTECHNOLOGIES
$0.10
$0.61
$0.56
$1.35
$2.62
50.0%
19.0%
$0.10
$0.62
$0.57
$1.42
$2.71
50.0%
18.0%
$0.11
$0.65
$0.57
96
100kW(DC)
$0.15
$0.81
$0.66
$1.45
$3.07
100.0%
19.0%
$0.16
$0.82
$0.67
$1.53
$3.17
100.0%
18.0%
$0.16
$0.88
$0.67
4kW
(DC)
Residential
43.0%
GroundCoverageRatio
$0.57
$0.06
16.0%
43.0%
Labor,engineering,andconstruction
Shipping
Moduleefficiency
GroundCoverageRatio
$0.94
$0.71
$0.57
$0.06
17.0%
43.0%
Modules
BOS
Labor,engineering,andconstruction
Shipping
Moduleefficiency
GroundCoverageRatio
43.0%
17.0%
$0.06
$0.41
$0.48
$0.82
$1.77
43.0%
16.0%
$0.06
$0.42
$0.48
$0.88
$1.84
43.0%
15.0%
10MW(DC)
43.0%
17.0%
$0.06
$0.30
$0.46
$0.79
$1.61
43.0%
16.0%
$0.06
$0.30
$0.47
$0.84
$1.67
43.0%
15.0%
100MW(DC)
30.0%
22.0%
$0.06
$0.56
$0.55
$1.20
$2.37
30.0%
21.0%
$0.06
$0.57
$0.55
$1.26
$2.44
30.0%
20.0%
1MW(DC)
1AxistrackingUtility
BLACK&VEATCHCORPORATION|AppendixC.BreakdownofCostforSolarEnergyTechnologies
$2.28
OvernightEPC
2045
$0.72
$1.00
Modules
BOS
$2.35
OvernightEPC
2040
15.0%
1MW(DC)
Moduleefficiency
Year
NonTrackingUtility
30.0%
22.0%
$0.05
$0.38
$0.48
$1.14
$2.05
30.0%
21.0%
$0.05
$0.39
$0.48
$1.19
$2.11
30.0%
20.0%
10MW(DC)
30.0%
22.0%
$0.05
$0.29
$0.47
$1.10
$1.91
30.0%
21.0%
$0.05
$0.30
$0.48
$1.15
$1.98
30.0%
20.0%
100MW(DC)
Commercial
NATIONALRENEWABLEENERGYLABORATORY(NREL)|COSTANDPERFORMANCEDATAFORPOWERGENERATIONTECHNOLOGIES
50.0%
22.0%
$0.09
$0.60
$0.55
$1.23
$2.47
50.0%
21.0%
$0.10
$0.60
$0.56
$1.29
$2.54
50.0%
20.0%
97
100kW(DC)
100.0%
22.0%
$0.14
$0.79
$0.66
$1.32
$2.90
100.0%
21.0%
$0.14
$0.79
$0.66
$1.38
$2.98
100.0%
20.0%
4kW
(DC)
Residential
$0.89
$0.71
$0.56
Modules
BOS
Labor,engineering,andconstruction
18.0%
43.0%
Moduleefficiency
GroundCoverageRatio
43.0%
18.0%
$0.06
$0.41
$0.47
$0.78
$1.72
10MW(DC)
43.0%
18.0%
$0.06
$0.29
$0.46
$0.75
$1.56
100MW(DC)
30.0%
23.0%
$0.06
$0.56
$0.54
$1.15
$2.31
1MW(DC)
1AxistrackingUtility
BLACK&VEATCHCORPORATION|AppendixC.BreakdownofCostforSolarEnergyTechnologies
$0.06
Shipping
$2.22
1MW(DC)
OvernightEPC
2050
Year
NonTrackingUtility
30.0%
23.0%
$0.04
$0.38
$0.48
$1.09
$1.99
10MW(DC)
30.0%
23.0%
$0.04
$0.29
$0.47
$1.05
$1.86
100MW(DC)
Commercial
NATIONALRENEWABLEENERGYLABORATORY(NREL)|COSTANDPERFORMANCEDATAFORPOWERGENERATIONTECHNOLOGIES
50.0%
23.0%
$0.09
$0.59
$0.55
$1.17
$2.40
98
100kW(DC)
100.0%
23.0%
$0.13
$0.78
$0.65
$1.26
$2.82
4kW
(DC)
Residential
NATIONALRENEWABLEENERGYLABORATORY(NREL)|COSTANDPERFORMANCEDATAFORPOWERGENERATION
TECHNOLOGIES
CONCENTRATINGSOLARPOWER
TablesC3andC6showperformanceandcostfortroughsystemsin2010and2050.TablesC4and
C5showperformanceandcostfortowersystemsin2010and2050.
TableC3.SolarTroughPerformancefor2010and2050
2010
2050
Parameter
Without
Storage
With
Storage
Without
Storage
With
Storage
Plantsize(MW)
200
200
200
200
Designdirectnormalirradiance(DNI)W/m2
950
950
950
950
Solarmultiple
1.4
1.4
Storage(hours)
6
a
Solartothermalefficiency
0.6
0.6
0.65
0.65
Thermaltoelectricefficiency
0.37
0.37
0.37
0.365b
Designthermaloutput(MWthhours)
541
541
541
548
Requiredaperture(m )
1327643
1896633
1225517
1774721
Thermalstorage(MWthhours)
3243
3288
Improvedreflectivity,receiver
Parallelstoragepenalty
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NATIONALRENEWABLEENERGYLABORATORY(NREL)|COSTANDPERFORMANCEDATAFORPOWERGENERATION
TECHNOLOGIES
TableC4.SolarTroughCapitalCostBreakdownfor2010and2050
2020
2050
CostAssumptions
Without
Storage
With
Storage
Without
Storage
With
Storage
Solarfield($/m2)
300
300
195a
195
Heattransferfluid(HTF)system($/kWe)
500
500
375
375
Powerblock($/kWe)
975
975
900
900
Storage($/kWhth)
40
30
Contingency
10
10
10
10c
Solarfieldandsite($)
398,293,030
568,990,043
238,975,818
346,070,656
HTFandpowerblock($)
295,000,000
295,000,000
255,000,000
255,000,000
Storage($)
129,729,730
97,479,452
Totalwithcontingency($)
762,622,333
1,093,091,750
543,373,400
768,406,119
DirectCosts($/kW)
3,813
5,465
2,717
3,842
10
10
10
Engineering,procurement,
construction(%)
10
Ownerscosts(%)
20
20
20
20
Indirectcosts(%)
30
31
30
30
TotalCost($/kW)
4,957
7,135
3,532
4,995
Reducedmaterial,installation
Lowerpressuredrop,advancedHTF
c
slightlyhighertemperature
b
TableC5.SolarTowerPlantParameters2010and2050
PlantParameters
2010
Storage(hours)
40
41
Collectorfieldaperture(m )
1147684
1081000a
Receiversurfacearea(m2)
847
677.6b
Plantcapacity(MWe)
100
100
Thermalstorage(hours)
Thermaltoelectricefficiency
0.425
0.425
Towerheight(m)
228
228
Designthermaloutput(MWth)
235
235
Thermalstorage(kWhth)
1411765
1411765
Capacityfactor(5)
2
2050
Betterreflectivity,lessspillage;Betteravailability,lessreceiverheatloss
Higherfluxlevels;bettercoatings
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NATIONALRENEWABLEENERGYLABORATORY(NREL)|COSTANDPERFORMANCEDATAFORPOWERGENERATION
TECHNOLOGIES
TableC6.SolarTowerCapitalCostBreakdownfor2010and2050
Assumption
2010
2050
Capacityfactor
40%
Heliostatfield
235$/m2aperture
Receiver
80000$/m2receiver
$67,760,000 50000$/m2receiver
$33,880,000
Tower
901500
0.01298$/m2aperture
$17,387,382 901500
0.01298$/m2aperture
$17,387,382
Powerblock
950$/kWe
$95,000,000 875$/kWe
$87,500,000
Thermalstorage
30$/kWhth
$42,352,941 18$/kWhth
$25,764,706
Totaldirectcosts
$492,206,063
$332,087,088
Totalwith
contingency
10%
$541,426,669 10%
$365,295,797
Indirectcosts
EPC
10%
10%
Owners
20%
20%
30%
$704,017,098 30%
TotalDirectand
IndirectCosts
TotalCost($/kW)
41%
$269,705,740
$7,040
235$/m2aperture
$167,555,000
$474,884,535
$4,749
BLACK&VEATCHCORPORATION|AppendixC.BreakdownofCostforSolarEnergyTechnologies
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NATIONALRENEWABLEENERGYLABORATORY(NREL)|COSTANDPERFORMANCEDATAFORPOWERGENERATION
TECHNOLOGIES
AppendixD.TechnicalDescriptionofPumpedStorage
HydroelectricPower
Thisappendixpresentsagenerictechnicaldescriptionandcharacteristicsofarepresentative500
MWpumpedstoragehydroelectric(PSH)plantthathasasitsprimarypurposeenergystorage.
DESIGNBASIS
Pumpedstorageisanenergystoragetechnologythatinvolvesmovingwaterbetweenanupperand
lowerreservoir.Thesystemischargedbypumpingwaterfromthelowerreservoirtoareservoirata
higherelevation.Todischargethesystemsstoredenergywaterisallowedtoflowfromtheupper
reservoirthroughaturbinetothelowerreservoir.Theoverallefficiencyofthesystemisdetermined
bytheefficiencyoftheequipment(pump/turbine,motorgenerator)aswellasthehydraulicand
hydrologiclosses(frictionandevaporation)whichareincurred.Overallcycleefficienciesof75%
80%aretypical.
Mostoften,apumpedstoragesystemdesignutilizesauniquereversibleFrancispump/turbineunit
thatisconnectedtoamotor/generator.Equipmentcoststypicallyaccountfor30%40%ofthe
capitalcostwithcivilworksmakingupthevastmajorityoftheremaining60%70%.
Theconfigurationofthepumpedstorageplantusedinthisreportisdescribedasfollows:
1. The500MWpumpedstorageprojectwilloperateonadailycyclewithenergystoredona12
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
hourcycleandgeneratedona10hourcycle.Approximately322cyclesperyearwouldbe
assumed.
Forpurposesofthisevaluation,theenergystoragerequirementisequalto500MWfor10hours
or5,000megawatthoursofdailypeakingenergy.
Thelowerreservoirisassumedtoexistandasiteforanewupperreservoircanbefoundthathas
theappropriatecharacteristics.
Forevaluationpurposes,thepumpingandgeneratingheadisbasedontheaveragedifferencein
theupperandlowerreservoirlevels.Therealityisthattheheadsinbothpumpingand
generatingmodeswillconstantlyfluctuateduringtheirrespectivecycles.Thisfluctuationmust
bedesigned
Thisevaluationisbasedonanaveragenetoperatinghead(H)forbothpumpingandgenerating
cyclesof800feet.
Thedistancefromtheoutletoftheupperreservoirtotheoutletofthelowerreservoirisassumed
tobe2,000feetresultinginanL/Hratioof2.5,whichisexcellentbyindustrystandards.
Thecalculatedgeneratingflowassuminga0.82generatingefficiencyis9,000cubicfeetper
second(cfs).
Theactivewaterstorageinthereservoirsrequiredforthisflowoverthe10hoursgenerating
cycleis7,438acrefeet.Adding10percentforinactivestorageyieldsatotalreservoirstorage
requirementofabout8,200acrefeet.
Thelowerreservoirisassumedtobeanexistingreservoirthatcanaffordafluctuationof7,438
acrefeetwithoutenvironmentalorotherfluctuationissues.
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NATIONALRENEWABLEENERGYLABORATORY(NREL)|COSTANDPERFORMANCEDATAFORPOWERGENERATION
TECHNOLOGIES
STUDYBASISDESCRIPTIONANDCOST
Basedontheaboveprojectsizingcriteria,thefollowingreconnaissancelevelprojectdesignand
associatedcapitalcostwasestimated:
1. Assuminganupperreservoirdepthof100feetyieldsasurfaceareaof82acres.Usingacircular
reservoirconstructionresultsina2,132footdiameterandacircumferenceof6,700ft.The
assumeddamwouldbeagravitytypeconstructedusingrollercompactedconcrete(RCC).Other
typessuchasconcretefacedrockfill,concretearch,orembankmentarepossibledependingon
siteconditions.ThetotalvolumeofRCCisestimatedat670,000cubicyards(cy).Atacostof
$200/cy,RCCwouldcostroughly$134million.Thefollowingareotherupperreservoirestimated
costs:
A. Reservoirclearing:$10million
B. Emergencyspillways:$5million
C. Excavationandgroutcurtain:$20million
D. Inlet/Outletstructureandaccessories:$20million
Thetotalreservoircostisroughly$189million.
2. Thetunnelsfromthelowerreservoirtopowerhouseandfrompowerhousetoupperreservoir
wouldinclude20footdiameteraccesstunnel(assumedtobe1,000ftlong)and2x20foot
diameterpenstockanddrafttubetunnels(totalof4,200ftlong).Othertunnelsandshaftsfor
ventilationandpowerlineswouldberequired.About$60millionisassumedfortunneling.
3. Thepowerhousewouldbeconstructedundergroundandbeapproximately100feetand200feet
fora2x250MWpumpturbineunit.Theexcavationofthepowerhousewouldcostapproximately
$35million.
4. Atanestimatecostof$750perinstalledkW,thepowerhousestructures,equipment,andbalance
ofplantwouldcostabout$375million.
5. Thetotalestimateconstructioncostistherefore:
A. Upperreservoir:$189million
B. Tunnels:$60million
C. Powerhouseexcavation:$35million
D. Powerhouse:$375million
Total:$659million
6. Thefollowingadditionaltechnicalassumptionshavebeenmadeforthisoption:
A. Thesitefeaturesgeologicalformationsidealforupperreservoirandunderground
development.
B. Arelativelyflat82acresiteisrequiredfortheupperreservoir.Atotalsitearea,including
undergroundrightsisabout200acres.
C. Thesiteisonlandwherenoexistinghumanmadestructuresexist.
D. Nooffsiteroadsareincluded.
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NATIONALRENEWABLEENERGYLABORATORY(NREL)|COSTANDPERFORMANCEDATAFORPOWERGENERATION
TECHNOLOGIES
E. Thesitehassufficientareaavailabletoaccommodateconstructionactivitiesincluding,but
notlimitedto,offices,laydown,andstaging.
F. Constructionpowerandwaterisassumedtobeavailableatthesiteboundary.
G. Noconsiderationwasgiventopossiblefutureexpansionofthefacilities.
H. A345kVgeneratorstepup(GSU)transformerisincluded.Transmissionlinesand
substations/switchyardsarenotincludedinthebaseplantcostestimate.Anauxiliary
transformerisincluded.
I.
Provisionforprotectionorrelocationofexistingfishandwildlifehabitat,wetlands,
threatenedandendangeredspeciesorhistorical,cultural,andarchaeologicalartifactsisnot
included.
J.
Theupperreservoirwillbecapableofovertoppingduetoaccidentaloverpumping.Aservice
spillwayequaltothepumpingflowisassumed.
OTHERCOSTSANDCONTINGENCY
Thefollowingarepotentialadditionalcosts:
1. Plantlocationisassumedtobewherelandisnotofsignificantsocietalvalue,withacostof
2.
3.
4.
5.
$5,000peracreor$1milliontotal.
Transmissionandsubstationareassumedtobeadjacenttothesiteandisamajorsitingfactor.
Projectmanagementanddesignengineeringat5%ofconstructioncostor$33million.
Constructionmanagementandstartupsupportat5%ofconstructioncostof$33million.
Acontingencyof$109million(15%)isassumed.
Total:$176million.
BasedonthetotalConstructionCostof$659millionandtheaboveOtherCostsandContingencyof
$176million,thetotalcapitalcostisestimatedtobe$835million,orroughly1,670$/kW.A20%
additionforownerscostsofthetypedescribedinTextBox1insection1.2aboveyieldsacostof
2,004$/kWthatiscomparabletotheothercostestimatesprovided.
OPERATINGANDMAINTENANCECOST
Operatingandmaintenancecostsaredependentonthemodeofoperation.Forhydroelectricplants,
thefollowingarethetypicalannualoperatingandmaintenancecosts:
1. RoutineMaintenanceandspareparts:$500,000
2. Personnelwages(20total@$65,000):$1.3million
A. Oneplantmanager
B. Twoadministrativestaff
C. Eightoperators
D. Twomaintenancesupervisors
E. Sevenmaintenanceandcraft
3. Personnelburden@40%ofwages:$520,000
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NATIONALRENEWABLEENERGYLABORATORY(NREL)|COSTANDPERFORMANCEDATAFORPOWERGENERATION
TECHNOLOGIES
4. Staffsupplies@5%ofwages:$65,000
Total:$2.385millionperyear
Hydroelectricplantstypicallyoperatefor510yearswithoutsignificantmajorrepairoroverhaul
costs.Forevaluationpurposes,amajoroverhaulreserveavailableatyear10of$100perinstalled
kilowattor$50millionisassumed.Whenspreadovera10yearperiod,theannualmajoroverhaul
costis$5millionperyear.
CONSTRUCTIONSCHEDULE
APSHprojectisamajorcivilworksinfrastructureprojectthatwouldtakemanyyearstodevelopbut
wouldprovideaprojectlifethatexceedsthatoftheotherrenewabletechnologiesevaluatedinthis
report.Projectlifecanbeexpectedtobeatleast50years.Manyhydropowerprojectsconstructedin
theearly1900sarestillinservicetoday.Thedevelopmentofanimpoundprojectwouldhavethe
followingestimatedmilestoneschedule:
1. Permitting,design,andlandacquisition:24years
2. Equipmentmanufacturing:2years
3. Construction:3years
Total:79years
OPERATINGFACTORS
Ahydroelectricplantcanbedesignedtoprovidethefollowingoperatingfactors:
1. NormalstartupandshutdowntimeforaPSHprojectislessthan15minutesdependingonthe
2.
3.
4.
5.
statusofthewaterpassages.Iftheunitiswateredtothewicketgatesandplantauxiliariesare
running,unitstartuptimeisonlyafunctionofwicketgateopeningtobringtheunituptospeed
andsynchronize.
APSHunitcanbetrippedoffinstantaneouslyaslongastheturbineisdesignedtooperateat
runawayuntilthewicketgatesareclosed.Thiswouldbeanemergencycase.
APSHplantcanloadfollowandprovidesystemfrequency/voltagecontrol.
Pumpedstoragehydroelectricplantscanblackstartassumingasmallemergencygeneratoris
providedforunitauxiliariesandfieldflashing.
AmajorfeatureofPSHisitsabilitytooperateasspinningornonspinningreserve,changefrom
pumpingtogeneratingwithin20minutes,synchronouscondensing,anditcanbedesignedto
meetgridsystemoperatorcertificationofthesebenefits.
BLACK&VEATCHCORPORATION|AppendixD.TechnicalDescriptionofPumpedStorage
HydroelectricPower
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105
Power
Generation
from Coal
Measuring and Reporting
Efficiency Performance
and CO2 Emissions
Power
Generation
from Coal
Measuring and Reporting
Efficiency Performance
and CO2 Emissions
Coal is the biggest single source of energy for electricity production and its
share is growing. The efficiency of converting coal into electricity matters:
more efficient power plants use less fuel and emit less climate-damaging
carbon dioxide. This book explores how efficiency is measured and reported
at coal-fired power plants. With many different methods used to express
efficiency performance, it is often difficult to compare plants, even before
accounting for any fixed constraints such as coal quality and cooling-water
temperature. Practical guidelines are presented that allow the efficiency and
emissions of any plant to be reported on a common basis and compared
against best practice. A global database of plant performance is proposed
that would allow under-performing plants to be identified for improvement.
Armed with this information, policy makers would be in a better position to
monitor and, if necessary, regulate how coal is used for power generation.
The tools and techniques described will be of value to anyone with an
interest in the more sustainable use of coal.
Power
Generation
from Coal
Measuring and Reporting
Efficiency Performance
and CO2 Emissions
OECD/IEA, 2010
International Energy Agency
9 rue de la Fdration
75739 Paris Cedex 15, France
OECD/IEA 2010
The IEA Coal Industry Advisory Board (CIAB) is a group of highlevel executives from coal-related industrial enterprises, established by
the IEA in July 1979 to provide advice to the IEA Executive Director
on a wide range of issues relating to coal. The CIAB currently has
44 members from 19countries, contributing valuable experience
in the fields of coal production, trading and transportation,
electricity generation and other aspects of coal use.
OECD/IEA 2010
foreword
Foreword
Coal plays an essential role in our global energy mix, particularly for power generation, but we need to use
it efficiently and reduce its environmental footprint. Bringing clarity to the measurement and reporting of
efficiency performance and carbon dioxide emissions is a prerequisite to the more sustainable use of coal at
power plants. This study by the IEA Coal Industry Advisory Board (CIAB) seeks better ways to measure and
report the efficiency of coal use and related emissions. It offers practical advice on a subject that can often
appear complex and confusing, but one that is extremely important to assuring coals role in our energy
future, alongside carbon capture and storage.
The recommendation to establish an international database of power plant performance data is welcome. It
would be a powerful tool to help identify and target plants where performance can be improved, whether
they be in OECD or non-OECD countries. The inefficient use of coal is undesirable and avoidable; it
wastes a natural resource and leads to unnecessary pollutant and greenhouse-gas emissions. Moreover, as the
world moves to develop and deploy carbon dioxide capture and storage technology, high-efficiency coal-fired
power plants will become even more important to compensate for the energy used to capture and compress
carbon dioxide for transport and storage.
Through the findings and recommendations in this report, the Coal Industry Advisory Board has made a
valuable contribution that will guide policy makers towards better regulation of coal-fired power plants. It
is particularly timely given the growth in policies and legislation to curb carbon dioxide emissions in many
countries, and the emerging debate on power plant emission performance standards.
OECD/IEA 2010
This report is published under the authority of the IEA Executive Director as part of the IEA role
to advise G8 leaders on alternative energy scenarios and strategies. The views and recommendations
expressed do not necessarily reflect the view or policies of IEA member countries or of CIAB members
and their respective organisations.
OECD/IEA 2010
acknowledgements
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
A project to examine coal-fired power plant efficiency and performance was called for in the Plan of Action
on climate change that was released with the G8 Gleneagles Summit communiqu in July2005. This report
responds to that call, forming part of a work package carried out under the guidance of Neil Hirst, former
Director of the Global Energy Dialogue Directorate at the IEA.
The report and its associated appendices, covering efficiency measurement and reporting, were prepared
by a working group of the IEA Coal Industry Advisory Board (CIAB) under the leadership of Prof.Allan
Jones, Managing Director of E.ON Engineering. Mike Garwood, also of E.ON, was the principal author,
while Brian Heath, CIAB Executive Coordinator, gave considerable support to the project. Additional
inputs were provided by Dr.Colin Henderson of the IEA Clean Coal Centre and from the IEA Secretariat
by Dr.Sankar Bhattacharya.
Two IEA committees oversaw the work: the Committee on Energy Research and Technology and the
Standing Group on Long-Term Cooperation. Committee members and Energy Advisors from IEA member
countries provided ideas and assistance that improved the report. The IEA Working Party on Fossil Fuels
gave valuable support, as did participants at a special workshop held in January 2008.* Rebecca Gaghen and
her team in the Communication and Information Office at the IEA ensured a publication of the highest
quality. Brian Ricketts initiated the project and carried overall editorial responsibility.
Thanks are also due to the following experts for their valuable assistance during the preparation and
review of this report: Dr. Seung-Young Chung (KETEP); Aneta Ciszewska (Ministry of Economy,
Poland); Stuart Dalton (EPRI); Nataliia Denysenko (IEA); Takashi Iwasaki and Ikuo Nishimura (FEPC);
Dipl.Ing.HansJoachim Meier (VGB PowerTech); Elena Virkkala Nekhaev (World Energy Council); and
Dr.John Topper (IEA Clean Coal Centre).
Comments and queries regarding this publication should be directed to cleanerfossilfuelsinfo@iea.org.
OECD/IEA 2010
* www.iea.org/work/workshopdetail.asp?WS_ID=348
OECD/IEA 2010
Table of contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Foreword.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.INTRODUCTION.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.1Background.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.2Objective.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.3Report structure.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.3Output data.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.4Generic corrections.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
OECD/IEA 2010
Table of contents
5.4Performance benchmarking.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
What is efficiency?.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Canada.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
China.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Germany. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
India.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Italy.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Japan.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Korea.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Poland.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Russia.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
OECD/IEA 2010
10
Table of contents
List of figures
Figure 2.1 Typical relationship between steam turbine heat consumption
and operating load. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Figure2.2
11
Table of contents
Figure I.1
Figure I.2
Figure I.3
Figure I.4
List of tables
Table 3.1
Table 3.2
Table 3.3
Table 3.6
Table 3.7
Table I.1
Table II.1
Table II.2
Table II.3 Supplementary data from operator that can help detailed
calculation of plant performance.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Table II.4
Table II.5
12
Executive Summary
Executive Summary
Coal-fired power plants, also known as power stations, provide over 42% of global electricity supply. At
the same time, these plants account for over 28% of global carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. This report
responds to a request to the IEA from G8 leaders in their Plan of Action on climate change, clean energy and
sustainable development, issued alongside the G8 Gleneagles Summit communiqu in July 2005. The G8
requested a review and assessment of information on the energy efficiency of coal-fired power generation.
This report reviews the methods used to calculate and express coal-fired power plant efficiency and CO2
emissions, and proposes a means to reconcile differences between these methods so that comparisons can be
made on a common basis. With a clearer understanding of power plant efficiency and how to benchmark
this performance measure, policy makers would be in a better position to encourage improvements in power
plant performance.
An essential part of sound policy development is the rigorous analysis of information which should be internally
consistent and verifiable. Reliable power plant operating information is not easy to obtain, whether for an
individual unit or for a number of units comprising a power plant, particularly efficiency-related information
such as coal quality, coal consumption and electricity output. It is therefore proposed that an international
database of operating information for units at coal-fired power plants should be established for the purposes
of determining, monitoring, reporting, comparing and projecting coal-fired power plant efficiencies and
specific CO2 emissions on an annual basis. Such a database of individual units could be maintained by the
IEA through its Energy Statistics Division or by the IEA Clean Coal Centre Implementing Agreement as an
extension of its existing CoalPower5 database of world coal-fired power plants.
At present, there is no common standard for collecting and compiling coal-fired power plant efficiency
or CO2 emissions data; many different bases and assumptions are used around the world. Defining a
common methodology to rationalise efficiency reporting is not a practical proposition. Instead, approximate
corrections are proposed, requiring only limited information that can be collected even where the detailed
bases of the original calculations are not known. Average figures, reported for periods of a month or more,
will be inherently more reliable, reflecting the actual efficiency achieved more accurately than design values,
performance guarantees or results from short-term tests under ideal conditions. The corrected data can then
be compared with one another and to reference data sets reflecting best practices.
OECD/IEA 2010
CO2 capture and storage, once adopted, will impact significantly on the efficiency of both existing and future
plants. At the current state of technology, units retrofitted with CO2 capture would suffer a decrease in
efficiency of up to 12percentage points, and consume perhaps 20% to 30% more fuel per unit of electricity
supplied. While a concept of what constitutes capture-ready exists for new power plants, it may not be
economic or technically viable to retrofit existing plants with CO2 capture, especially at smaller inefficient
units. Refurbishments will often be necessary to improve efficiency at existing plants before CO2 capture
retrofit can be contemplated.
13
Executive Summary
OECD/IEA 2010
Policy makers must reflect on what steps are now needed to improve the overall efficiency of power generation
from coal. This report presents the tools for analysis and makes recommendations on how to use these tools
to compare performance. This will allow poorly performing plants to be identified, wherever they are located.
The costs and benefits of refurbishing, upgrading or replacing these plants can be estimated as the first stage
in developing new policies that would encourage greater efficiency. The prize is large; some estimates suggest
that 1.7GtCO2 could be saved annually. However, securing this reward would demand a major realignment
of national energy and environmental policies, a realignment that may be less politically acceptable than
allowing old, inefficient coal-fired power plants to continue running, in the hope that they will eventually
fade away. Given that there currently appears to be no prospect of meeting global electricity demand without
coal, governments must implement policies that respond more proactively to the growing use of coal, rather
than wishing it away. Monitoring the efficiency of power plants and targeting those that perform poorly
would be an important step in that direction.
14
introduction
1.Introduction
1.1Background
Coal is the worlds most abundant and widely distributed fossil fuel with reserves for all types of coal
estimated to be about 990billion tonnes, enough for 150years at current consumption (BGR, 2009).1 Coal
fuels 42% of global electricity production, and is likely to remain a key component of the fuel mix for power
generation to meet electricity demand, especially the growing demand in developing countries. To maximise
the utility of coal use in power generation, plant efficiency is an important performance parameter. Efficiency
improvements have several benefits:
The calculation of coal-fired power plant efficiency is not as simple as it may seem. Plant efficiency values
from different plants in different regions are often calculated and expressed on different bases, and using
different assumptions. There is no definitive methodology.3
In their 2005 Plan of Action on climate change, clean energy and sustainable development, agreed at the
Gleneagles Summit in 2005, G8 leaders addressed this topic (G8, 2005):
We will support efforts to make electricity generation from coal and other fossil fuels cleaner and more efficient by:
(a) supporting IEA work in major coal using economies to review, assess and disseminate widely information on
energy efficiency of coal fired power plants; and to recommend options to make best practice more accessible.
Their commitment provided a sound basis for a review of how power plant efficiency data are prepared,
disseminated and used, including how different methods can be reconciled. A better understanding of power
plant efficiency leads quickly to the question of how it might be improved through further development and
dissemination of technologies that are not yet widely deployed.
OECD/IEA 2010
15
INTRODUCTION
1.2Objective
Measuring coal-fired power plant efficiency consistently is particularly important at the global level, yet
significant regional differences exist. Similarly, at the local level, the performance of individual generating
units and power plants can only be compared if measured consistently. Although variations in efficiency may
arise from differences in plant design and maintenance practices, the practical and operational constraints
associated with different fuel sources, local ambient conditions and electricity dispatch all play significant
roles. Misunderstanding these factors can result in the misinterpretation of efficiency data.
Thus, reconciling different efficiency measurement methodologies is not simply concerned with theoretical
design efficiency, but with the actual operational efficiency of existing power plants and all the associated
issues and constraints found in the real world.
This study proposes a generic methodology which can be applied to determine the efficiency and specific
CO2 emissions of coal-fired power generation processes. The application of such a reference methodology
would provide a potential route to gauge how coal might be deployed more cleanly and efficiently in the
future. To this end, the major objective of this report is to review the methods used to calculate and express
coal-fired power plant efficiency and CO2 emissions, and determine whether these can be reconciled for
comparison using a common basis.
The target audience for this report includes technical decision makers in industry and policy makers in
government who must master the details of efficiency measurement if they are to effectively manage and
regulate power plants. Early conclusions from this report guided IEA policy recommendations on cleaner
fossil fuels presented to the G8 Hokkaido Summit in 2008 (IEA, 2008).
1.3Report structure
OECD/IEA 2010
Section2 explores, in some technical detail, those aspects of power plant design, monitoring and operation
that can influence efficiency measurement and comparison. A generic methodology is prescribed in Section3
to adjust reported data and reconcile efficiencies reported on different bases. Section4 briefly looks at historic
and likely future trends in power plant efficiency. Section5 summarises recommendations made by the IEA
at the G8 Hokkaido Summit and makes further recommendations to implement the methodology and
compile a database of efficiency data that would allow the performance of power plants to be contrasted and
compared. Appendices support the main report with additional technical background, an example efficiency
calculation and accounts of how power plant efficiency and emissions are measured and reported in a number
of different IEA member and non-member countries, all being large users of coal for power generation.
16
OECD/IEA 2010
These effects are difficult to quantify, especially when assessing the performance of major sub-systems that
are interconnected with other parts of the plant.
17
OECD/IEA 2010
4 GCV is also known as higher heating value (HHV), while NCV is also know as lower heating value (LHV). GCV measures a fuels heat
of combustion assuming all water in the flue gas is condensed; NCV excludes this latent heat.
5 Latent heat is absorbed or released during a change of state with no change in temperature, e.g. boiling a liquid to a gas, or condensing a
gas; sensible heat is associated with changes in temperature, e.g. superheating steam.
18
use of flue gas cleaning technologies, e.g. selective catalytic reduction (SCR), fabric filtration, flue gas
desulphurisation (FGD) and CO2 capture (all increase on-site power demand); and
use of lowNOx combustion systems (requires excess combustion air and increases unburned carbon).
A plant designed for high-moisture, high-ash coal, fitted with FGD and bag filters, and operating with a
closed-circuit cooling system, for example, could not be expected to achieve the same efficiency as one without
FGD using high-rank, low-ash, low-moisture bituminous coal at a coastal site with cold seawater cooling. In
most cases, there is little that can be done to mitigate these effects; it is sufficient to recognise that their impact is
not necessarily a result of ineffective design or operation, but merely a function of real plant design constraints.
It might be argued that the major fuel factors the first three bullet points above are not genuine constraints
since, in many cases, fuels can be switched, blended or dried. The commercial feasibility of doing this will depend
partly on the availability of fuels and partly on the cost and practicality of purchasing and transporting these to
the plant. Coastal power plants may have more fuel supply alternatives than inland power plants close to local coal
resources. Another obvious consideration is the environmental impact of transporting fuel over longer distances.
Efficiency differences in operation
Efficiency is significantly affected when plants operate under offdesign conditions, particularly
part-load operation.
Average operating load
Plants which operate with a low average output will return low efficiencies compared to their full-load design
efficiency. Steam turbine heat consumption is characterised by a relationship known as the Willans line,
shown in Figure2.1 for an example turbine. This line shows that total heat consumption comprises a fixed
element and an incremental element: at zero load, the heat consumption is not zero. This relationship is
normally derived by undertaking a number of heat consumption tests on a turbine at different loads and then
plotting a best-fit line through the observed values.
Figure2.1: Typical relationship between steam turbine heat consumption and
operating load
3 600
3 200
2 800
2 400
2 000
1 600
1 200
800
400
0
0
75
150
225
300
375
450
Load (MW)
OECD/IEA 2010
19
The overall energy consumption of a plant can be similarly characterised by a fixed element and a variable
element proportional to output. Hence, overall efficiency will decline as load is reduced and the noload
portion becomes a greater fraction of the total heat.
Another related consideration is that works power6 will account for a greater percentage of generated power
at part load, because the noload running losses of electrical equipment increase relative to useful output and
because certain activities must be carried out, irrespective of unit load.
For these reasons, power plants may formally record part-load loss as a penalty incurred purely as a result
of being asked to operate the plant at a lower-than-optimum output.
Figure2.2, derived from the Willans line and assuming an overall unit fixed heat rate of 9% (i.e. greater
than the turbine-only fixed heat rate), illustrates the effect of running at lower loads on the performance of
subcritical and supercritical units. Supercritical units are shown to experience only about half the part-load
efficiency degradation of a conventional subcritical unit.
Figure2.2: Impact of unit operating load on heat rate
24
Subcritical units
Supercritical units
22
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
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Load factor
The effects of average operating load (see above) and load factor are different. Load or capacity factor describes
the output over a period of time relative to the potential maximum; it depends on both running time and
average operating load. It is not necessary to consider load factor specifically here since the impacts of more
frequent unit starts or lower operating unit loads can be taken into account separately. It is technically
possible for a low load factor plant to attain high efficiency if starts are few in number and the load is kept
high during the periods of generation. However, there may be practical issues relating to system power
demand and management which preclude operation in this way.
Works power is the electricity used on a power plant site, principally to power motors that drive pumps, fans, compressors and coal mills.
20
Transient operation
Another factor which can significantly impact efficiency is the number of perturbations (transients) from steady
state operating conditions. During each of these transients, the plant will not be operating at peak performance:
the more transients, the greater the reduction in efficiency. Operation in frequency response mode, where
steam flow and boiler firing fluctuate to regulate system frequency, can lead to more transients. Other situations
may require frequent load changes, notably in response to power system constraints or power market pricing.
Plant starts
An extreme form of transient operation is where demand falls sufficiently to require plant shutdown. This
incurs significant offload energy losses, particularly during subsequent plant startup, which must be done
gradually to avoid damage from thermal stresses. While the plant is not generating output, all of the input
energy is lost (i.e. efficiency is 0%). Supercritical units, in particular, have high startup losses because large
quantities of steam, and therefore heat energy, must be dumped to the condenser during startup.
Power plants operating in volatile or competitive markets, or operating as marginal providers of power, may
be required to shut down frequently. This can, in turn, lead to a deterioration in physical condition which
will affect plant efficiency. For base-load operation, unit startup energy may be a negligible fraction of total
energy (<0.5%). For other flexibly operated plant it could represent 5% or more of total energy consumed
and result in reductions in efficiency in the order of 2percentage points, even if the average output during the
onload period is high. For simplicity, corrections of 0.5%, 1.5% and 5% of total energy use could be applied
to plant running regimes categorised as base-load, transitional and marginal/peaking.
Performance optimisation
The adoption of good practices and exercise of care will avoid most operational problems within the control
of a plant operator. Although the majority of operational efficiency variations are linked to unit load and
the need to operate through transient conditions, there is usually some scope for final optimisation of
performance by fine tuning of automatic controller set points and control loops, amounting to about 1% of
a units heat rate. Optimisation may be performed manually or through the use of advanced control systems
or optimisers, some of which are based on neural networks. Operator experience can also be a source of
operational gains or losses. The commercial attractiveness of performance optimisation increases with plant
load and can be substantial at high loads. Optimisation is a potentially attractive proposition at any load
where the plant will be operated for a significant period of time.
Boiler operation is an area where efficiency gains are often possible. A fixed-pressure boiler requires the
outlet steam to be throttled at part load to match the lower pressure demand of the turbine. Slidingpressure boiler designs avoid this loss, with the added benefit that feed-water pumps require less power.
Sliding-pressure control is standard operating procedure on most modern power plants.
Control systems play a major part in optimisation by enabling the automation of best practices. The use of
advanced control systems can bring about significant efficiency improvements and reduce CO2 emissions.
OECD/IEA 2010
Regulation
The regulatory environment can have a significant impact on power plant operation and efficiency. Meeting
the requirements of environmental emissions legislation, even where flexible with respect to operating regime
and fuel quality, can be a challenge to operators. In some cases, achieving multiple objectives simultaneously
can impact efficiency since transients, offdesign fuels and emission controls generally add to energy losses.
Functional performance, for example to achieve target output, load ramp rates or frequency control, may
be a higher priority to the plant operator than efficiency optimisation. Where a plant operates within a
competitive market environment, making the case for investment in plant maintenance and upgrades to
improve performance and efficiency may be more difficult because operating margins may be slim, and
market volatility may hinder long-term investment planning.
21
OECD/IEA 2010
7 Subcritical, supercritical and ultra-supercritical are engineering terms relating to boiler temperature and pressure conditions (see AppendixI).
22
cooling towers;
onload condenser cleaning equipment;
condenser air extraction plant;
boiler feed-water pump turbine and feed-water heaters;
reserve coal milling plant capacity;
feed-water heater drains pumps (resulting in diversion of drains to the condenser); and
boiler soot blowers.
Maintaining cleanliness is important to avoid heat transfer degradation in boilers, condensers and coolingtower systems. Accumulated deposits in a steam condenser will result in higher turbine backpressure; in
tubular feed-water heaters, they will increase terminal temperature difference; and in the boiler, they will
increase gas exit temperatures. For the boiler in particular, the lack of availability of individual soot blowers
can lead to severe deposit formation which can affect the combustion process, and cause erosion and thermalstress damage. In bad cases, such deposits can force unit derating or even plant shutdowns. Even in cases
with no forced outage, an increase in planned outages and internal cleaning costs may still be incurred.
Abnormal operating conditions brought about by faulty instrumentation or equipment can result in significant
efficiency losses which will accumulate if left uncorrected. Failed valve actuators, missing indicators and outof-tune control loops can leave units operating with some equipment out of service, or with restricted control
facilities and flexibility.
Energy and efficiency losses
The transfer of heat energy to the working fluid of the power cycle can never be complete or perfect. The
presence of tube wall and refractory material (if used), surface deposits and non-ideal flow regimes all impede
heat transfer. In the case of a coal-fired boiler, the net result of these imperfect conditions is a degree of heat loss
from the hot source (burning coal) in the form of hot flue gases. In cases where condensation has to be avoided,
and particularly where the acid dew point temperature is raised because of the presence of sulphur, chlorine or
excessive moisture in the fuel, the hot flue gases loss can be significant. Auxiliary equipment consumes energy,
e.g. coal mills, water pumps, fans and soot blowers for cleaning heat transfer surfaces. Some heat is also lost to
the surroundings through conduction, convection and radiation of heat, even where equipment is insulated.
The turbo-alternator plant similarly has losses which reduce performance compared to the ideal, and although
efforts are made to minimise these, there are economic and practical limits to what can be achieved.
In summary, the plant will have losses associated with:
OECD/IEA 2010
combustor flue gas wet and dry gas losses and unburned gas heating value;
combustor solid residue sensible heat content and unburned fuel heating value;
heated water or steam venting and leaks, and other drainage and blow-down;
frictional losses, radiated and convected heat;
cooling system losses where heat is rejected and not recovered;
heat lost to flue gas treatment reagents and energy consumed by fans in overcoming gas pressure drops;
makeup and purge water;
offload losses associated with startup and shutdown;
offdesign losses associated with transient operation and part-load running; and
transformer losses.
23
Electrical
output 39%
Heat input 100%
A relatively small change in condenser pressure, in the order of thousandths of a bar (or hundreds of pascals),
can bring about seemingly disproportionately large changes in plant efficiency. To achieve similar changes
in efficiency at the high-temperature end of the cycle would require more significant changes in steam
conditions. A major factor governing the condenser pressure is the availability of a cold heat sink for heat
rejection. This is often provided in the form of a large body of water such as the sea or a river, although
heat can also be rejected using closed-circuit wet, semidry or dry cooling systems. The temperature and
quantity of cooling medium available to the condenser have a significant impact on performance. Since
economics generally determine the heat exchanger size, and the capacity of the cooling system, a major factor
determining real plant performance becomes the cooling-water supply temperature to the condenser. This
tends to be lowest for coastal sites in the northern hemisphere and highest for sites in locations with high
ambient temperatures and limited water supplies.
OECD/IEA 2010
The precise impacts of cooling-water temperature on condenser pressure, and the associated impact of
condenser pressure on heat rate, are site-specific. Like many of the other losses considered in this report, a
detailed thermodynamic model in conjunction with real plant operating experience should be used to assess site
specific losses. However, within reasonable limits, some approximations can be made. In general, the impact
of cooling-water temperature on condenser pressure is about 2mbar per 1C change in inlet temperature,
and the associated impact on heat rate is in the order of 0.1% of station heat consumption per 1mbar. Thus
a difference of 5C in cooling water inlet temperature might change unit heat consumption by around 1%.
24
Ambient conditions change both seasonally and diurnally. In the case of a closed-circuit cooling system, there
will be feedback effects from the load on other units which may be using the same cooling system. These all affect
heat consumption. Examples of the impact of cooling-water temperature on condenser pressure and the impact
of condenser pressure on heat consumption in conventional steam plants are shown in Figures2.4 and 2.5.
Figure2.4: Example of the impact of cooling-water temperature on condenser
pressure for constant unit load
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
1.04
1.03
1.02
1.01
1.00
0.99
0.98
0.97
0
20
40
60
80
100
25
Maintaining a low condenser pressure is clearly important. However, power plant condensers tend to suffer
from degradation in performance over time because of scaling and fouling, as well as any loss of area due to
the removal from service of damaged elements (usually by sealing). Although periodic physical cleaning is
usually performed, and some stations have onload cleaning systems, performance still varies according to the
state of cleanliness. Figure2.6 illustrates the effect of condenser cleanliness on heat consumption.
Figure2.6: Effect of condenser fouling on turbine heat rate
101.8
101.6
101.4
101.2
101.0
100.8
100.6
100.4
100.2
100.0
60
65
70
75
80
90
85
Cleanliness factor (%)
Source: AGO (2006). Reprinted by permission of the publisher. Department of Climate Change and Energy Efficiency, 2006.
Steam cycle efficiency can be improved by extending the working temperature range through the addition
of topping or bottoming cycles. In the topping cycle, a gas turbine is employed, where the working fluid
is hot gases at a higher temperature than steam in a steam turbine, and exhaust heat is used in the boiler of a
Rankine steam cycle. In a bottoming cycle, refrigerant-type fluids can be used to accept the heat rejected from
the Rankine cycle and do more work in a separate turbine or expander designed for the lower temperature
gas. Neither option is commonly employed in coal-fired electricity generating plant, although a combined
cycle gas turbine plant is effectively a topping cycle with a Rankine cycle, albeit with no direct firing of the
heat recovery boiler.
OECD/IEA 2010
Plants supplying both heat and power have an overall plant energy efficiency that can be calculated by taking
into account both the heat and power outputs from the process. While it is also possible to calculate effective
26
efficiencies for heat and power production independently, these values may have less meaning and require
more interpretation. For example, the heat output can be used as a fuel heat rate correction to yield a net heat
flow used for electricity generation.
In the case of a power production process where rejected heat is not utilised, as in most utility-scale plants,
the total fuel energy input is used to produce electrical power with a given efficiency. If the waste heat
was recovered and used, it could be argued that the heat was not produced specifically to meet demand,
the efficiency of its production might be considered to be 100%. The use of some of this otherwise waste
heat now brings about an apparent increase in plant electrical efficiency, even though nothing in the basic
power production process has changed. If, however, the waste heat utilisation was excluded from the power
generation efficiency, then this would not reflect the energy efficiency benefits of combined heat and power.
Some standards and protocols suggest that heat and power generation efficiencies should be calculated
separately and each referred to the total energy input (usually input fuel energy, but may also include power
and heat energy from other sources) as follows:
power generation efficiency
This provides one method of determining efficiency, although the results may be misleading. If some or all
of the rejected heat from power generation is used to satisfy a heat demand, and therefore offset other energy
use, this is not recognised in the power generation efficiency calculation. It is proposed that heat rejected
from the steam cycle which is recovered and put to use is not considered as consumed by the power process,
or treated as a loss, but is instead treated as energy supplied to the heat system.
The overall energy efficiency of the plant can then take account of power and heat export, as applicable:
plant efficiency
The apparent electrical efficiency can be determined by debiting any heat energy output from the total
input energy. In other words, any useful energy output, other than electricity, effectively reduces the energy
attributed to the generation process. For example, consider a plant with a fuel energy input of 500 GJ
producing power with an energy equivalent of 200GJ (56MWh). The overall plant efficiency equals the
power generation efficiency, because there is no heat output:
power generation efficiency = 200 = 40.0%
500
If 150GJ of the waste heat is used, then the overall plant efficiency increases:
overall plant efficiency =
200 + 150
= 70.0%
500
200
= 57.1%
500 150
OECD/IEA 2010
150
= 50.0%
500 200
27
This method of analysis, although not perfect, is a practical means of calculating and comparing real plant
efficiencies. In the above example, the heat generation efficiency is low compared to the efficiency of a modern
heating boiler. However, the use of waste heat improves the effective efficiency of the power generation
process and the overall energy efficiency. It should be noted that the overall efficiency is not the simple
numerical sum of the power and heat efficiencies.
The simplicity of this calculation enables the output heat energy to be used directly as a correction factor to
the overall efficiency figure of a combined heat and power plant. Figure2.7 shows a generic correction factor
which can provide corrections for a range of plant types. It should not be used to determine or correct the
independent heat-only or power-only efficiencies.
Figure2.7: Effect of heat supply on overall efficiency
2.2
2.1
2.0
1.9
1.8
1.7
1.6
1.5
Efficiency multiplier
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
1.0
0.9
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Note: efficiency multiplier = 1 / (1 - xh) where xh is the heat recovered from rejected or waste heat as a proportion of the total energy
output (heat and power).
A more complex relationship and a set of power loss coefficients are described in the German VDI3986 standard
(VDI, 2000). However, this degree of complexity is rarely necessary. The VDI also calls for the heat energy to
be expressed in terms of the electrical power which it would have generated had it been used in the main
power process. The ASME PTC461996 performance test code, from the UnitedStates, permits corrections for
exported heat, although these corrections are based on modelling analysis for particular scenarios (ASME, 1997).
In a refinement to the analysis described above, European Union law requires that the heat supply be grossed
up to the input energy that would have been needed to supply the same heat from a stand-alone heating boiler
operating at 88% efficiency (or 86% in the case of lignite-fired plants).8 The power generation efficiency in
the above example then becomes:
power generation efficiency =
200
= 60.7%
500 150 / 0.88
OECD/IEA 2010
8 Directive 2004/8/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11 February 2004 on the promotion of cogeneration
based on a useful heat demand in the internal energy market and amending Directive 92/42/EEC was published in the Official
Journal of the European Union, OJ L 52 on 21 February 2004 (pp. 5060). Harmonised efficiency reference values for the
separate production of electricity and heat were tabulated in Commission Decision 2007/74/EC (OJ L 32, 6 February 2007,
pp. 183188), with further detailed guidance in Commission Decision 2008/952/EC (OJ L 338, 17 December 2008, pp. 5561).
28
As can be seen, the conditions of test may or may not be at the maximum rated output; and may or may not be
carried out at, or corrected to, a set of standard reference conditions, including ambient temperature and pressure,
and cooling-water temperature. Although tests at the rated output demonstrate the potential performance of the
plant, the actual average performance may be significantly lower for the reasons discussed above.
The assessment of overall plant performance needs to establish not just what the plant was designed to, or
might achieve, but what it actually does achieve under real operating conditions. It is this measure which
ultimately determines the energy use of the plant and its related CO2 emissions. Although reference to a
standard set of conditions might sometimes assist in the technical comparison of plants, it would generally
be preferable to use the actual conditions for comparison rather than an arbitrary set of reference conditions.
Most power plants operating within a regulated environment will be required to submit annual reports and
data returns from which the main information for whole plant performance assessment should be available.
The advantage of adopting an annual operating period is that, irrespective of start and end dates, it will
tend to smooth out many of the potentially variable factors such as ambient conditions, seasonal variations,
operating regime, short-term plant problems and fuel quality to provide more confidence in the assessment.
Assessments based on short-term tests will generally be over-optimistic and exclude many factors which
degrade performance during normal commercial operation.
OECD/IEA 2010
The accuracy of annual performance figures is generally good provided that they are generated within a
reasonably well controlled regime. For example, fuel deliveries should be made over calibrated weighbridges
and subject to CV and analysis checks, power and heat exports and imports should be measured with
calibrated metering devices, and onsite stock adjustments should be taken into account. The overall accuracy
of performance calculations should then be within 2% of the actual energy consumption (or better than 1%
if calibrated belt weighers are used) for a well-managed plant, or within 5% for a poorly managed installation.
29
The problem with annual reporting is that it does not necessarily reflect the best potential performance
which is possible from the plant under favourable conditions. For this reason, it is suggested that for
reference, and where available, the annual performance figure is supplemented by an additional assessment
based on short-term formal test data at close to rated output conditions, which should represent the best
achieved performance of the unit under the prevailing test conditions. Although such tests could be done in
accordance with PTC461996 (ASME, 1997), it is more likely that the boiler and turbo-alternator would be
tested separately and the figures combined with suitable corrections for other losses. PTC41998 for boilers
specifies an expected accuracy of 3% of heat consumption (ASME, 1998). However, this must then be
combined with uncertainties in the turbo-generator and site losses, so the accuracy of short-term test data is
probably no better than for the longer-term assessments.
There are a number of major drawbacks related to the use of these standards.
The standards are inconsistent and therefore results based on one standard cannot be compared directly
with those based on another standard without considerable care.
They permit a wide range of system boundaries, exceptions and amendments to be made by agreement
between parties to the test. This means that, even though two tests may have been undertaken in
compliance with the same standard on the same plant, the results may not be comparable. Furthermore,
tests on different plants are unlikely to be directly comparable. Clarification of the detailed basis on
which a test result has been calculated requires more information than would be reasonable for the
purposes of generating overview comparisons of plant performance.
These test codes focus on the assessment of the boiler which, although very important, is only one
component of a coal-fired power plant. While the boiler energy conversion efficiency is an important
consideration, the turbo-generator and balance-of-plant equipment have a major bearing on the overall
plant performance.
It would be impractical to apply these standards during normal plant operation because they specify
certain test conditions. Similarly, the efficiency obtained under test conditions will not be representative
of normal operation.
OECD/IEA 2010
The main purpose of boiler performance test codes is to provide a contractually binding means of assessing
the performance of new, modified or refurbished plant on handover. As such, the standards are a means to an
end and act as a convenient and widely accepted measure which can be used with minimal modification for
establishing a plant performance benchmark, even if this is not representative of future plant performance.
For the reasons outlined above, boiler performance standards are not suitable for the comparison of overall
power plant performance.
30
Where Pg is the gross generated power and Pa is the auxiliary power consumption. The overall power station
efficiency (ho) and heat rate is defined as follows:
ho = hB hTG hT
heat rate = 3600 / ho (kJ/kWh)
Where hB is the boiler thermal efficiency, hTG is the turbo-generator thermal efficiency and hT is the
transformer efficiency.
This form of component efficiency combination is acceptable only where it has been verified that all the
power and energy flows have been taken into account. Although the combination of plant sub-component
efficiencies appears simple, the overall efficiency depends on sub-component values which are generally
derived from complex calculations based on extensive data obtained with test-grade instrumentation under
carefully controlled conditions. As such, these forms of efficiency determinations are rarely performed and
are unsuitable indicators of normal running performance of any plant.
PTC461996 Performance test code on overall plant performance
This code is applicable to a number of plant types and fuels. However, it is not often applied in new plant contracts,
either because it is not recognised or because there are commercial reasons to implement plant performance
requirements and assessments by sub-component (e.g. boiler, turbine, heat recovery steam generator (HRSG),
gas turbine, cooling system). PTC461996 requires that the heat input to the plant is measured via fuel mass flow
and heating value, or via heat flow and efficiency of the boiler, which must then be determined in accordance
with PTC41998. PTC461996 is most commonly used in relation to gas-fired combined cycle plant.
OECD/IEA 2010
In addition, ASME PTC PM2010 Performance Monitoring Guidelines for Power Plants replaces a 1993 edition.
31
OECD/IEA 2010
10 See footnote4.
11 Condensing boilers exist, but the selection of materials to avoid acid-gas corrosion adds to their capital cost.
32
Where there are multiple units on a power station site, the station consumption for common services is
generally not included in the efficiency determination of individual units; even for unit-based calculations,
the plant boundaries, test standards and efficiency calculations can vary significantly. In most cases, unless
otherwise stated, efficiencies are quoted for convenience on the basis of design, acceptance or expected
maximum output efficiencies, and are generally not representative of those achieved in practice.
OECD/IEA 2010
12 Directive 2003/87/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13 October 2003 establishing a scheme for greenhouse-gas
emission allowance trading within the Community and amending Council Directive 96/61/EC was published in the Official Journal of
the European Union, OJL275 on 25October 2003 (pp.3246). For a general description of the EU Emissions Trading Scheme, see
http://ec.europa.eu/environment/climat/emission.htm.
13 Official Journal of the European Union, OJL140, 5June 2009, pp.6387.
14 Official Journal of the European Union, OJL 59, 26February 2004, pp.174.
33
Emissions of methane, CO2 and other greenhouse gases associated with the extraction, preparation and
delivery of fuel to power plants are not considered. Similarly, the greenhouse-gas emissions associated with
the construction of coal-using plants are not taken into account in this operational assessment, although
they might be considered as part of a more detailed life-cycle analysis, for example as part an environmental
impact assessment for a new plant.
There are a number of published studies on methane production from mining and the carbon cost of
transporting bulk commodities from which generic relationships could be created to estimate the GHG
emissions footprint of coals sourced from different mines and transported over different distances using
different modes of transport (e.g. Defra, 2008; Mills, 2005; and EPA, 2010).
CO2 reporting issues
Carbon or CO2
Most reporting systems in use around the world report on the basis of CO2 emissions and use factors to report
other greenhouse-gas emissions as their CO2 equivalent (CO2e). Occasionally, CO2 emissions are quoted in
terms of carbon (C), or confusingly are stated as carbon when they are in fact CO2. The equivalence in
mass terms between carbon dioxide and carbon is simply the ratio of their molecular masses CO2:C, this
being 3.6632 (IUPAC, 2005).
Input versus output basis
Input-based emission calculations and limits for the mass of CO2 emitted per unit of input energy, expressed
in units such as tCO2/GJ or lb/MMBtu coal, create a poor comparison of specific emission rates. They imply
that producing the same total emissions from the same quantity of fuel represents equivalent performance. In
reality, although a more efficient plant consuming the same mass of fuel as a less efficient plant creates the same
total quantity of CO2, it does so with the benefit of producing more useful output energy. Emission standards
based on useful energy output (e.g. tCO2/GWh) are therefore important, since they recognise the benefits of
higher efficiency and incentivise the development and implementation of cleaner, more efficient technologies.
Mass versus volume basis
Reporting gaseous emissions on a volume basis is not straightforward. Quantities must be expressed against
a reference temperature, pressure, moisture and oxygen concentration if they are to be correctly compared
or assessed against emission standards. In contrast, reporting emissions on a mass basis is absolute and avoids
any requirement for volumetric corrections. CO2 emissions in mass units, rather than volume units, are
therefore preferred and are widely used by most reporting systems and analysts.
Units of output
To report specific CO2 emissions in terms of a power plants useful output requires heat and electrical energy
to be combined, as for the overall efficiency calculations described above. Common energy units are needed,
e.g. gigajoules (GJ) or megawatt hours (MWh), with simple conversion factors between these.
Typically, large subcritical coal-fired utility plants today produce around 900kgCO2/MWh. This figure
becomes higher for high-moisture fuels, or for plants operated at low load factor or of inferior design. This can
be compared to around 740kgCO2/MWh for state-of-the-art modern supercritical plants, and potentially
around 600kgCO2/MWh for plants with advanced steam conditions that are currently under development.
OECD/IEA 2010
Carbon dioxide capture and storage (CCS) offers perhaps the only way to make further reductions in CO2
emissions from conventional coal-fired plants. CCS would cut emissions to 60-70kgCO2/MWh, assuming
>90% CO2 capture from future state-of-the-art plants. Potentially, a net emission of zero is possible where the
plant also fires a small proportion (approximately 1015% by heat input) of biomass material to compensate
for the residual CO2 emissions not captured in the plant.
34
1 600
1 400
Lignite
1 200
1 000
800
600
400
200
0
25%
30%
35%
38%
40%
42%
45%
50%
55%
55%
+CCS
Efficiency (LHV, net output basis)
Note: Specific CO2 emissions are calculated here using IPCC default emission factors for stationary combustion in the energy
industries: 94.6 kgCO2/GJ for bituminous coal used for power generation and 101.0 kgCO2/GJ for lignite (IPCC, 2006). It is
assumed that 98% of the fuel carbon is oxidised, the remaining 2% being retained in ash, although this varies in practice (IPCC,
1996). For the case shown with CCS, a CO2 capture rate of 90% is assumed.
Source: IEA analysis.
The treatment of CO2 emissions from plant incorporating carbon capture is more difficult since the removal
efficiency of the capture plant needs to be included in the calculation. It is likely that a removal efficiency
factor (XCCS) of 90% or more would be achieved. The calculation of CO2 emissions must account for all these
additions and reductions, such that the mass release (Mout) is:
Mout = 3.6632 (Min + MFGD Mash) (1 XCCS)
Where Min is the mass of carbon in the fuel input and Mash is the mass of unburned carbon retained in ash.
OECD/IEA 2010
The use of further correction factors for CO2 emissions follows similar principles to those for efficiency
calculations. For the purposes of developing a common plant assessment methodology, specific greenhousegas emissions analysis is limited only to the CO2 produced during fuel conversion into useful supplies of
energy, including electricity and heat. As with efficiency, proper account must be taken of any heat supplied
when calculating specific CO2 emissions per unit of electricity supplied.
35
OECD/IEA 2010
3.1Process boundaries
To avoid the need for performance details of individual plant components, a system boundary should cover
the entire power plant, from fuel reception to the interface with the power or heat transmission system. This
may or may not coincide with a clear physical boundary, depending on the plant layout and its application.
Figure3.1: Example of a process boundary showing energy inflows
and outflows for a power plant
Fuel gas
Air
Electric power
Fuel(s)
Hot water
Reagents and additives
Electric power imports
Hot steam
Power plant
Flue gas
Combustion residues
Make-up water
Return steam
Energy in
Energy out
OECD/IEA 2010
37
This approach simplifies the assessment of overall plant performance and can be applied consistently to
many plant types and fuels. It also removes any debate regarding how internal energy flows, such as works
power or own-use consumption, or water and steam interconnections, should be accounted for.
Such a black-box approach to the whole power plant island is shown in Figure3.1, in which the energy
output associated with the shaded flows can be ignored in the calculation of overall plant efficiency. Although
in the short term, the measurement of some of these parameters may be subject to measurement error, the
accuracy of data over longer time periods, and particularly annual periods, should be high.
A similar approach is taken in both VDI3986 and PTC461996, as shown in Figures3.2 and 3.3.
Auxiliary power
Hu
mBo
M
OECD/IEA 2010
38
Net
power
Steam turbine
Steam
generator
Fuel
Cooling water
Ash
Blowdown
Blowdown
Process
Condensate
cleaning
system
Process
return
Make-up
Test boundary
Source: ASME (1997). Reprinted from ASME PTC461996, by permission of The American Society of Mechanical Engineers. All rights reserved.
Similarly, Figure3.4 is taken from the Australian GES and again illustrates the approach of using a wholeplant boundary, even where the plant cogenerates heat and power.
Power plant
Power
generated
Fuel
Aux. power
Make-up water
Process
steam
Condensate
return
Electricity to grid
Power
sent-out
Power
cogeneration
Imported electricity
Process
OECD/IEA 2010
Source: AGO (2006). Reprinted by permission of the publisher. Department of Climate Change and Energy Efficiency, 2006.
39
weigh, or obtain weights for, all delivered fuel using calibrated equipment;
undertake representative sampling and analysis of all fuel supplies to determine the average values of
calorific value, moisture content, ash and sulphur;
meter power import and export using calibrated equipment in order to determine net power export; and
where applicable, meter and determine the heat content of incoming and outgoing water and steam in
order to determine net heat export.
The average annual values of these parameters may then be used to determine plant performance indicators.
Where there is more than one unit, such information must be provided on an overall station basis as a
minimum, but the provision of supplementary information for individual units could also be required. The
minimum annual data requirements for each site are shown in Table3.1. Some basic data for each plant,
discussed in more detail in Section3.3, would also ideally be provided.
Table3.1: Annual plant operating data requirements (to be completed by operator)
Data item
Quantity
Unit
PJ
TWh
PJ
Since lightup and stabilisation fuel is used at all coal-fired plants, they may all be considered as multi-fuel
installations. This is also the case where opportunity fuels are used, such as residues and byproducts from
other processes or biomass energy crops. This creates some difficulty, but it should be possible to express the
overall mix of fuels consumed on a bulk average mass and average CV basis.
OECD/IEA 2010
In practice, it would be beneficial to include more detailed data to enable normalisation and better
understanding, as shown in Table3.2. It is also considered important that a brief commentary be provided
to enable the context of the data to be better understood. This might, for example, provide clarification on
poor reported efficiencies or note planned improvements.
40
Quantity
Unit
GJ/t
%ar
%ar
%ar
%ar
Fuel n Type
Contribution to total gross heat
GJ/t
%ar
%ar
%ar
%ar
Supporting comments:
3.3Output data
OECD/IEA 2010
The assessment of the annual performance of a given power plant should be held in a database to facilitate
comparison with other data. The final evaluation of plant performance in accordance with the methods
described here needs to be captured in a clear and concise format, and must concentrate on the key indicators
which are relevant to the creation of the database. Part of the record for each plant needs therefore to comprise
the summary output data and part needs to comprise summary descriptive data. The summary data derived
from the proposed calculations might include those shown in the first two columns of Table3.3. These
could be normalised and compared with best practice performance under reference conditions through a set
of corrections, as shown in Table3.3, to judge the potential for improvement.
41
Normalised
as-run
Best practice
Normalised
Relative
best practice performance, %
Whether comparisons should be made on an as-run basis or a normalised basis is debatable. Ideally,
they should be based on as-run figures. However, where constraints on the adoption of best practice exist,
it might be more reasonable to make comparisons on a normalised basis. Normalisation of as-run values
for comparison with normalised best practice values should only take into account those external factors
considered to be uncontrollable constraints, but exclude controllable design parameters, as illustrated by
the examples in Table3.4.
Table3.4: Examples of uncontrollable external constraints
and controllable design parameters
Uncontrollable constraints
Controllable constraints
Steam conditions
Ambient temperature
Plant age
Unit size
The best-practice level of performance used in the comparisons should be based on a reference data set for
a specified plant of the appropriate technology type, firing a midrange fuel composition. This best-practice
reference performance can then be corrected for the actual fuel being used in order to obtain a normalised
best practice. The normalised best-practice correction should be based on composite fuel types and
properties, covering lignite, subbituminous coal, bituminous coal and anthracite, sometimes cofired with
other fuels. Separate master reference data sets would be required to cover technologies such as pulverised coal
combustion, bubbling fluidised bed combustion, circulating fluidised bed combustion, pressurised fluidised
bed combustion, integrated gasification combined cycle and others. The IEA has recently identified and
described examples of best-practice plants by technology type (IEA, 2007).
The reference best-practice performance should also be corrected for any combined heat and power production.
OECD/IEA 2010
The reference best-practice performance should be based on a reasonable expectation of this being achieved on
an annual basis, and therefore should not reflect design performance or performance during commissioning
tests. Figure3.5 illustrates this graphically. Allowances should be made for:
42
Reference plant
Plant type: A
Plant type: A
Normalised
Normalised
as-run
best practice
performance
performance
TRUE DEVIATION
The submission of plant data should contain details to assist with an understanding of the constraint
factors, and might include information listed in Table3.5. Unit information is required, even where the
whole plant performance is expressed on an aggregate basis, since power plants often comprise units of
different capacities, ages and design. However, it would be more difficult and more prone to error if
analyses were carried out on a unit-by-unit basis. For this reason, analysis should be on a power plant basis,
rather than an individual unit basis.
The information shown in Table3.5 is known by plant operators and can be easily supplied for input into
a database. Much of the information will not change from one reporting period to the next; annual data
updates will relate to the calculation of overall plant efficiency and CO2 emissions.
OECD/IEA 2010
15 As per ISO3977.
43
Unit 1
Commissioning year
Technology type
Design fuel type
Unit rated power generation capacity
MW (gross)
MWth
Best measured unit overall energy efficiency (GCV, net sent-out basis)
GJ/t
%ar
%ar
%ar
bar
Unit n
It should be noted that the IEA Clean Coal Centre already maintains an extensive coal-fired power plant
database which has been used recently in evaluations of plant efficiency.16 It may be possible to use this as the
basis for an expanded database which would satisfy the requirements for a global coal-fired plant efficiency
and emissions reporting system. Data could be reported at a number of different levels, for example for each
unit, plant, plant type, operator or country.
OECD/IEA 2010
44
Access to, and use of such data would need to be addressed at the development stage of a new reporting
system. Clearly, the data would be of use at global and national levels, without any requirement to be specific
about individual power plants or operators. However, there may be pressure to make plant information
publicly accessible which points to the need for formal agreements and controls on what is likely to include
commercially sensitive data. In reality, there is little information described here which could not be obtained
from material in the public domain, or estimated by making reasonable assumptions. The proposal here is
that data would be available for each power plant.
The implementation of a generic assessment calculation needs to be performed in a manner which is consistent
and straightforward, but flexible enough to suit multiple requirements without extensive modifications. This
implies that assessments should use standard database software, where the calculations are transparent and
revisions to data analysis can be made easily.
3.4Generic corrections
Fuel quality
Fuel quality is characterised in terms of its heating value, which is generally quoted as a gross calorific value
(GCV) or higher heating value, together with its moisture, ash and volatile material content (the proximate
analysis) and usually, for reasons of environmental control and protection, its sulphur content.17 The fuels
ultimate analysis, including carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen, is not analysed routinely. Any widescale data collection and analysis needs to be based on readily available information for the fuels used.
Boiler test methods, used for contractual purposes, often include corrections to performance test results that
account for any differences between the fuel used for tests and that specified in the contract for performance
guarantees. These corrections can vary in form, but often adjust loss factors, particularly carbon-in-ash and
excess-air or dry-gas losses. Such corrections are not necessarily useful for the more general analysis of fuel
quality impacts on whole plant operational efficiency. A number of computer-based expert systems exist
for fuel quality impact assessment; complex algorithms assess the overall impact on plant, including on
works power consumption and byproduct sales, such as gypsum. These systems are again not well suited to
generic corrections since they asses performance changes for a given plant with different fuels, rather than the
performance variations between different plants.
The main fuel characteristics affecting plant efficiency and specific CO2 emissions are moisture content and
the carbon-to-hydrogen ratio of the fuels combustible component. Fuels with the same calorific values, but
different carbon-to-hydrogen ratios, will produce different amounts of CO2 per unit of heat released. A fuel
which contains more moisture will generally have a lower calorific value and a larger difference between its
GCV and NCV. In practical applications, where the latent and sensible heat in the flue gas is not recovered,
increasing moisture content will tend to increase plant losses and fuel use.18
Figure3.6, derived from a large data set, shows empirically how fuel calorific value is related to moisture
content. Although there is a degree of scatter for fuels with moisture contents around the 5%10% range,
there is a general reduction in GCV for fuels with higher moisture contents. Figure3.7, from the same data
set, shows the ratio of gross to net calorific values plotted against asreceived moisture content.
OECD/IEA 2010
17 See footnote4.
18 See footnote5.
45
30 000
25 000
GCV (kJ/kg)
20 000
15 000
10 000
5
10
15
20
25
30
These data suggest that the difference between gross and net calorific values can be estimated from fuel
moisture content. This is useful since, although calorific value and proximate analyses (volatile matter, ash
and moisture content) are often determined or known with reasonable accuracy, the more detailed elemental
composition, needed for more precise analysis, is often not known.
Figure3.7: Effect of coal moisture on GCV:NCV ratio for a large data set
1.12
1.10
1.08
1.06
GCV:NCV ratio
1.04
1.02
1.00
5
10
15
20
25
30
OECD/IEA 2010
46
Typically, it is only the GCV of a fuel which is determined analytically: the NCV or lower heating value is
calculated using the equation (White, 1991):
NCV = GCV (212.1 H) (24.4 (M + (0.1 A))) (0.7 O)
Where NCV and GCV are expressed in kJ/kg and H (hydrogen), M (moisture), A (ash) and O (oxygen)
are % by mass.
If oxygen content is not known, then the following equation may be used for coal (ibid.):
NCV = GCV (212.1 H) (24.4 (M + (0.1 A))) 6
The same calculation can also be performed without a figure for ash content, using the equation (ibid.):
NCV = GCV (91.1436 H + 10.3181 M + 0.3439 O)
Where H, M and O are on an asreceived basis. Net calorific value can also be calculated from the proximate
analysis of the fuel as follows (ibid.):
NCV = GCV 13.9V 7.9A 30.6M + 6.12
Where V (volatile matter content), A (ash content) and M (moisture content) are on an asreceived basis.
The disadvantage of determining NCV in this way is that fuel-composition data are often limited. Estimates
must then be made. By combining the data presented in Figures3.6 and 3.7, the ratio of gross to net calorific
values can be estimated from the GCV of the fuel, as shown in Figure3.8.
Figure3.8: Variation of GCV:NCV ratio with GCV for a large data set
1.12
1.10
1.08
1.06
GCV:NCV ratio
1.04
1.02
1.00
20 000
21 000
22 000
23 000
24 000
25 000
26 000
27 000
28 000
29 000
30 000
GCV (kJ/kg)
Source: E.ON UK plc.
Comparison with Figure3.7 suggests that fuel moisture is a better indicator of GCV:NCV ratio, but GCV
can provide a reasonable estimate if moisture content is not available.
OECD/IEA 2010
Table3.6 shows the typical range of GCV:NCV ratios for a selection of commonly used fuels. In the case
of biomass, the moisture content can vary significantly and so two values have been included, one for wet
biomass with a moisture content of 50% and one for dry biomass with a moisture content of 10%.
47
Wet biomass
1.250
Lignite
1.159
Natural gas
1.108
Dry biomass
1.091
Subbituminous coal
1.074
1.059
1.058
Bituminous coal
1.045
Anthracite
1.025
The carbon-to-hydrogen ratio of fuels can be determined from the ultimate analysis. However, such analysis
are not performed routinely. The following formula, based on work by Seyler-Dulong (White, 1991),
enables an estimate of the carbon content of coal from its moisture, ash and volatile content, and GCV.
These parameters are generally known from the proximate analysis or can be estimated.
carbon % (ar) = ((0.0014081 GCVdaf) (0.21633 VMdaf) + 43.4) (100 M A) / 100
25
20
Carbon:hydrogen ratio
15
10
0
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
OECD/IEA 2010
Figure3.9 shows empirically that the dry, ash-free volatile content of a coal can provide a good indicator of its
carbon-to-hydrogen ratio, and therefore its carbon intensity, assuming its calorific value is known. Table3.7
shows typical carbon:hydrogen ratios for a variety of fuels.
48
Anthracite
32.6
Bituminous coal
15.2
Subbituminous coal
14.9
Lignite
14.0
Biomass
8.3
7.5
Light fuel oi
7.3
Natural gas
3.1
These empirical relationships, based on commonly known fuel properties, provide a basis for generic
fuel-quality corrections to plant efficiency and specific CO2 emissions data. For noncondensing plant
designs, the quantity of fuel required is related to its net calorific value. The carbon released in providing
that heat is related to the C:H ratio, and the overall carbon intensity can be related to the GCV:NCV
ratio and the C:H ratio of the fuel. The C:H ratio, the gross calorific value of hydrogen relative to carbon
(141.886MJ/kg / 32.808MJ/kg = 4.325), and the GCV:NCV ratio, which could be arbitrarily termed
the fuel carbon intensity factor, can be combined to compare a range of different fuels without any
need for detailed knowledge of fuel composition.
fuel carbon intensity factor = GCV / NCV / (1 + 4.325 / C:H)
This is important when considering the specific CO2 emission of a process. If this value is normalised with
reference to one of the fuels of interest a relative fuel carbon intensity factor can be derived. This factor
allows easy comparison of the impact of fuel quality on specific CO2 emissions (effectively comparing the
quantity of carbon burned for a given net heat input). These factors are shown calculated in Table3.8 using
information from tables above.
Table3.8: Relative carbon-intensity factors for various fuels
(with bituminous coal as the reference case)
Fuel
GCV:NCV
C:H ratio
Fuel carbon
intensity factor
Relative fuel
carbon intensity
factor
Anthracite
1.025
32.58
0.90
1.11
Lignite
1.159
13.97
0.88
1.09
Subbituminous coal
1.074
14.86
0.83
1.02
Wet biomass
1.250
8.32
0.82
1.01
Bituminous coal
1.045
15.22
0.81
1.00
Dry biomass
1.091
8.32
0.72
0.88
1.059
7.49
0.67
0.83
1.058
7.32
0.66
0.82
Natural gas
1.108
3.06
0.46
0.56
OECD/IEA 2010
49
It should be noted that this calculation is based on fuel properties and excludes the effects of plant design
and performance, and the contribution of fuel production and supply on CO2 emissions. It also excludes the
potential impact of, for example, ash quantity, ash fusion properties and fuel reactivity variations on boiler
performance (although these can be largely managed through appropriate design and operation). Literature
suggests that, compared to bituminous coal-fired plants, the efficiencies of plants firing subbituminous coal
and lignite are respectively about 5% and 10% lower on a NCV, net output basis. For example, a plant with
steam conditions and cooling system suitable for achieving an efficiency of 45% with hard coal might only
deliver 42.8% with subbituminous coal and 40.5% with brown coal or lignite on a NCV, net output basis.
Figure 3.10 illustrates the more general impact of coal moisture on overall unit performance when the
combined effects of latent heat (GCV-NCV differential), alteration of flue gas dew point temperature (due
to moisture in gas) and additional fan power (due to additional mass and volume flows) are taken into
account. It should be noted that this has been derived for a relatively low-ash coal and efficiencies could well
deteriorate more for high-ash coals. It should also be recognised that the curves will be affected by the sulphur
content of the coal and its impact on dew point temperature (see below).
Figure3.10: Approximate influence of coal moisture on plant efficiency
46
NCV (LHV) basis
44
42
40
38
36
34
32
30
28
26
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
New technologies for lignite-fired boilers address the effects of moisture by recovering heat lost from the
steam cycle to dry incoming fuel. While this improves the efficiency of the plant, and leads to lower fuel
consumption, it does not change the fact that lignite requires energy to dry it prior to combustion. For
example, the low-grade heat used to dry lignite could be put to alternative use, such as district heating, if
bituminous coal were used instead in the same boiler. Lignite is, however, a competitive and abundant fuel;
its use is likely to continue in certain regions, and fuel drying will secure more output and lower emissions.
OECD/IEA 2010
In the case of blended fuels, cofiring or the use of secondary fuels, the factors described above can be
combined prorata, weighted by their gross heat contributions. Any carbon offset associated with the use of
biomass fuels would need to be considered separately.
50
Steam conditions
As described above, the steam cycle boundary conditions have a significant impact on overall plant efficiency.
In this respect, the temperatures and pressures of the main and reheat steam are major design considerations.
Figure3.11 provides a means to correct the heat consumption of single reheat cycles operating with different
main steam and reheat conditions (all other factors being equal). This diagram does not extend to cycles
using supercritical steam conditions of 350bar, 700/720C which should offer heat rate improvements in
the order of 14%. Such cycles are currently being investigated in Europe under the AD700 project and in
the USA by the DOE and EPRI.
Figure3.11: Heat rate improvement with main steam and single reheat
temperature at different main steam pressures
9
8
Single reheat
593/621 oC
593/593 oC
o
565/593 C
Heat rate improvement (%)
565/565 C
538/565 C
538/538 C
2
1
0
150
200
250
300
350
Using the curves above, an efficiency correction factor19 can be established based on superheat temperature,
superheat pressure, the ratio of reheat temperature to superheat temperature and reference conditions of
160bar, 565/565C for a single reheat cycle:
correction = 0.4292 + (0.000403 P) (3.5 107 P2) + (0.000637 M) + (0.1548 R / M)
Where P is the main steam pressure (bar), M is the main steam temperature (C), and R is the steam reheat
temperature (C).
This relationship should only be considered valid for the data in Figure3.11. Steam conditions are a key
design parameter for any power plant; once chosen, they largely determine the efficiency performance that
can be expected at a particular site using a specified fuel. It is not proposed that corrections be made for steam
conditions within the context of general efficiency reconciliation, unless it is specifically of interest.
OECD/IEA 2010
19 corrected reference efficiency (%) = uncorrected as-reported efficiency (%) efficiency correction factor
51
Reheat stages
Plants using reheat cycles are more efficient than those without reheat, and two stages of reheat are normally
even more efficient, assuming its use can be justified economically. Nonreheat cycles were used in the past,
but are not usually found in modern plants. Correction factors for efficiency, based on number of reheat
stages, are shown in Table3.9, assuming other factors remain constant. The reference case is one stage of
reheat. Figure3.12 illustrates the potential benefits of double reheat with higher steam conditions.
Table3.9: Efficiency correction factors for number of reheat stages
Reheat stages
Correction factor
None
0.900
Single
1.000
Double
1.015
593/621/621 C
593/593/593 C
6
565/593/593 C
565/565/565 C
538/565/565 C
4
538/538/538 C
Single reheat
538/538 oC
3
2
1
0
150
200
250
300
350
Source: GE Power Generation (1996). Reprinted by permission of the publisher. GE Energy, 1996.
Cooling-water system
OECD/IEA 2010
Seawater cooling generally allows the highest efficiencies to be achieved, especially for power plants adjacent
to cool seas using once-through cooling systems. Once-through designs using river water also perform well,
although the cooling-water temperatures tend to be higher. Constraints on water abstraction and use mean
that it is common for inland stations to use closed-circuit cooling systems with cooling towers. These systems
run with a higher cooling-water temperature in the recirculation system which lowers performance. In cases
where water is scarce, dry-cooling systems may be used. Such systems are rarely employed because they result
in a very significant efficiency penalty. In Table3.10, corrections are proposed, based on the type of cooling
system employed. The reference case is assumed to be an inland station with a wet cooling-tower system.
52
Correction factor
Seawater (once-through)
1.024
1.015
1.000
0.952
Forced-ventilation cooling towers may be capable of achieving lower condenser pressures than natural-draught
towers. However, their use offers no clear advantage after the associated power consumption has been taken
into account, so no correction is proposed for forced-ventilation towers.
Ambient temperature
Cooling-water temperature will tend to be influenced by ambient temperature. Changes to ambient
temperature will affect the boiler air to hot gas temperature rise, boiler radiation losses and fan power. The
reducing boiler heat losses as ambient temperature increases will tend to be offset by worsening cooling
system performance. For an ambient air temperature rise of say 10 C, around 0.5% less fuel would be
required to achieve the same hot gas temperature in the boiler. The impact of such a change in ambient
temperature on cooling water would likely result in a 2% increase in heat rate a net effect of +1.5%. It is
therefore proposed that, where required, a nominal correction to heat rate of +0.15% per 1C increase in
ambient temperature should be applied.
Ambient conditions can significantly affect the performance and load capability of gas turbines. This may be
relevant for hybrid plants firing both natural gas and coal. Ambient temperature and pressure may also affect
the performance of any plants employing air separation units for oxygen production.
Flue gas cleaning
Emissions control, such as flue gas treatment equipment, generally has an adverse impact on plant efficiency
and CO2 emissions (unless captured). From industrial experience, the heat-rate correction factors in
Table 3.11 can be applied to as-reported plant efficiencies to account for the impact of commercial
pollution control technologies.20
Table3.11: Heat rate correction factors for different gas treatment technologies
Technology employed
Correction factor
1.0200
1.0100
1.0050
SCR
1.0050
1.0050
SNCR
1.0025
Notes: ESP: electrostatic precipitators; FGD: flue gas desulphurisation; LNB: low-NOx burners; OFA: over-fire air; SCR: selective
catalytic reduction of NOx, SNCR: selective non-catalytic reduction of NOx.
OECD/IEA 2010
20 corrected reference efficiency (%) = uncorrected as-reported efficiency (%) / heat-rate correction factor
53
Although not currently employed, a similar correction can also be made for CO2 capture. This can be
integrated into the calculations in a similar way to FGD, with a direct heat-rate penalty component and
a second component associated with the CO2 removal rate. In the case of applying CO2 capture to a
pulverised coal combustion plant, the heat-rate correction factor could be in the region of 1.2, based on
current knowledge of the technology.
Fuel sulphur content and dew point
The fuel sulphur content will have some impact on the minimum flue gas temperature to avoid dew-point
conditions and formation of corrosive acids. Very approximately, the minimum operating temperature to
avoid the dew point for bituminous coals with average moisture can be related to sulphur and moisture
content. This can then be converted into a change in boiler sensible heat loss.
To avoid the acid dew point, a flue gas temperature rise of 1C per 0.2% sulphur in coal, above a nominal
level of 1% sulphur (dry basis), can be assumed; with a further 1 C per 5 percentage point rise in the
asreceived moisture content. The recommended reference moisture level is 12%. This can be translated
into a heat rate increase of approximately 0.3% per 1percentage point change in sulphur, in addition to a
0.01% increase in heat rate per 1% moisture. Below 1% sulphur, the dew-point correction should only take
account of moisture since power plants are rarely designed to accept only fuels of less than 1% sulphur. The
true dew point relationships are complex, but the proposed approach provides a simple basis on which to
make approximate corrections.
These corrections are distinctly separate from the impact of installing FGD to control sulphur dioxide
emissions and the direct impact of moisture on fuel calorific value and sensible heat losses. The effect of fuel
moisture is considered in Figure3.10 and the impact of desulphurisation in Table3.11.
Some power plants may use a low-sulphur coal, but then inject SO3 to maintain electrostatic precipitator
performance. In such situations, the potential benefits of reducing flue gas temperature when using lowsulphur coal may not be realised, since dew-point problems could persist as a result of the SO3 injection. The
SO3 effectively raises the dew-point temperature back towards that found with a higher-sulphur coal.
Fuel ash content
Coal ash, an inert diluent, is generally a nuisance: higher levels of ash require the delivery and processing of
more coal and the collection and transfer of more ash. The presence of more ash also requires the use of more
soot blowing to remove ash deposits in the boiler furnace and convective heat transfer sections to maintain
good heat transfer. Ash discharged from the furnace bottom and removed from the flue gas takes with it a
quantity of sensible heat. There is therefore an additional energy penalty associated with the use of high-ash
fuels, irrespective of their other properties. Firing high-ash coal on a plant not designed for such fuel can
create performance problems (mainly associated with boiler heat transfer), although plants that are designed
for these fuels can operate well and with high efficiency.
A small ash correction factor could be applied, where appropriate, proportional to the ash content. A figure
of +0.03% on heat rate per 1percentage point dry ash is proposed, based on a reference ash level of 12%. On
this basis, the difference in heat rates between a plant using 8% dry ash fuel and an otherwise identical plant
using 18% dry ash fuel would be 0.3%.
Auxiliary power
OECD/IEA 2010
Auxiliary power requirements differ for various reasons, including the use of:
electric driven boiler feed-water pumps;
54
OECD/IEA 2010
There are generally good practical and economic reasons to employ more than one power generation unit on
a particular site and to build large units. Economies can be made by sharing facilities and resources (e.g. coal
and ash plant, staff and spares holdings), and through the relatively lower cost of larger units of a given design.
55
Overall, the efficiencies of higher capacity units are better than those of smaller units, largely because they
are more modern. Early power generation units were very small by todays standards and newer units have
progressively increased in both size and technological advancement. If smaller generating units were installed
today, then they would be very much more efficient than older units of the same size it is important to
differentiate between the impacts of plant age and plant size.
While larger plant will tend to have higher efficiencies, there are insufficient data available at this time to
justify a reliable correction for plant size. Furthermore, it is considered that the efficiency impact of installing
multiple small units, instead of a single large unit, has a negligible impact on plant efficiency, even though
the impact on overall plant economics could be very significant.
Boiler radiation and unaccounted losses
Boiler radiation and unaccounted losses are usually agreed with the boiler supplier, and are often
determined by reference to standard methods such as the charts by the American Boiler Manufacturers
Association (ABMA). The losses are fairly constant when the plant is in operation, but become a relatively
larger proportion of the heat input as load is reduced. Smaller plants, with larger surface-to-volume ratios,
suffer more from these losses, although losses become progressively less sensitive to plant size as size increases.
Large modern units would be expected to have losses of around 0.5% at average load, but this could rise to
3% for a small older unit (<100MW) with low average operating load. For the purposes of this evaluation,
it is assumed that the boiler radiation and unaccounted losses are reflected in the whole-plant efficiency such
that changes in these losses with load are taken into account by whole-plant load correction factors. Related
to these losses, however, is whether the plant is designed with or without a main building enclosure and the
ambient environment in which it operates. Typically, for temperate climates, the losses might be expected to
be 50% higher for external plant. It is therefore proposed that the reference case should be an indoor plant,
with a small generic correction of +0.375% on heat rate applied to external plant irrespective of plant size
and average load.
Excess air and unburned carbon
Excess air and unburned carbon in ash are largely operational issues. Although they directly affect boiler
thermal losses, these are controllable losses that can be managed at the site level; plant efficiency corrections
are not required.
Controllable losses
OECD/IEA 2010
In any operating power plant, peak performance may no longer be reached because of the condition of the
plant. In some cases, a step change in performance may be observed. For example, a plant may be called on to
operate with stand-by equipment in service, or may be configured in an abnormal way (e.g. with feed-water
heaters out of service). Other effects may be more gradual and related to leakage, wear, lack of adjustment or
control and instrumentation problems. Such losses can generally be rectified, but degrade the efficiency of the
plant if left unchecked. They are difficult to predict, although they are generally higher as a plant approaches
its routine overhaul. It is proposed that a blanket allowance of +1% on heat rate is made, where justified, to
account for a reasonable time-averaged level of controllable losses compared to ideal performance.
56
OECD/IEA 2010
21 On a lower heating value, gross electrical output basis, after correction for heat supply. The average efficiency in 2007 is estimated to be
32.6% on a net output basis, assuming power plant own use of approximately 7%. The reported average efficiency would be lower if no
correction were made for heat supply (see Figure4.5).
22 Note that this report recommends that efficiency be reported on a fuels gross calorific value (GCV) or higher heating value (HHV) basis,
and a net electricity sent-out basis.
23 See footnote8.
57
In Europe, the trend of improving efficiency reflects the closure of older, less efficient coal-fired power
plants, replaced either by new coal-fired plants or other energy sources for power generation such as
natural gas, renewable sources and nuclear.
Coal-fired power generation efficiency shows a gradual improvement in China as more new plants are
built with improved performance.
Countries which exploit poor quality coal for power generation are faced with lower levels of efficiency,
for example in Australia and India. Many power plants in these two countries must also contend with
high ambient temperatures and limited water supplies, both contributing to lower efficiency.
The cogeneration of heat and power can improve efficiency, for example in Russia and Poland. However,
this assumes that the heat supplied is used effectively.
Figures 4.1, 4.2, 4.3 and 4.4: Evolution of coal-fired heat and power plant
efficiency in selected countries (annual data and five-year moving averages)
55%
55%
Japan
50%
45%
50%
Australia
45%
Germany
Poland
Italy
United Kingdom
40%
40%
35%
35%
30%
30%
25%
25%
20%
20%
15%
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
15%
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
55%
55%
Canada
50%
50%
United States
45%
45%
40%
40%
35%
35%
30%
30%
25%
25%
20%
20%
15%
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
South Africa
Russia
China
India
15%
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
Notes: Annual data are shown with dashed lines, five-year moving averages with solid lines. For Russia, data are shown for
19901992, 1996 and 20052007. Data for the intervening years show inexplicable efficiency improvements and may need revising.
Source: IEA databases.
The data reported in Figures 4.1 to 4.4 are not corrected for any of the factors discussed in Section3. As
such, it is a raw comparison that ignores the influences of uncontrollable variables on performance, such
as ambient temperature.
OECD/IEA 2010
The development of supercritical and ultra-supercritical steam cycles, with progressively higher steam
temperatures and pressures, combined with modern plant design and automation, provide significant
potential for further efficiency improvements and the mitigation of CO2 emissions when compared with
existing coal-fired power plants. These improvements can be realised through the progressive replacement of
existing assets with new plant designs that reflect best practices.
58
Although a large number of supercritical and ultra-supercritical pulverised coal-fired power plants are
currently under construction or planned, subcritical technology has continued to dominate recent build.
However, with stricter requirements to limit CO2 emissions, the share of supercritical and ultra-supercritical
plants should increase.
By far the largest energy loss from existing and future coal-fired power plants will remain the heat rejected
from the steam cycle to the cooling water. The use of cogeneration or combined heat and power, along with
district heating and cooling, has therefore received renewed interest in the light of requirements to improve
energy efficiency and reduce specific CO2 emissions. However, the most significant potential to reduce CO2
emissions from coal-fired power plants will come through the application of CO2 capture and storage. Here,
basic plant efficiency improvements will be a significant factor in ensuring the viability of carbon capture.
Figure4.5 shows projections by VGB for the efficiency of and emissions from coal-fired power generation
by 2020. With proper policy and financial support for demonstration, by 2015 the net efficiency of stateof-the-art units firing hard or bituminous coal could reach 50% (LHV, or around 48% HHV) at plants
without CO2 capture and storage. For lignite-fired plants, these figures will be up to five percentage points
lower depending on the moisture content of the coal, but that can be improved if developments in efficient
coal-drying technology are successful, using either waste heat or low-grade steam.
Figure4.5: Efficiency improvement potential at hard coal-fired power plants
Average
worldwide
European
Union
30%
1 116 g CO2/kWh
-21%
38%
881 g CO2/kWh
379 g coal/kWh
State-of-the-art
technology
45%
CO2 reduction
480 g coal/kWh
743 g CO2/kWh
320 g coal/kWh
about 50%
-40%
CCS technology
but:
efficiency loss
7 to 12% points
669 g CO2/kWh
Efficiency
-33%
288 g coal/kWh
CO2 emissions
-90%
Fuel consumption
2010
2020
Time
Source: VGB (2009). Reprinted by permission of the publisher. VGB PowerTech e.V., 2009.
OECD/IEA 2010
CO2 capture will impact significantly on the efficiency of both existing and future plants. At the current
state of technology, units retrofitted with capture would suffer a decrease in efficiency of up to 12percentage
points, and consume perhaps 20% to 30% more fuel per unit of electricity supplied. While a concept of
what constitutes capture-ready exists for new power plants, it may not be economic or technically viable
to retrofit existing pulverised coal plants with CO2 capture, especially at smaller units. Refurbishments will
often be necessary to improve efficiency at existing plants before CO2 capture retrofits can be contemplated.
If 40% efficiency were to be considered the cutoff for CO2 capture retrofit, around 10% of the worlds
59
current coal-fired capacity would be suitable for CCS.24 Even then, and assuming a route to storage, case-bycase analyses would be needed to assess whether existing control systems can be safely adapted and whether
the large steam requirement of CO2 capture equipment can be sensibly supplied from these existing plants.
Owing to the loss of efficiency, retrofitted units will deliver less power; additional new capacity would likely
be needed to offset this loss. Based on new-build information, project proposals and forecasts it appears
that while the majority of future plants will be either supercritical or ultra-supercritical, with an efficiency
above 40%, subcritical units will still have a significant market share. By 2030, up to half of the fleet might
be considered suitable for CCS retrofit when necessary, while most of the remaining plants would require
either upgrading to deliver high efficiencies or total replacement.25 Further work is needed to better define
the future potential for CCS retrofit at coal-fired power plants.
OECD/IEA 2010
24 Estimate using IEA Clean Coal Centre CoalPower5 database. Of the 7173 units listed in the database, the individual efficiencies of a
sample comprising 4396 units (with a total capacity of 1074GW) has been estimated from available operating parameters. Of these units,
255 units (with a total capacity of 118GW) are estimated to have an efficiency of greater than 40%.
25 Estimate from supercritical coal-fired power plants listed in Platts UDI World Electric Power Plants Database 2009 and analysis presented in
IEA World Energy Outlook 2009.
60
New coal-fired power plants should be >40% efficient.26 Governments should look to replace by 2020
those coal-fired power plants built over 25years ago and <300MW. All other coal-fired power plants
should be assessed for upgrading or replacement to achieve around 40% efficiency.
International cooperation, training and financing mechanisms should be focussed on achieving the
above best-practice efficiency objectives in the design, operation and maintenance of coal-fired power
plants and electricity grids.
The development and demonstration of those technologies that target higher efficiency at coal-fired
power plants should be accelerated. For example, advanced materials, coal cleaning and drying,
cogeneration of heat and power, and more efficient CO2 capture technologies all need to be deployed.
In addition to these efficiency improvements, the deployment of CO2 capture and storage (CCS) technology
is vital. The aim of reducing CO2 emissions by 50% by 2050 implies that virtually all coal-fired power plants
will need CCS by then (including some under construction now). Based on IEA recommendations, G8
governments strongly support the launching of twenty fully integrated industrial-scale CCS demonstration
projects globally, with a view to beginning broad deployment of CCS by 2020. The IEA further recommends
OECD/IEA 2010
26 On a higher heating value, net electrical output basis. On a lower heating value basis, the figure is approximately 42%.
61
that any developer of a new coal-fired power plant should consider now what might be required to retrofit
CCS. In 2009, at the request of G8 leaders, the IEA launched a CCS technology roadmap that presents a
detailed scenario for the deployment of CCS technologies, from a handful of demonstration projects to over
three thousand projects by 2050 (IEA, 2009). The contribution of CCS to reducing global emissions under
this scenario is significant: by 2050, CCS contributes almost one-fifth of the necessary emissions reduction
to achieve stabilisation of atmospheric GHG concentrations in the most cost-effective manner.
OECD/IEA 2010
An essential part of sound policy development is the rigorous analysis of information which should be internally
consistent and verifiable. Reliable power plant operating information is not easy to obtain, whether on a unit
or whole-plant basis, particularly efficiency-related information such as coal quality, coal consumption and
electricity generation. It is therefore proposed that an international database of annual average coal-fired power
unit operating information should be established for the purposes of determining, monitoring, projecting,
reporting and comparing coal-fired power plant efficiencies and specific CO2 emissions. Such a database
could be maintained by the IEA Energy Statistics Division or by the IEA Clean Coal Centre Implementing
Agreement (IEACCC) as an extension of its existing CoalPower5 database of world coal-fired power plants.
62
The regular updating of such a data-collection system would require manpower resources in addition to those
that are currently employed to maintain the IEACCC database. Although the general concept and outline of
such a scheme is proposed in this report, the specific arrangements for data submission, processing and access
would require further discussion and agreement with IEA member countries and non-member countries.
For such a system to work, there must be a clear responsibility on plant operators to submit data, rather
than on the database operator to collect it. Participating countries could provide the required data through
national government bodies, collected from operators of power plants above a defined minimum thermal
capacity of say 50 MWth. These new reporting requirements would, in most cases, only require minor
changes to existing reporting mechanisms, and the extent of data required on an annual basis would not be
onerous. There would, however, be a fundamental requirement for every plant to monitor total energy input
and output over the course of each year. Although this is standard practice for most plants, there may be some
installations where additional monitoring equipment or procedures will be required.
Regional coverage of the scheme is a matter for further consideration. Clearly, the benefits of increasing the
efficiency of the fleet of coal-fired power plants will be greatest in countries and regions with the largest demand
and potential for investment, including China, North America, the European Union, India and Russia. However,
the benefits of such a scheme would be evident in any country or region in which its implementation is possible.
Since most governments already collect energy data for statistical purposes, it should be relatively simple
to extend systems already in place. Governments would need to decide on whether the availability and
provision of such data should be mandatory for plant operators. They would also need to reach agreement
on whether information should be published on a unit, plant, company or national basis, and on any criteria
for exclusion. It may be that more detailed, unit-specific data could be collected for confidential use.
5.4Performance benchmarking
In order to be useful in its underlying aim of encouraging best practice in coal use and understanding the
potential for further improvement, an agreed view of best-practice performance would be needed. This should
reflect efficiency and specific CO2 emissions at a number of exemplary coal-fired power plants, covering
different plant designs and operating conditions. These best-practice performance figures may then be used
as benchmarks, providing a basis for participating countries to consult with industry to determine appropriate
future development strategies that reflect regional constraints and objectives. It should be recognised that the
most efficient plant may not necessarily be the most economic plant to build, own and operate, or provide
the best long-term security of supply. A better understanding of plant performance allows decision makers to
better address the compromises that must be made.
OECD/IEA 2010
Policy makers must reflect on what steps are now needed to improve the overall efficiency of power generation from
coal. This report presents the tools for analysis and makes recommendations on how to use these tools to compare
performance. This will allow poorly performing plants to be identified, wherever they are located. The costs and
benefits of refurbishing, upgrading or replacing these plants can be estimated as the first stage in developing new
policies that would encourage greater efficiency. The prize is large: some estimates suggest that 1.7GtCO2 could
be saved annually. However, securing this reward would demand a major realignment of national energy and
environmental policies, a realignment that may be less politically acceptable than allowing old, inefficient coalfired power plants to continue running, in the hope that they will eventually fade away. Given that there appears
to be no prospect of meeting global electricity demand without coal, governments must implement policies that
respond more proactively to the growing use of coal, rather than wishing it away. Monitoring the efficiency of
power plants and targeting those that perform poorly would be a step in that direction.
63
OECD/IEA 2010
OECD/IEA 2010
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Fenton, K. (1966), Thermal Efficiency and Power Production, Pitman, London.
G8 (2005), Gleneagles Communiqu on Africa, Climate Change, Energy and Sustainable Development, G8,
Gleneagles, UK, 8July.
GHG Protocol (Greenhouse Gas Protocol Initiative) (2005), Calculation Tool for Direct Emissions from
Stationary Combustion, version3.0, prepared by M.Gillenwater, Environmental Resources Trust for World
Business Council for Sustainable Development and World Resources Council, July, www.ghgprotocol.org/
downloads/calcs/Stationary_Combustion_Guidance_final.pdf.
Gill, A. B. (1984), Power Plant Performance, Butterworths, London.
Henderson, C. (2003), Improving Efficiencies of Coal-Fired Power Plants in Developing Countries, Report
No.CCC/70, IEA Clean Coal Centre, London.
Henderson, C. (2004), Understanding Coal-Fired Power Plant Cycles, Report No.CCC/91, IEA Clean Coal
Centre, London.
IEA (International Energy Agency) (2007), Fossil Fuel-Fired Power Generation: Case Studies of Recently
Constructed Coal- and Gas-Fired Power Plants, OECD/IEA, Paris.
OECD/IEA 2010
IEA (2008), Towards a Sustainable Energy Future: IEA Programme of Work on Climate Change, Clean Energy
and Sustainable Development, IEA, Paris, www.iea.org/G8/2008/G8_Towards_Sustainable_Future.pdf.
66
IEA (2009), Technology Roadmap: Carbon Capture and Storage, IEA, Paris.
IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) (1997), Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National
Greenhouse Inventories, J.T.Houghton, L.G.Meira Filho, B.Lim, K.Tranton, I.Mamaty, Y.Bonduki,
D.J.Griggs and B.A.Callander (eds.), IPCC/OECD/IEA, Paris, France.
IPCC (2006), 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, prepared by the National
Greenhouse Gas Inventories Programme, H.S.Eggleston, L.Buendia, K.Miwa, T.Ngara and K.Tanabe
(eds.), Institute for Global Environmental Strategies, Hayama, Japan.
ISO (International Organization for Standardization) (2006), Greenhouse Gases Part1: Specification with
Guidance at the Organization Level for Quantification and Reporting of Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Removals,
ISO140641:2006, ISO, Geneva, Switzerland, 1March.
ISO (2009), Quantities and Units Part1: General, ISO800001:2009, ISO, Geneva, Switzerland, 15November.
IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) (2006), Atomic Weights of the Elements
2005, IUPAC Technical Report, Pure and Applied Chemistry, Vol.78, No.11, pp.20512066, IUPAC, NC.
Lang, F. D. (2009), Discord in Boiler Efficiency Standards and Calorimetric Temperature, unpublished
paper, Exergetic Systems Inc., San Rafael, CA, 4 March, www.exergeticsystems.com/Papers/PAPER59SUPPLEMENT.pdf, accessed 3May 2010.
Lightfoot, H. D. (2007), Understand Three Different Scales for Measuring Primary Energy and Avoid
Errors, Energy, Vol.32, Issue8, Elsevier, pp.1478-1483.
Logan, T. M. and Nah U.H. (2002), Tanguin5 and 6: Koreas first ultrasupercritical units, Modern Power
Systems, 22(10), pp.2325, October, Progressive Media Group Ltd., Sidcup, UK.
McGurl, G. V., R. E. James, E. L. Parsons, J. A. Ruether and J. G. Wimer (2004), Quality Guidelines
for Energy System Studies, Office of Systems and Policy Support, National Energy Technology Laboratory,
Pittsburgh, PA, 24 February.
Mills, S. (2005), Coal Full Life Cycles Analysis, Report No.CCC/99, IEA Clean Coal Centre, London.
Nalbandian, H. (2007), European Legislation (Revised LCPD and EU ETS) and Coal, Report No.CCC/121,
IEA Clean Coal Centre, London.
NEI (Nuclear Energy Institute) (2007), Comparative Measures of Power Plant Efficiency, NEI, Washington, DC.
Priest, C. W. (1947), Power Station Efficiency, Pitman, London.
Retzlaff, K. M. and W. A. Ruegger (1996), Steam Turbines for Ultrasupercritical Power Plants, GER3945A,
GE Power Generation, Schenectady, NY, August.
UNECE (United Nations Economic Commission for Europe) (1992), Code of Uniform Standards and
Procedures for the Performance of Draught Surveys of Coal Cargoes, ECE/ENERGY/19, Working Party on
Coal, Committee on Energy, UNECE, Geneva, Switzerland, 3 February.
VDI (Verein Deutscher Ingenieure Association of German Engineers) (2000), Ermittlung des Wirkungsgrades
von konventionellen Kraftwerken (Determination of Efficiencies of Conventional Power Stations), VDI3986,
VDI, Dsseldorf, Germany, October.
VGB (2009), Electricity Generation: Facts and Figures 2009/2010, VGB PowerTech e.V., Essen, Germany.
OECD/IEA 2010
White, L. C. (1991), Modern Power Station Practice VolumeG: Station Operation and Maintenance, 3rd
edition, British Electricity International, Pergamon Press, Oxford, UK.
67
OECD/IEA 2010
AGEB
AG Energiebilanzen e.V.
AGO
ar
as-received (coal)
ARE
ASME
ASTM
AUD
Australian dollar
bar
BERR
BGR Bundesanstalt fr Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe (Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural
Resources, Germany)
BlmSchV
BS
British Standard
BSI
Btu
carbon
CAAA
CaCO3
CCS
CEA
OECD/IEA 2010
69
OECD/IEA 2010
CEGB
CEM
CEN
CIAB
CO2
carbon dioxide
CO2e
CV
daf
DECC
Defra
DEHSt
DFID
DIN
DNV
DOE
US Department of Energy
EC
European Commission
EIA
EPA
EPRI
ESP
electrostatic precipitator
ESWG
ETS
EU
European Union
FEPC
FERC
FGD
gramme
G8
Group of Eight (Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia, UK, US)
gce
GCV
GE
GES
70
GHG
greenhouse gas
GIOS
GJ
GOST
Gt
GWh
GWP
GUS
hydrogen
HHV
HR
heat rate
HRSG
IEA
IEA CCC
IGCC
I/O
IPCC
IPPC
ISO
IUPAC
OECD/IEA 2010
KETEP
kg
kilogram
kJ
kWh
lb
LCPD
LHV
LNB
low-NOx burner
71
LOI
m3
cubic metre
mbar
MCR
METI
mg
milligram
MJ
MMBtu
million Btu
Mt
million tonnes
MW
MWe
megawatts electrical
MWh
MWth
megawatts thermal
NCV
OECD/IEA 2010
NIST
Nm3
NOx
oxides of nitrogen
NPI
NTPC
OFA
O/L
O&M
Pa
PC
pf
pulverised fuel
PI
PLF
PM10
PTC
Rosstat
72
SC
supercritical (steam)
SCR
SEB
SHR
SNAP97
SNCR
SO
sentout (electricity)
SO2
sulphur dioxide
SO3
sulphur trioxide
STEP
tce
UK
United Kingdom
UNECE
US
United States
USC
ultra-supercritical (steam)
VDI
OECD/IEA 2010
VGB VGB PowerTech e.V., a European technical association for power and heat generation
(formerly Verband der Grokraftwerks-Betreibe Association of Large Power Plant Operators)
VM
WBCSD
WRI
73
OECD/IEA 2010
ENERGY
RESOURCE
Production
Supply
Conversion
Distribution
Utilisation
NEED
Energy dissipation
OECD/IEA 2010
75
Consider a coal-fired power plant as an example. Fuel must first be sourced, mined, processed, shipped,
delivered and converted into electricity or heat for distribution to the end user, who consumes the supplied
energy to meet a particular need (FigureI.1). In terms of overall CO2 production and energy efficiency, it can
be argued that it is actually the whole sequence of events, from sourcing the initial fuel to the energy service
enjoyed by the end user that is important. The conversion efficiency of the power plant is only one element
of a much bigger picture.
In order to assess power plant performance and specific CO2 emissions, it is necessary to concentrate on the
conversion process. This does not mean that the other links in the energy chain should be ignored: they all
have critical roles to play in energy conservation and environmental protection.
What is efficiency?
In general terms, efficiency is the output of a process compared to the input. It can, for example, be defined
in terms of economic efficiency, operational efficiency or energy efficiency. Economic efficiency is
essentially the specific cost of producing useful output, and tends to be the main driver behind shaping
process plant design and operation. Although energy efficiency is considered in the analysis of economic
efficiency, it is quite possible for plants with low energy efficiency to also have high economic efficiency.
Operational efficiency is generally called capacity factor or sometimes load factor and measures the
actual output from a process compared to the potential maximum output. This is less important in business
terms than economic efficiency, but is still a major performance indicator. Energy efficiency is the efficiency
indicator which is familiar to most people and is a measure of the useful energy from a process relative to the
energy input. Strictly speaking, energy efficiency refers to the ratio of useful work output to the heat input,
so it may be more correct to use energy conversion efficiency when considering mixed inputs and outputs
which may be in different energy forms.
For power generation plant using fossil fuels, the inputs are typically electrical power and heat (i.e. chemical)
energy and the outputs are electrical power and sometimes useful heat. Although energy efficiency is often
expressed as a percentage, it is also frequently referred to as heat rate. Heat rate is the quantity of heat required
to produce a given output and therefore a lower heat rate is more efficient and gives a higher percentage efficiency.
The relationship most frequently used for heat rate and efficiency in respect of electrical power generation is:
efficiency = 3 600 / heat rate
OECD/IEA 2010
76
decrease the amount of exergy required for a process, and use available exergy more efficiently. The term
was coined by Zoran Rant in 1956, but the concept was developed by J. Willard Gibbs in 1873. Rant also
introduced the concept of anergy, which is the complementary part of the (heat) energy that cannot be
converted into work.
Exergy efficiency is also called secondlaw efficiency because it computes the efficiency of a process taking the
second law of thermodynamics into account. The energy E and exergy B balances of a process are:
Einput = Ein product + Eloss
and
The efficiency of the process may be described using the thermodynamic potentials E or B. Efficiency is
the fraction of the potential that makes its way into the product.
The efficiency quoted by equipment suppliers is usually the energy conversion or firstlaw thermodynamic
efficiency. This indicates how well the particular appliance converts one form of energy into another, but it
does not indicate how the equipment compares to an alternative energy process. An example which can be
used to illustrate the difference between energy conversion efficiency and exergy efficiency is the combustion
of natural gas solely to heat water. While this has a high firstlaw efficiency, it has a low secondlaw efficiency,
and wastes a large amount of high-temperature, high-quality energy to heat the relatively cold water. A
combined heat and power system, with inherently higher exergy efficiency, uses the fuel to run a heat engine
and then uses low-temperature waste heat for the water heating duty.
The new word emergy is a contraction of the term embodied energy. The need for this word arose
because of an important difference in the way the two related disciplines of systems ecology and energy
analysis were using the term embodied energy. The concept of embodied energy (i.e. the energy used up
directly and indirectly in transformations to make a product or service) was given the name emergy and
its unit defined as the emjoule or emcalorie. Other related properties, such as empower and emtropy
also arise from the consideration of emergy. As a relatively recent innovation, there is still some ambiguity
regarding its meaning and use, despite widespread use in the literature.
Effectiveness, generally referred to as the capability of producing an effect, is often used in relation to
heat exchangers as a proxy for efficiency. The term efficacy, simply a measure of the ability to produce a
desired amount of a desired effect, is also used in relation to efficiency. However, the focus of efficacy is the
achievement of the desired effect, not the resources spent in achieving it. Based on these definitions, what is
effective is not necessarily efficacious (the effect may be there, but not desired), and what is efficacious may
not necessarily be efficient.
Another expression, used in the context of heat pump efficiency, is the coefficient of performance. The
objective of a heat pump is to achieve the maximum amount of heat transfer, with the minimum amount of
energy, leading to the erroneous description of its efficiency as greater than 100%.
OECD/IEA 2010
The vast majority of the worlds electricity is generated from power plants using the vapour power cycle. In
this process, a heat source is used to heat water (although other fluids may be used) to create steam at pressure
which then expands through and turns a steam turbine. The low pressure steam exhausted from the turbine
is then condensed back into a liquid and returned to the heat source. In this way, the fluid passes around
a cyclic process within the plant, ultimately returning to its earlier state: the vapour power cycle shown in
Figure I.2. In simple terms, the process can be broken down into four stages: heat addition, expansion, heat
rejection and compression.
77
Steam turbine
Added heat
Boiler
Generator
Condenser
Rejected heat
M
Feedwater pump
Heat addition
Heat addition is generally accomplished in a boiler where heat is transferred from a high temperature source
to the working fluid. In the case of large coal-fired power plant, this source is typically a pulverised coalfired boiler. The heat source could also be geothermal or solar energy, heat arising from a nuclear reaction,
heat from a gas turbine exhaust or waste heat recovered from another process. The heat addition is usually
achieved at constant pressure with the enthalpy of the fluid increasing as the temperature increases. When the
fluid reaches its saturation temperature it will begin to boil and release steam, but still at constant pressure.
Since a real plant operates as a continuous process, the water being boiled off as steam must be replaced with
fresh liquid at the same rate as steam generation. Steam from the heat addition part of the cycle is usually
cleaned of residual water droplets and superheated to a high temperature.
Expansion
OECD/IEA 2010
The fluid in a power system boiler at startup is initially at atmospheric pressure. However, once heat is
applied and the steam generation process begins, the pressure gradually rises to the design operating pressure
by restricting the exit of steam from the boiler. The air, water and cold steam expelled in the early part of
the plant startup is generally discharged to waste or a recovery vessel. Once the boiler and associated steam
pipework and vessels have reached a suitable pressure and temperature, high pressure steam is admitted to the
turbine through a regulator valve. On entering the turbine the steam expands, with its pressure and kinetic
energy acting on the turbine blades to turn the turbine shaft and coupled electrical alternator. The turbine
therefore converts the steam energy to work, which the alternator converts to electrical power for export from
the plant. Steam may be taken from the turbine before it has been expanded to low pressure or it may be
expanded all the way down to its saturation pressure. The majority of plants employ turbines which expand
the steam down to a pressure below atmospheric pressure (vacuum conditions).
78
Heat rejection
Having taken energy from the heat source and done work in the turbine, the fluid must be returned to the
boiler to take on more energy. Before this can be done, the fluid needs to be condensed; this is achieved by
heat rejection. Heat rejection is usually achieved by cooling the low pressure steam with cold water (using
seawater, river water or cooling towers) in a noncontact heat exchanger. The condensation of steam during
this process results in a rapid contraction in volume as liquid forms and maintains the sub-atmospheric
pressure in the condenser. The heat rejection can also be achieved by using the exhaust steam for process or
space heating, providing the exhaust steam temperature and pressure are suitable.
Compression
Since the working fluid is condensed back to a liquid state, the compression part of the vapour power cycle
raises the fluid pressure with no change in volume.28 This is achieved with one or more high-pressure pumps
to raise the liquid to a sufficient pressure to make it flow back into the boiler. The pumps must therefore
operate at a discharge pressure higher than the boiler discharge steam pressure. However, the pumps do
not drive the turbine the turbine is driven by the expansion of steam which is only made possible by the
addition of heat in the boiler.
Superheated
vapour
Temperature (T)
Compressed
liquid
Saturated
vapour line
Mixture
Entropy (S)
OECD/IEA 2010
28 Crucially, raising the pressure of a liquid uses less energy than compressing a vapour; it is the change of state that allows water-steam
cycles to do more useful work than would otherwise be the case.
79
To the left of the diagram, the fluid is water and, to the right, it is steam. Between the left and right hand
sides, under the bell-shaped curve, the fluid is a mixture of water and steam. Here, it has a fixed temperature
while latent heat of evaporation (or condensation) is exchanged. As the fluid temperature is raised at a fixed
pressure the entropy increases until the fluid starts to boil. The temperature then stays constant while the
entropy continues to rise until the fluid becomes saturated steam. At this point, the temperature begins to
rise again with increasing entropy.
500
700
b
T1
600
300
500
Useful
heat
400
200
T2
300
273.15
100
0
0
S1
Rejected
heat
5.2531
200
S2
-273.15
6
Temperature (oC)
100
3.7471
400
Figure I.4 illustrates the Carnot cycle for steam. Since heat content is the product of temperature and entropy,
the areas lying under lines da and bc represent quantities of heat in the fluid. The rejected heat and the useful
heat are marked on the diagram, where it can be seen that the rejected heat is a large proportion of the total heat.
This simple cycle is important since it defines the most thermally efficient cycle which is possible between
two temperature reservoirs. The thermal efficiency of the cycle, th can be expressed as the ratio of the net
work done, Wnet, to the heat added, Qin:
OECD/IEA 2010
th
80
= Wnet / Qin
Through further analysis, it can be shown that for an ideal gas this efficiency may be expressed purely in terms
of the hot and cold reservoir temperatures (Th and Tc) as follows:
th
= (TH TC) / TH
What this immediately suggests is that power cycles with higher temperature heat sources and lower
temperature heat sinks will be more efficient. On the whole, power plants operating with higher maximum
steam temperatures and lower condenser temperatures will have higher efficiencies, everything else being equal.
On this basis, a cycle operating with superheated steam at 568C (841K) and a condenser pressure of
31.69mbar absolute (i.e. a saturation temperature of 25C or 298K) would have an ideal Carnot efficiency
of 65%. This efficiency assumes that all the heat is added at the higher temperature. However, in reality, for
a subcritical power plant, much of the heat is added as latent heat of evaporation across the furnace walls at a
temperature corresponding to the saturation pressure of the boiler. For a boiler with an operating pressure of
169bar, this temperature would be 352C (625K), reducing the Carnot efficiency to around 52%.
FigureI.5: Schematic of a simple steam cycle for power generation
and associated temperature-entropy diagram
4
3
Turbine
5
Condenser
Steam
generator
Feed pump
Temperature (T)
1
5
OECD/IEA 2010
Entropy (S)
81
Figure I.5 shows how a simple steam cycle for power generation, including superheating and reheating,
can be expressed on a temperature-entropy diagram. As with the Carnot cycle example, the useful energy is
the area within the cycle envelope and the rejected energy is represented by the area falling below line 56.
Although the Carnot cycle boundaries have been extended, and now high-temperature superheated steam is
employed, a large proportion of the total heat in the cycle is still associated with rejected heat.
The line 56 represents the condensation of the steam in the condenser. The temperature at which this takes place
is the saturation temperature within the condenser. The condenser pressure is a function of this temperature.
Although the peak superheat and reheat temperatures (2 and 4) are limited by material constraints, if the line
56 is lowered, then more of the heat added to the cycle is useful heat. Owing to the shape of the curve, relatively
small changes in this condensation temperature can bring about large changes in useful heat compared to the
same temperature changes at the high-temperature end of the cycle. In fact, the total rejected heat is proportional
to the absolute saturation temperature of the condenser. The significance of cooling-water temperature and
condenser performance is an important aspect of understanding the efficiency of practical steam cycles.
In order to avoid the loss of useful energy through the rejection of latent heat in the condenser cooling
system, and so increase overall efficiency, some of the steam can be used to preheat the condensed water
returning to the boiler. The positions of steam off-takes and the number of feed-water heating stages are site
specific. However, some plants may employ up to 12stages of feed-water heating, using steam bled from the
main turbine, before the water returns to the boiler. Figure I.6, for a subcritical cycle, shows this transfer of
heat from one part of the cycle to the other, meeting part of the cycles heat requirement to the left of the
diagram. The effect of feed-water heating is therefore to reduce the width of the cycle area, and therefore both
the total area and relative area of heat rejection. Feed-water heating does, however, also reduce the absolute
quantity of useful heat from the cycle and adds cost and complexity to the plant. In practice, feed-water
heating schemes can be quite complex with many interconnections, drains, vents, flash boxes and drains
vessels. For most plant, there is the added complication of integrating a steam-driven boiler feed-water pump
into the bled-steam system, along with the feed-water heating train.
FigureI.6: Temperature-entropy diagram with condensed
feed water heated by bled steam
700
600
500
400
C
100
Temperature (oC)
311
300
250
200
24.1
0
-100
F
Heat removed
by bled steam
Heat added
to feed water
-200
-273
0
10
Entropy (kJ/kgK)
OECD/IEA 2010
82
600
500
400
300
329 C
o
270 C
200
24.1 oC
-200
-273
0
7.1769
6.3539
-100
2.9763
Temperature (oC)
100
10
Entropy (kJ/kgK)
Source: Gill (1984). Reprinted by permission of the publisher. Elsevier, 1984.
OECD/IEA 2010
For practical power cycles, efficiency is usually referred to as the Rankine efficiency, which is the useful heat
divided by the total heat supplied. This is calculated using the change in the enthalpy of the fluid between key
points in the cycle. The equivalent Carnot efficiency can be found by considering the average temperature
of heat addition and rejection, which gives the same efficiency as the Rankine calculation. This can also be
compared to the hypothetical Carnot efficiency, which is the maximum conceivable efficiency which could
have been achieved between the upper and lower temperatures of the cycle. TableI.1 shows a range of cycles:
firstly, the basic Rankine cycle, then with the addition of superheat, superheat and reheat, superheat and
feed-water heating, reheat and feed-water heating, and finally supercritical operation (with temperatures of
590/570C).
83
Efficiency, %
Average temperature of
heat addition
K
C
Basic
41.4
507
234
Superheat
Superheat and reheat
Superheat and feed-water heating
Superheat, reheat and feed-water heating
Supercritical pressure
45.8
47.5
52.0
53.2
56.5
548
566
619
634
688
275
293
346
361
415
OECD/IEA 2010
It can be seen from the table that the power cycle efficiencies are higher than those normally stated for power
plant; the differences are due to the effects of real plant losses, including turbine expansion losses (isentropic
expansion efficiency), throttling losses, turbine mechanical losses and generator losses. Other differences stem
from a range of boiler-related losses, including heat lost in flue gases and radiation losses, and the use of works
power. The vapour power cycle parameters therefore provide a foundation for estimating plant performance,
but are not the only factors that influence the overall efficiency of power production.
84
Quantity
Unit
17.615
PJ
656713
1.543
TWh
2.880
PJ
0.000
PJ
0.0
* Some power generation processes supply fuel to other processes (e.g. fuel gas from the gasifier in an IGCC plant). This energy
supply must also be accounted for in efficiency calculations.
Although the data provide no detailed breakdown of fuel qualities, the efficiency on a GCV basis can be
calculated directly from the submitted fuel energy and export energy data.
whole plant efficiency = (3.61.543+2.880) / 17.615
= 47.9% GCV basis
Efficiency on a net basis is calculated using an NCV estimated from the calculated average fuel GCV and
approximate GCV:NCV ratio from Figure3.8.
average GCV = 17615000 / 656713 = 26.82GJ/t
average NCV = 26.82 / 1.0440 = 25.69GJ/t
OECD/IEA 2010
85
The power and heat generation efficiencies can then be expressed as:
power generation efficiency = 3.61.543 / (17.615 2.880)
= 37.7% GCV basis or 39.4% NCV basis
heat generation efficiency = 2.880 / (17.615 3.61.543)
= 23.9% GCV basis or 24.9% NCV basis
Since neither CO2 emissions data nor detailed fuel data are provided, CO2 emissions require estimation. If we
assume a C:H ratio of 15.22, since we are told the fuel is primarily bituminous coal, and a GCV for carbon
of 32.808GJ/t and for hydrogen of 141.886GJ/t then:
energy liberated per tonne of fuel = 26.82 GJ/t = 32.808C + 141.886C / 15.22
Where C is the mass fraction of carbon in the fuel. C in this example is therefore 63.66% (ignoring the
heating value of the fuel sulphur).
Every tonne of fuel will therefore generate 44/12 0.6366 = 2.33 tCO2, which equates to
2.33 / 26.82 = 0.0869 tCO2/GJ on an energy input, GCV basis (or 0.313 tCO2/MWh). From this,
the relevant CO2 emission factors can be estimated for power, heat and overall plant output, using the
efficiencies calculated above.
CO2 emission per unit of total energy output = 0.0869 / 47.9% = 0.181tCO2/GJ
CO2 emission per unit of net electrical output = 3.6 0.0869 / 37.7% = 0.830tCO2/MWh
CO2 emission per unit of net heat output = 0.0869 / 23.9% = 0.364tCO2/GJ
total annual CO2 emissions = 0.0869 17615000 = 1.53MtCO2/y
26.82
GJ/t
Estimated NCV
25.69
GJ/t
0.181
t/GJ
0.830
t/MWh
0.364
t/GJ
1.53
Mt/year
47.9
NCV basis
50.0
GCV basis
37.7
NCV basis
39.4
If the plant was fitted with CO2 capture equipment, then the above CO2 emission factors would be reduced
by the removal efficiency of the capture plant.
OECD/IEA 2010
Unburned carbon in ash could be deducted from the CO2 emissions calculation, if required, or could be taken
into account using standard oxidation factors. However, in reality, such adjustments result in relatively small
changes. If unburned loss is required explicitly, then the operator should record this value based on ash sampling.
86
The power generation efficiency, calculated on the more conventional basis of power output divided by fuel
heat input, would have yielded values of:
power generation efficiency (conventional)
CO2 emission per unit of net electrical output = 0.0869 17615000 / 1543000 = 0.993tCO2/MWh
It can be seen that the effect of utilising only a proportion of the waste heat from this plant raises the effective
power generation efficiency and reduces the specific CO2 production significantly. In fact, in this example, it
could raise efficiency from what would be considered a poor value to what would be considered quite a reasonable
value, with a good overall plant fuel energy utilisation level. Although the power exported is not changed by the
use of some of the rejected heat, the utilisation of the primary coal energy is significantly improved.
Using the methodology required by the EU CHP Directive yields a 1 percentage point higher power
generation efficiency of 38.7% GCV basis for this example because the heat supply is valued more than here
(i.e. it is grossed up to an equivalent fuel input value for a stand-alone boiler supplying the same heat).29
It is worth noting that efficiencies of between 31.5% and 50.0% could be quoted for this example plant. This
is a good demonstration of why an agreed efficiency reconciliation methodology is needed.
TableII.3: Supplementary data from operator that can help
detailed calculation of plant performance
Data item
Quantity
Unit
62.0
23.2
18.5
90
Marginal
Fuel 1 Type
Bituminous coal
89.7
25.70
GJ/t
13.9
%ar
12.70
%ar
29.60
%ar
1.40
%ar
Fuel 2 Type
Heavy oil
10.3
43.30
GJ/t
0.2
%ar
0.01
%ar
99.20
%ar
0.70
%ar
Supporting comments:
OECD/IEA 2010
29 See footnote8.
87
Where more detailed data are provided, as in Table II.3, more detailed calculations and correlations can be
used to determine heating values, CO2 emission factors and other values with more precision.
With this further operating data, it is evident that there is significant oil consumption and that the plant does
not generally operate at high load. Both these factors may be due to intermittent or cyclical operation. In
practice, some coal-fired plants may also fire natural gas, waste or other opportunity fuels.
TableII.4: Basic unit data required to calculate correction factors
General plant information
Quantity
Plant name
Unit
Plant A
Country
Country C
Location
Location L
Plant owner
Power Co.
Plant operator
O&M Co.
Number of units
Unit A1
Commissioning year
1980
Technology type
PC (subcritical)
Bituminous coal
450
MWe (gross)
160
MWth
Best measured unit overall energy efficiency (GCV, net sent-out basis)
55.0
46.0
24.0
GJ/t
10.0
12.0
2.0
Sea (once-through)
540
160
bar
Reheat temperature
540
No
No
Yes
Fabric filter
No
CO2 capture
No
It is now possible to normalise the performance data. The procedure outlined in this report requires some
basic data about plant configuration. Such data would be provided on a oneoff basis and then used with
sets of standard corrections to adjust the reported performance to a known common basis. The general
plant data provided are shown in Table II.4.
OECD/IEA 2010
Heat consumption corrections are needed to bring the plants reported performance in line with what would
be expected for a plant fitted with FGD, SCR, LNB and OFA, ESP, with a closed-loop wet-tower cooling-
88
water system, operating at 80% average load under base-load conditions and with an ambient temperature
equivalent to the reference plant. The associated corrections are shown in Table II.5.
TableII.5: Calculated efficiency correction factors for the casestudy plant
Correction factor
Particulate control
1.005
1.000
0.995
0.980
1.000
Cooling-water system
0.977
1.038
Mode of operation
1.010
Ambient temperature
1.009
1.013
The performance of a pulverised coal-fired combustion plant is taken as a reference and corrected for the fuel
properties and energy supply characteristics of the case-study plant. In the example, a supercritical pulverised
coal-fired combustion reference plant with an as-new full-load efficiency of 46% on a NCV basis is chosen.
The efficiency of this plant under normal operation, mid overhaul cycle, at 80% load factor, with allowance
for moderate operational losses and deterioration, is taken to be 42.5% on a GCV basis. The reference case
corrections are shown in Table II.6.
TableII.6: Efficiency correction factors for reference plant
Correction factor
Fuel moisture
1.005
Fuel ash
1.000
Fuel sulphur
1.000
Heat export
1.460
1.467
Steam conditions are not included in the corrections. As discussed in the main report, while it is possible to
estimate the impact of different steam conditions on thermal efficiency, it is not appropriate to correct for
them here since they are inherent characteristics of a particular plant.
Table II.7 compares the asrun and raw data, and also shows the corrected data for the case-study and
reference plants. The potential performance improvements for both CO2 emissions and efficiency can then
be determined by comparison.
In the example, it can be seen that, even though the efficiency of the plant is improved significantly through
the use of some waste heat, the relative performance is still well below what could be obtained from a modern
plant operating under the same conditions.
OECD/IEA 2010
This example draws attention to the difference between potential for improvement and absolute levels of
performance. The use of heat recovery is shown to boost the overall efficiency of a relatively poor plant, and
therefore the efficiency of coal utilisation, while the plant still has potential to be much more efficient.
89
Normalised
as-run
Best practice
Normalised
Relative
best practice Performance, %
0.181
0.179
0.207
0.830
0.819
0.747
0.364
0.359
n/a
MtCO2/year
1.53
0.149
20.5
47.9
48.5
42.5
59.2
% NCV basis
50.0
50.6
44.2
61.6
% GCV basis
37.7
38.2
42.5
51.1
% NCV basis
39.4
39.9
44.2
53.1
-18.0
OECD/IEA 2010
These calculations are relatively simple to carry out using database software for analysis and comparison.
Although accuracy is not high compared to formal test protocols, the method does permit a useful and rapid
comparison of performance between plants for the purposes of gauging general levels of performance and
identifying outliers.
90
measurement units.
Utilities in Australia also report average annual plant efficiency in their annual reports. For specific component
efficiency testing, Australian utilities will generally use ASME performance test codes.
AGO Generator Efficiency Standards
The GES scheme is set out in more detail below. In summary, it is currently a voluntary scheme under
which generators are required to report annually on power plant efficiency performance and put in place
improvement programmes to achieve best practice, given the age of each plant and the technology used.
Although voluntary at this stage, the vast majority of generators have signed up to the scheme and there is an
expectation that it will, in time, become mandatory.
Under the GES scheme, a set of technical guidelines have been developed which provide a methodology
for reporting efficiency and greenhouse-gas emissions intensity. The guidelines can be found on the
Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts website.30
In the technical guidelines, fuel heating value is defined as the fuels gross calorific value at constant pressure,
as fired, in MJ/kg. Definitions are provided for expressing power plant efficiency as generated efficiency or
sent-out efficiency. The power output for generated efficiency is considered to be at the output terminals
of the generators, while for sent-out efficiency, the power output is considered to be power at the generator
terminals, less the auxiliary load (i.e. loads not driven by the turbine or other prime mover), both measured
in MWh. Specific methodologies for calculating boiler, steam turbine, gas turbine and cogeneration plant
efficiencies are also provided in the guidelines.
OECD/IEA 2010
30 www.environment.gov.au/settlements/ges/publications/technical.html
91
The technical guidelines provide methodologies for calculating the annual greenhouse-gas emissions intensity for
coal-fired power plants. Emissions intensity factors are provided under this section for carbon dioxide, methane
and nitrous oxide, based on annual coal burn, carbon in fuel and carbon in ash. Consolidated greenhouse-gas
emissions intensity figures are reported in kgCO2 equivalent/MWh sent-out, on an annual basis.
GES participants are obligated to provide an annual business report to the Commonwealth government. Key
performance indicators to be incorporated are:
type of fuel (black coal, brown coal, natural gas, oil, other);
electricity generated (MWh), electricity sentout (MWh), electricity imported (MWh) and thermal
energy produced in cogeneration (GJ);
sentout efficiency;
Reported data under the GES scheme are collated and retained in the Australian Greenhouse Gas Inventory
which can be accessed freely via a government website.31
National Pollutant Inventory
Australias National Pollutant Inventory (NPI) is a mandatory scheme that requires industry to report
annual emissions to air, water and land. The NPI database can be accessed via the Australian governments
website.32 In relation to emissions to air from power plants, a methodology is provided for power plant
operators.33 The methodology for boilers relates specifically to air pollutants (SO2, NOx and PM10) and
does not cover CO2 emissions.
Technical Guidelines for AGO Generator Efficiency Standards
The Efficiency Standards for Power Generation measure, or Generator Efficiency Standards (GES)34 as it
became, was one of the key energy measures announced in the Australian Prime Ministers 1997 climate
change statement, Safeguarding the Future: Australias Response to Climate Change.35
Generator Efficiency Standards is a best practice programme that encourages generators using fossil fuels
to, achieve movement towards best practice in the efficiency of electricity generation using fossil fuels; and
deliver reductions in the greenhouse gas intensity of energy supply. This is seen as a significant initiative since
over a third of Australias greenhouse gas emissions arise from the combustion of fossil fuels for electricity
generation. The standards, applying to new electricity generation projects, significant refurbishments and
existing generation, were expected to achieve annual emissions savings of about 4MtCO2e, once businesses
had implemented actions to improve performance.
In 1998, the Efficiency Standards Working Group (ESWG) was established to develop implementation
options. The ESWG comprised representatives of industry, energy users, the Commonwealth and all state
OECD/IEA 2010
31
32
33
34
35
92
www.ageis.greenhouse.gov.au
www.npi.gov.au/index.html
www.npi.gov.au/handbooks/approved_handbooks/pubs/boilers.pdf
www.environment.gov.au/settlements/ges/qa.html
www.pm.gov.au/media/release/1997/GREEN.cfm
and territory governments. It published a document for public consultation, Greenhouse Mitigation Measures
Efficiency Standards for Power Generation, in 1998.36
The report of the ESWG incorporated independent technical advice that included a benchmarking study
of the greenhouse-gas emissions performance of Australian fossil fuel-fired power plants. The Australian
Greenhouse Office, on behalf of the ESWG, commissioned consultants to undertake analysis of best practice
performance in power generation and to benchmark the current performance of fossil fuel-based power plants.
The draft ESWG report was released for public comment during November 1999, following an Efficiency
Standards for Power Generation Seminar held in Canberra in July 1999 at which the broader findings of the
study were discussed. In the final report, Integrating Consultancy Efficiency Standards for Power Generation,
released in January 2000, the working group recommended implementation of the measure on a plant-byplant basis, covering both existing and new plants (AGO, 2000a). Following this, the Australian Greenhouse
Office prepared and released another document, Final Report: Powering into the New Millennium, on behalf
of the ESWG in February 2000. It represents the ESWGs majority views on options for implementing the
Generator Efficiency Standards measure (AGO, 2000b).
The general guidelines for the GES, prepared by a group of industry experts in consultation with the
Australian Greenhouse Office and other key stakeholders, set out a methodology for:
determining best-practice efficiency for a fossil fuel-based power plant (i.e. electricity generation plant or
combined heat and power plant), existing and new; and
monitoring and reporting on greenhouse-gas emissions and performance against standards.
Experts drawn from power stations across Australia reviewed the draft guidelines. These experts were
nominated by their peers and represented both public and private generators as well as independent power
producers from the mining and minerals sector.
Following a field trial at an actual power station, the draft guidelines were released for public comment in
January 2000 as part of the Governments commitment to ongoing consultation in developing the efficiency
standards measure. Workshops on the guidelines were conducted during April and May 2000.
The guidelines were introduced on 1July 2000 with the issue of Program Guidelines.37 The standards apply
to any power plant that uses fossil fuels, whether ongrid, offgrid or self-generating, that meets all of the
following criteria:
30MW electrical capacity or above;
50GWh per annum electrical output or more; and
a capacity factor of 5% or more in each of the last three years.
Where generators use both renewable sources and fossil fuels, the renewable energy is netted off. If the fossil
fuel share is below any of the above thresholds, the plant will be excluded from the programme. The GES
was designed not to discriminate between different classes of fossil fuels.
The second part of the GES guideline documentation, the Technical Guidelines, was issued in January
2001.38 These guidelines present a calculation methodology and express greenhouse-gas performance in
terms of a greenhouse intensity index.
A review of the 2001 version of the GES Technical Guidelines commenced in October 2004 and was
undertaken by the Australian Greenhouse Office and the Department of the Environment and Heritage. It
was supported by a Technical Advisory Group comprising representatives from the Australian Greenhouse
OECD/IEA 2010
36 www.environment.gov.au/settlements/ges/publications/effstand.html
37 www.environment.gov.au/settlements/ges/publications/program_guidelines.html
38 www.environment.gov.au/settlements/ges/publications/guide_app2.html
93
Office, the Department of Industry, Tourism and Resources, the generation sector and industry experts.
Draft Revised Technical Guidelines and a companion Discussion Paper were released to stakeholders in
September 2006. Submissions were considered and the Technical Guidelines redrafted to include:
benchmark efficiencies for new generating plants for different fuel classes;
review of plant degradation causes and effects;
a spreadsheet tool for calculation of a power plants best practice performance;
a requirement for new plants to provide operational stability reports;
what constitutes a plant refurbishment that triggers recalculation of reference performance;
expanded costing of options and information on the greenhouse-gas abatement calculator; and
direction on measurement uncertainty.
The revised and current Technical Guidelines were published in December 2006 (AGO, 2006).
The goal in Australia is to encourage electricity generators to move towards best practice in energy generation
and the GES covers power and combined heat and power plants, whether grid connected or not. Seventeen
companies, representing the majority of Australias medium to large energy generators, are involved in this
voluntary programme having signed legally binding agreements to improve their operational efficiency and
greenhouse-gas emissions performance.
Best practice performance standards for new plants have been set in terms of plant efficiency. They
are currently:
natural gas plant 52% SO (HHV) (approximately 57.6% LHV)
black coal plant 42% SO (HHV) (approximately 44.5% LHV)
brown coal plant 31% SO (HHV) (approximately 38.1% LHV)
Where SO is sentout electricity and HHV is higher heating value.
These standards are based on international best practice adjusted for Australian conditions (such as ambient
air temperature).
Information submitted under the scheme is subject to the requirements of the Independent Verification
Guidelines Generator Efficiency Standards (published in December 2006) to ensure that data submitted to
government are both accurate and reliable.39 These are supported by a fact sheet, Greenhouse Challenge Plus
Fact Sheet 15 An Introduction to Independent Verification for Generator Efficiency Standards.40
In support of the scheme, the Australian Greenhouse Office developed and made available the GES
Greenhouse Intensity Calculator.41 This is an interactive spreadsheet tool for calculating and comparing
the GES best practice performance range and current greenhouse intensity. The calculator accepts raw
data from the participant (e.g. electricity output, fuel consumption and fuel properties) and incorporates
the methodology of the GES Technical Guidelines. Annual reporting is achieved using a standard annual
reporting pro-forma, also available electronically.42
The GES Abatement Cost Calculator is designed to help GES participants carry out cost analyses in a
consistent way.43 The costing calculator includes a spreadsheet-based model that calculates the cost of
abatement, in terms of AUD/tonne CO2e, and a user guide.
OECD/IEA 2010
39
40
41
42
43
94
www.environment.gov.au/settlements/ges/publications/iv-guidelines.html
www.environment.gov.au/settlements/ges/publications/pubs/fs-iv.pdf
www.environment.gov.au/settlements/ges/publications/intensity.html
www.environment.gov.au/settlements/ges/publications/annual-reporting.html
www.environment.gov.au/settlements/ges/publications/calculator.html
Canada
The electricity sector in Canada reviews reporting practices for criteria air contaminants and other air pollutants
in a programme with Environment Canada. A multi-stakeholder work group has conducted a survey of
reporting practices and identified where improvements may be made. This work was largely driven by the need
for more consistent and reliable data in the National Pollutant Registry Index and followed a well-established
consultation procedure.44 The following examples come from two of Canadas provincial jurisdictions.
Alberta
Efficiency
The power plant collects weekly composite crushed coal samples from the coal conveyors and sends these
to an external laboratory where higher heating values, on an asreceived basis, and ultimate analyses are
determined. The total mass input of coal delivered to each unit is measured by gravimetric coal feeders,
upstream of each coal pulveriser. Total heat input is calculated monthly from the averaged coal sample
analyses and the total mass input. The gross heat rate for each generating unit, based on the monthly totals
of heat input (MJ) and electricity generated (MWh), is documented by the company in an internal monthly
report. The year-to-date average is also reported.
Emissions
The main source of greenhouse-gas (GHG) emissions from coal-fired power plants is from fuel combustion.
Other GHG sources, such as venting, flaring, fugitive, onsite transportation, waste and wastewater, vented
raw gas, combustion of biomass or aerobic decomposition of waste, are either not present on site, not
considered to be material or not capable of estimation because of incomplete or inaccurate data. They are
therefore not included in the total GHG calculation. GHG emissions are determined by stack and then
combined to give a plant total. GHG emissions are calculated using measured fuel data (including natural
gas), coal and ash analyses, and emission factors.
Site specific emission factors are calculated for the CO2 emitted from the combustion of coal, using the
percentage of carbon in the coal (averaged over a year from weekly coal analyses). Recently, adjustments have
been made for the percentage of carbon retained in the ash that would otherwise have been converted to
CO2. The percentage mass loss on ignition (LOI), from ash analysis, is used to determine carbon in ash. This
method of calculation is adopted from the World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD)
and World Resources Institute (WRI) calculation tool for direct emissions from stationary combustion
(GHG Protocol, 2005).
Other greenhouse gases emitted from coal use (methane and nitrous oxide) are determined using the
Canadian Standards Association (CSA) Canadian GHG Challenge Registry Guide to Entity and Facility-Based
Reporting emission factors (unit mass of pollutant per unit mass of coal combusted) and are determined
by multiplying the emission factor by the fuel input (CSA, 2007). CSA emission factors are also used to
determine the greenhouse-gas emissions from natural gas combustion (which is a fairly small contribution).
The total emissions from each pollutant are then multiplied by their respective global warming potentials
(GWP) to determine the CO2 equivalent emission (tCO2e).
Reporting
Greenhouse-gas emissions are reported to the provincial and federal governments and are included in
the Canadian Electricity Associations Environmental Commitment and Responsibility Program. The
Environment Canada GHG emissions reporting programme specifically targets facilities in Canada that
emit more than 100000tCO2e annually.
OECD/IEA 2010
44 www.ec.gc.ca/inrp-npri
95
Saskatchewan
Efficiency
The main method of efficiency determination is using a simplified loss-based calculation on an instantaneous
basis (using online performance calculation software) and on a monthly basis (using an offline spreadsheet
for statistical reporting), both using plant sensor data. Gross power metering equipment of varying accuracy
determines the generated, imported and exported power from the plant. In both online and offline
methods, turbine heat rate is calculated, based on previous test data and manufacturers correction factors, to
determine the required heat consumption of the turbine under the prevailing operating conditions to deliver
the generated output measured.
The boiler efficiency is estimated using empirically developed correction factors for boiler exit gas temperatures
(plant sensor), excess O2 (plant sensor) and unburned carbon (ash analysis). Enhancements currently in
progress or upcoming will see:
upgrade of the online performance calculation software to one which uses a first-principles
thermodynamic model, and improved data validation (200810);
upgrade of all existing coal-fired units with high accuracy gross and auxiliary power metering
(200910); and
Emissions
CO2 emissions are estimated for each generation facility, based on the carbon content in fuel and the amount
of fuel burned. Other greenhouse-gas emissions (CH4 and N2O) are estimated by fuel emission factors.
Surveys to determine unit emission factors of these greenhouse gases have recently been conducted and
these unit emission factors will be used for future estimates. The total emissions of each pollutant are then
multiplied by their respective GWP to determine an equivalent CO2 emission (tCO2e).
Reporting
Each thermal power plant reports annually to Saskatchewan Environment according to the requirements
under its permit to operate. Emissions of SO2, NOx, total particulate matter, mercury and GHG, as well
as the consumption of chemicals, must all be reported as specified in the permit. The reports also provide
information on quality assurance and quality control measures.
As in Alberta, greenhouse-gas emissions are reported to the provincial and federal governments and are
included in the Canadian Electricity Associations Environmental Commitment and Responsibility Program.
China
Efficiency measurement and reporting methodology
The China Electricity Council has published a standard (DL/T 9042004) for reporting technical and
economic indicators of thermal power plants. Use of this standard appears to be voluntary.
OECD/IEA 2010
The standard specifies measurement methods for boiler efficiency (through the loss method), turbogenerator efficiency and power consumption of the balance of plant or auxiliaries. Using these, the standard
sets out a detailed method for calculation of plant efficiency. However, a different approach is preferred when
reporting. A standard coal consumption, expressed in gce/kWh of net electricity supplied to the grid, is
96
used as a proxy for efficiency of power plants for reporting purposes. The consumption, expressed in terms
of coal equivalent, includes consumption of all fuels in the plant: coal and any supplementary fuels, such
as oil and natural gas.
Electricity supplied to the power grid is metered by each plant. Similarly, coal and supplementary fuel
consumption should be determined by each plant. The coal fed into a boiler is sampled to measure its
calorific value, which is then used to compute an equivalent standard coal quantity based on a higher
heating value (HHV) of 29271kJ/kg (i.e. approximately 7000kcal/kg or 0.7toe).45 Coal is sampled at
individual units for elemental analysis, measurement of moisture content and calorific value determination.
Standards GB/T476, GB/T211 and GB/T213 are used for these analyses.
The reporting system, defined in the Statistics Law 1983 (revised 2009) and regulations covering the power
industry, requires each power plant to submit a monthly report, including efficiency-related data for each
unit, to the provincial electricity council and to their parent power company. After verifying the data, the
provincial electricity council and the parent company each report monthly data to the China Electricity
Council for individual power plants, rather than units. The China Electricity Council compiles these statistics
and reports national and provincial data to government departments. Average figures, on a national and
provincial basis, are published annually by the China Electricity Council, but information about individual
companies, plants or units is not available publicly.
Shenhua Guohua Power
The reliability data, economic performance data and emissions data of power plants owned by Shenhua
Guohua Power, a subsidiary of Shenhua Group, are prepared by company statisticians at each plant. After being
examined and approved by plant management, they are submitted to local government economic management
departments and environmental protection departments, as scheduled by the national Statistics Law.
The data required by the power industry administration branch of government are submitted online
following the requirements of the Center of Reliability at the China Electricity Council. In addition,
there are daily and monthly reports to local administration departments. Local environmental protection
departments receive emissions performance information online from the plants, sometimes from
continuous monitoring equipment.
Shenhua Guohua power plants implement the Statistics Management Measures of the companys
management and control scheme. The power industry administration appraises and compares the reliability
data of generating units each year, honours the top three units, and issues annual reports to the power
companies and individual power plants. All the data are collected by local administration departments and
are reported to the National Statistics Bureau.
Germany
Efficiency
The efficiency of electricity production is calculated on the basis of fuel movements and stock monitoring for
energy used to produce electricity. The lower heating value (LHV) is used for this calculation. Fuel samples
are collected in accordance with DINENISO10715, and DINENISO6974 and DIN51872 are used for
determination of the heating value of the fuel.
OECD/IEA 2010
45 From private communication with two large utilities, it appears that a calorific value of 7000kcal/kg (29309kJ/kg) may be used in practice
when calculating the quantity of standard coal.
97
The determined data are checked and certified by independent auditors. Statistical data are analysed by
AGEB (AG Energiebilanzen e.V. was founded in 1971 from different associations and research institutions
active in the energy industry). These data are processed and made available to the public. Similar statistical
data are produced by the Federal Ministry of Economics and Technology.
Individual plant data are not published. The data for conventional thermal power plants are calculated for
power plant units exclusively to measure the quality of the conversion of heat into electricity. Efficiency is
calculated on the basis of firing thermal input (LHV) and net electricity output. The efficiency of a power
plant unit is the ratio of the electrical net output to energy supplied in the fuel. The electrical output is the
output on the high-voltage side of the main transformer. The net calorific value for calculation of supplied
energy from the fuel is determined on the basis of the gross calorific value, which is measured in a bomb
calorimeter. Further details of the methods used to determine efficiency are contained in the VDI guideline,
Determination of Efficiencies of Conventional Power Stations (VDI, 2000).
Emissions
Emissions data are registered in Germany according to the Thirteenth Ordinance on the Implementation
of the Federal Emission Control Act, Ordinance on Large Combustion Plants and Gas Turbine Plants
13.BImSchV of 20July 2004 (Federal Law GazetteI p.1717), corrected on 15November 2004 (Federal
Law GazetteI p.2847).46 This document contains specific information relating to:
CO2 emissions are calculated on the basis of carbon intensity of the fuel used in terms of tonnes of CO2 per
unit of thermal input (tCO2/TJ). The data provider has to provide verification that the chemical data used are
correct. Uncertainties are checked with reference to the Guide to the Expression of Uncertainty in Measurement
(ISO, Genf 1993/1995). To ensure uniformity in reporting, the values are calculated on the basis of specific
emission values clearly defined by DEHSt (German Emissions Trading Authority). The representativeness
of the measured and determined data is verified using national or international standards (e.g. DIN, ISO and
CEN). DEHSt collects all data and emissions reports according to EU CO2 monitoring guidelines.
India
The Central Electricity Authority (CEA) in India uses power station heat rate as a proxy for plant efficiency.
Each financial year, the Authority collects the following monthly data for individual power stations from
State Electricity Boards (SEBs), the National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC) and private utilities:
gross electricity generation;
total coal consumption and average coal HHV; and
oil consumption and oil HHV (for oil used during startup and support at low loads).
These are used to calculate monthly and annual power station heat rates, which are compared with the design
heat rate at 100% plant load factor. All the stations analysed use coal as the primary fuel and oil as a secondary
fuel for startup and flame stabilisation. The procedure does not take into account load changes, plant age or
variation in coal quality, except for those plants operated by NTPC. It also does not provide any indication
of a plants capability under ideal operating conditions.
OECD/IEA 2010
46 www.bmu.de/files/english/air_pollution_control/application/pdf/13bimschv_en.pdf
98
Station heat rate for coal- and lignite-fired thermal power stations
Station heat rate (SHR) is an important measure for assessing the efficiency of a thermal power station or plant.
It should be the endeavour of any power station to operate units as near to their design heat rate as possible.
Station heat rate improvements also help in reducing pollution. The Performance Evaluation Division of
CEA has devised a pro-forma to monitor various efficiency parameters of thermal power stations in India.
The analysis of station heat rate parameters is split broadly into two categories: stations with a SHR of more
than 10% above design (i.e. poor performance), and those within 10% of design (i.e. good performance).
The following assumptions are made for the analysis of station heat rate:
Analysis is carried out only for those power stations where data is available covering at least nine
months of operation.
Design station heat rate is evaluated based on the design data of turbine heat rate and boiler efficiency,
as submitted by the power station owner, and compared with the operating station heat rate.
The data related to station heat rate, such as generation, fuel consumption and calorific values, are
collected on a monthly basis.
Weighted annual average gross calorific values for coal and oil are used when calculating the annual
heat rate.
Heat-rate calculation methods
Two methods are used for heat rate evaluation of thermal power stations. The indirect method is an
instantaneous method which is used for short-duration tests; it cannot provide annual averages. The method
is a very complex, loss-based method of measuring heat rate which is generally adopted during energy audits.
The direct method of heat rate assessment is suitable for long-duration assessments, and should approximate
closely to actual heat rate performance because coal consumption is averaged over a month or year. Therefore,
it is standard practice to employ this method at almost all stations.
The three-step methodology adopted by the CEA for assessment of station heat rate is based on the
direct method.
STEP1: All design data such as turbine heat rate and boiler efficiency, along with a basic history of the
thermal power station, are collected from the owner and unit heat rate (UHR) is evaluated with respect to
unit capacities (UC) at 100% plant load factor (PLF).
unit heat rate (UHR) = turbine heat rate (kcal/kWh) / boiler efficiency
design station heat rate = (UC1 UHR1 + UC2 UHR2 + + UCn UHRn) / (UC1 + UC2 + + UCn)
Where UCn are unit capacities (MW) and UHRn are unit heat rates (kcal/kWh).
STEP2: Operating parameters, such as gross generation, total coal and oil consumption and average GCVs
of the coal and oil consumed are collected from the station owner on a monthly basis. Thereafter, operating
station heat rate (SHR) for each month is calculated:
SHR = SCC (kg/kWh) coal GCV (kcal/kg) + SOC (litre/kWh) oil GCV (kcal/litre)
where:
specific coal consumption (SCC) = total monthly coal consumption (kg) / gross monthly generation (kWh)
specific oil consumption (SOC) = total monthly oil consumption (litres) / gross monthly generation (kWh)
These calculations are repeated using annual averages to give the yearly SHR.
STEP3: The operating SHR is compared to the design station heat rate. The percentage deviation gives an
indication of station performance.
OECD/IEA 2010
heat rate deviation (%) = (operating station heat rate design station heat rate) / design station heat rate
99
Italy
Utilities transmit data related to the quantity, quality and energy content of coal consumed, and emissions to
national authorities, including the Ministry of Economic Development, the Ministry of the Environment,
the Italian Tax Authority and the Customs Agency, and to the Regional Environment Agencies and Local
Sanitary Units.
Coal quantity and quality
The coal quantity used is the customs-cleared total (classified as goods in bulk) and is ascertained at discharge
through a draft survey, as provided for in the UNECE international code (UNECE, 1992).47 The coal is
sampled during discharge and these samples are used to determine coal quality. Both quantity and quality are
ascertained by independent inspection companies. These data are used as the basis for determining coal use
in the power plant and coal quality parameters. The daily quantity burned is determined using the indirect
method, based on the energy produced and the specific consumption.
The specific consumption is determined during trial tests at the plant (reference value) and then corrected
during operation based on the efficiency, which is evaluated periodically. When large differences are found,
compared to the reference value, the plant components causing the difference are identified (e.g. turbine,
mills, burners or condenser) in order to recover the original efficiency, as far as possible.
The coal quantity stocked is usually verified every six months, or on a different schedule according to
the internal procedures applicable to each power company. These and other values are communicated
to the authorities:
on a monthly basis to the Ministry of Economic Development: stock quantity, input/output of coal,
imported quantity at custom clearance point and geographic origin;
on a six-monthly basis to the Ministry of Economic Development: calorific value and quantity; and
on a yearly basis to the Customs Agency: imported quantity for single discharge point.
CO2 emissions
The emitted CO2 quantity is calculated in accordance with the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme
Directive 2003/87/CE, adopted in Italy through a specific national decree.
The emission calculations are based on a mass balance, with different methods depending on the total annual
emissions from each plant. For plants that exceed a specific emission level set out in the decree, quality
parameters are determined by chemical analysis. For the remaining plants, UNFCCC data are used.
As a result, for the majority of power plants, the emission factor (tCO2/TJ) is calculated with data from
chemical laboratory analyses. Before 2005, UNFCCC data were used. Between 2005 and 2006, the use of
nonqualified ISO17025 laboratories was accepted, provided that international standard practices were used.
Since 2007, it is mandatory to use ISO17025 qualified laboratories. The relevant parameters are the calorific
value and total carbon content. Also, starting from 2007, the coal oxidation factor has been determined using
loss on ignition (LOI) measurements for flyash.
The fuel quantity used (heat and mass) for the CO2 declaration is obtained from the sum of all coal
discharges, taking into account stock variations, each calendar year. Data for each plant is verified by
independent third parties, qualified by the Ministry of the Environment. The annual CO2 declaration is
formally transmitted to the Ministry before 31March of the following year.
OECD/IEA 2010
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Japan
Efficiency measurement methodology
In thermal power stations, efficiency measurement is conducted mainly for two purposes: for periodical
reporting to the regulatory authority and for evaluating the power plant condition and performance for
maintenance purposes.
Reporting rules, based on the Electric Utilities Industry Law, require submission of a monthly report to the
regulatory authority, including thermal efficiency data for each power station which is calculated in units of
litres of heavy fuel oil equivalent per unit of electricity. This figure is used to understand how efficiently fuel
is consumed in each industrial sector, and therefore efficiency is calculated on a gross basis rather than on
a sentout basis. Company average data by fuel type are made available in an annual report on the electric
power industry, published by the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (METI).
In addition to the monthly efficiency calculations, plant performance tests are usually conducted after
periodic plant inspections. The purpose of these tests is to check the performance of main equipment or
to evaluate the results of measures to improve thermal efficiency. Therefore, tests are done under the same
conditions, normally at rated (100%) output.
There are two different methods of calculating efficiency, the input-output method and the components
method. The first method is quite simple. Efficiency is expressed as the generated electricity measured at
power metering equipment divided by the total thermal input over a certain period. Thermal input is the
product of fuel consumption, measured by a belt weighing machine on the coal conveyor, and calorific value
of the coal, expressed as the higher heating value (on an air-dried basis).
The second method calculates the overall plant efficiency as the product of boiler efficiency, b, and turbine
efficiency, t, while accounting for plant losses:
= (Hb losses) / Hb
Where the sum of the losses (losses) includes the dry-gas loss, moisture in air and coal (including from
coal hydrogen combustion), unburned combustible content, incomplete combustion (producing carbon
monoxide), heat of ash, radiation heat loss from boiler and other losses.
The boiler heat input, Hb is the combined heat from coal combustion and thermal input from the air heater.
The turbine efficiency the inverse of turbine heat rate is a characteristic of the particular equipment. The
overall plant efficiency, p is then:
(1 Ploss)
Where the plant loss, Ploss includes pressure losses in pipes, mechanical losses and power consumed by auxiliary
equipment, all expressed as a percentage of boiler heat input.
Methods of determining plant efficiency differ from one plant to another, depending on plant configuration,
but the fundamental framework is generally based on Japanese Industrial Standards (JIS).
Measurement and reporting of emissions
In Japan, emissions from coal-fired power plants are regulated by the National Air Pollution Control Act, but
local governments can set more stringent emission standards, depending on local air quality conditions. SO2
is regulated on the basis of hourly volume (Nm3/hr). The upper volume limit is set by the formula:
OECD/IEA 2010
q = K 10-3 he2
101
Where q is the volume flow (Nm3/hr), K is a value which differs from region to region (ranging from 3.0 to
17.5) and he is the effective stack height. NOx and dust standards are set in parts per million (ppm) at 6%O2
(0C, 101.325kPa) and in mg/Nm3 at 6% O2 respectively. Standards for a relatively new power station
are 200ppm for NOx and 100mg/Nm3 for dust. Separately from national regulation, each power station
usually concludes an environmental protection agreement with local government. In these agreements,
emission standards are normally set rather lower than the national standard.
From April 2006, the Ministry of Environment and METI have maintained a GHG inventory system for
business facilities whose GHG emissions exceed a certain level (i.e. consumption of heat and electricity greater
than 3million litres of oil equivalent per year). Annual GHG emissions for each power station, by category,
for six kinds of greenhouse gases are calculated as tonnes of CO2 equivalent, reported to the government and
made available to the public through the GHG inventory system.
General industrial enterprises must calculate their annual GHG emissions using their fossil fuel and electricity
consumption data. Electric utilities release figures for the carbon intensity of their electricity production
(kgCO2/kWh), being the weighted average of CO2 emissions from all their power plants. These data are then
used for calculations by their customers. At the moment, this inventory system is not seen as being linked to
the introduction of a GHG cap and trade system. Japanese electric power companies, along with companies
in other industry sectors, oppose the introduction of emissions trading and advocate contributing to the
national Kyoto Protocol Target Attainment Plan by observing their own voluntary targets.
Korea
Efficiency
The energy use, and hence efficiency of electricity production, is calculated on the basis of fuel movements
and stock monitoring. The higher heating value (HHV) is used for this calculation. In Korea, almost all
coal used for power generation is imported, mainly from Australia, Indonesia and China. All coal must be
blended to meet tight specifications before combustion in boilers. Therefore, coal samples are taken from
all deliveries to the power plant stockyard and every shift (i.e. three times each day) from the blended coal
conveyed to mills. ASTMD586510 is used for determination of the fuel heating value. The determined
data are checked and certified by the Efficiency Department at each power plant. Statistical data are reported
on-line to the headquarters of the respective power companies where these data are processed, but not made
available to the public.
Data for conventional thermal power plants are calculated exclusively to measure the quality of the conversion
of heat into electricity. The efficiency of a power plant unit is then the ratio of net electrical output to
gross heat energy supplied by the fuel (HHV). Further details of the methods used to determine efficiency
are contained in ASME PTC 461996 for the input-output method. To confirm the plant efficiencies,
the secondary method, based on the ASME PTC 4.11964 (1991) for thermal efficiency of boilers and
ASMEPTC62004 for thermal efficiency of steam turbines, is used to calculate the thermal efficiency of the
power plant (ASME, 1991 and 2004). Individual plant data are not published.
Emissions
OECD/IEA 2010
Emissions data are regulated in Korea according to the Clean Air Conservation Act (1 August 1990,
amended 13 January 2010), Enforcement Decree (or Ordinance) of the Clean Air Conservation Act
(28January1991, amended 26March 2010), and Enforcement Regulation of the Clean Air Conservation
Act (2February1991, amended 13April 2010). The Clean Air Conservation Act regulates the emissions of
air pollutants, climate- and ecosystem-changing substances, and greenhouse gases.
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Poland
Efficiency
The main sources of information relating to the efficiency of processes for energy transformation in thermal
power plants are the public statistical surveys performed by the Energy Market Agency (ARE) on behalf of the
Central Statistical Office (GUS), the Ministry of the Economy and the Energy Regulatory Office (URE). Data
are collected through standard reporting channels, and then analysed and disseminated by the Energy Market
Agency and the Central Statistical Office. National statistical surveys are adapted to meet the requirements of
current EU methodologies, and the scope of surveys is being aligned to the needs of other institutions.
Commonly used indicators for calculating the efficiency of energy transformation processes include
production efficiency (gross and net), fuel heat input (gross and net) and own-use power consumption. The
detailed principles and structure of the indicators used are presented in a study, Methodological Principles of
Statistical Reporting and Applied Definitions for the Management of Fuels and Energy. Information concerning
the efficiency of electricity and heat production is published in Statistics of the Polish Energy Sector (ARE) and
Energy Efficiency (GUS). Individual data for thermal power plants are collected, but not published because
many are confidential and subject to particular protection.
Emissions
Sources for emissions data are the same public statistical surveys carried out by the Energy Market Agency
for the Central Statistical Office, the Ministry of the Economy and the Energy Regulatory Office, and
also inventories submitted by those entities which are obliged to according to Polish legislation (e.g. the
Environmental Law, the Law on Emission Management Systems and other Polish legislation that implements
the EU ETS Directive and the EU IPPC Directive).
Power plant emissions data are generally made available publicly by individual companies. Information on
emissions data is also included in an annual Pollution Inventory submitted to local authorities (voivodeships)
and the Chief Inspectorate for Environmental Protection (GIOS). Similar information, within the
OECD/IEA 2010
48 www.airkorea.or.kr
103
framework of the EU Emissions Trading Scheme, is being collected by the National Administration of the
Emissions Trading Scheme (KASHUE). CO2 emissions data must be submitted by the end of March in the
year following the reporting period. EU ETS returns are also used to compile the Polish Greenhouse Gas
Inventory in an annual report for submission under the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change.
Central Statistical Office data on the emissions of all air pollutants from power plants, including those that
are particularly harmful for the environment, are published in statistical yearbooks and in Environmental
Protection in accordance with the international SNAP 97 classification of emission sources and IPCC
methodology. The Ministry of the Economy and the Energy Regulatory Office require the Energy Market
Agency to collect data on emissions of dust and gases from thermal power plants. These data are published
in Emissions of Environmental Pollutants from Power Plants and Commercial Combined Heat and Power Plants
and Statistics of the Polish Energy Sector (ARE).
Russia
Thermal plant efficiency
According to the Russian Federal Law No.261FZ on Energy Conservation and Improving Energy Efficiency
of 2009, thermal power plants are required to carry out energy audits. These are conducted every three years
by designated government bodies or accredited auditors according to the Guidelines on Conducting Energy
Audits (approved by the Ministry of Industry and Energy in 1998) and Guidelines on Conducting Energy
Audits at Thermal Power Plants and District Heating Plants (P15334.109.16300). The latter specifically
regulates the scope of work for the audit, lists energy efficiency indicators and provides a methodology for
their calculation, as well as setting out a list of documents that have to be submitted to the designated
government body (a report with an energy balance, an energy efficiency certificate and recommendations
on improving energy efficiency). Before commissioning, the design performance for all heat and power
plants is evaluated, expressed as the specific gross heat consumption for gross electricity production and as
the efficiency of heat supply. In these calculations, the technical specifications for the installed equipment
and data from warranty tests are used. In later efficiency audits, losses per unit of electricity produced are also
taken into account. Utility plants must meet energy-performance standards that set the maximum allowable
energy consumption per unit of electricity or heat produced. These are set for each individual power plant
and heating boiler, as well as on an aggregate basis for enterprises engaged in the supply of heat and power
to the residential and public sectors.
Fuel samples are used to obtain the data necessary to determine energy efficiency of power plants and
to set energy consumption standards. These samples are obtained in accordance with the Methodology
for Quality Control of Solid, Liquid and Gaseous Fuels to Calculate Fuel Efficiency at Thermal Power Plants
(P15334.109.1142001).
Measurement and reporting of emissions
OECD/IEA 2010
The main pieces of Russian legislation on emissions from polluting sources, including power plants, are the
Federal Law No.7FZ on Environmental Protection of 2001 and state standards on environmental quality,
including GOSTP50831 which specifically concerns boiler plants. Federal law demands the implementation
of technical standards for atmospheric pollution control from existing power plants. GOSTP50831 contains
specific information for calculating these standards. The standards, which are reviewed every five years, are
used to set up the maximum allowable and temporarily agreed emission limits that take into account the
overall ecological situation and the technical capability of the equipment to limit pollutant emissions to the
atmosphere. Temporary emission limits are set for individual plants and are reviewed every year. Maximum
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allowable emission limits are set for five years and only change if there are any major changes in the operation
of a plant. Plants have to regularly monitor whether emission standards are observed and report on actual
emissions. Emissions are estimated from actual measurements or calculations and then reported to the
Federal State Statistics Service (Rosstat). Specific information on setting standards and emission limits, and
on monitoring and reporting of emissions from power plants can be found in: Guidance on the Control of
Atmospheric Emissions from Thermal Power Plants and District Heating Plants (P15334.002.30698) and
Guidelines on Setting Standards for Air Pollutant Emissions from Thermal Power Plants and District Heating
Plants (P15334.002.30398).
South Africa
Measurement and reporting of efficiency
In order to manage imbalances in supply and consumption, and to provide a strategic reserve, every coal-fired
power station in South Africa maintains an onsite fuel stockpile. A mass-based fuel account is maintained by
each power station, and consolidated at corporate level, based on coal deliveries and consumption.
Deliveries are weighed on site to determine their mass on arrival, using road or rail weighbridges or conveyor
belt weighers which are maintained to weights and measures standards and regulations. The delivered fuel is
sampled according to standard procedures, and fuel quality is determined from these samples, including heat
content, to ensure compliance with contractual specifications.
Coal burn is determined on a daily and monthly basis in various ways, depending on plant layout and availability
of mass meters at the different sites. Owing to measuring uncertainties, especially with respect to the bunker
levels, efficiency is not calculated and tracked on a daily basis, but is monitored on a monthly and annual basis.
On a daily basis, it is of more value to monitor the indirect efficiency by considering losses. Target losses are based
on design performance or test data, corrected for uncontrollable factors such as load, fuel quality and ambient
conditions. A thermal efficiency monitoring programme provides for the calculation and reconciliation of both
direct and indirect efficiencies. This approach adds integrity to both methods, being a self-auditing system.
A final check is performed by the regulated year-end coal stock survey which is both a volumetric and
density survey. This survey is assumed to be 100% accurate and any variance of book stock from survey is
corrected at the time by adjusting the burn for that particular month. The reported coal burn (and thus also
the efficiency) for that month is obviously not correct since the variance has accumulated over a prolonged
period, but the value for the year attains a more accurate value. This final annual coal burn is then also the
figure used in annual efficiency calculations, as reported in, for example, Eskoms annual reports.
Measurement and reporting of emissions
Gaseous emissions of SO2, CO2 and NO2 from coal-fired power stations are reported for each plant on the
basis of total monthly and annual tonnages and specific emissions (tCO2/GWh). Dust emissions are reported
as monthly and annual tonnages, as specific emissions, and as hourly mean concentrations in mg/m3 (0C,
101.325kPa) for each power station.
The reporting of SO2 and CO2 emissions is currently based on a calculation of the fuel sulphur and total
carbon content by mass and coal consumed. Emissions from fuel oil used during startup, shutdown and
during coal mill changeovers are not reported.
OECD/IEA 2010
Total carbon is not analysed by power station chemical laboratories. Instead, the fixed carbon is obtained
by difference from the proximate analysis. However, the fixed carbon cannot be used to calculate CO2
emissions. Therefore, composite monthly coal samples are sent to a centralised laboratory. These are analysed
105
to obtain ultimate (which incorporates total carbon) and proximate analyses. An annual regression curve is
then calculated from a number of ultimate and proximate analyses for each power station. The regression
curves are used with the weighted monthly power station proximate analyses to obtain a monthly total
carbon figure for each power station. Thereafter, a CO2 emission factor for each power station is calculated,
accounting for measured carbon-in-ash values.
There is no government regulation on the release of SO2, CO2 and NO2 emissions to the atmosphere. Data
are supplied to the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism (DEAT) on a monthly and annual
basis, and published in Eskoms annual reports which are available to the public.
United Kingdom
Efficiency measurement methodology
Coal-fired power plants receive and burn coal to generate electricity. In order to manage imbalances in
supply and utilisation, and to provide strategic reserve, an onsite fuel stock is also maintained. Each of the
power plants maintains a heat- and mass-based fuel account from data on deliveries, consumption, and
changes in fuel stock.
Deliveries are usually weighed on to site to determine their mass as they arrive, using road and rail weighbridges
which are maintained according to weights and measures regulations. The delivered fuel is simultaneously and
representatively sampled, and from this sample the delivered heat content and fuel quality is determined. Delivered
mass and heat content is therefore determined by measurement. Stock volume measurements are generally made
on a monthly basis, with more extensive density and heat value surveys also being conducted, usually once at the
end of each year. These enable determination of fuel stock mass and heat content directly by measurement.
Fuel consumption by the power plant can be determined directly from the delivered fuel, corrected for the
change in stock. However, this can only be done monthly and is only really a good check when using the
more accurate annual stock survey results. It should be noted that an overall plant efficiency is determined
that incorporates the impacts of plant load factor, operating regime, physical condition of the equipment,
ambient conditions and fuel quality over the assessment period.
The main method of efficiency determination carried out by plant operators is not, however, the method
described above but is by using data logging and computation to estimate the actual plant efficiency directly.
Accurate final power metering equipment determines the generated, imported and exported power from
the plant. A turbine heat rate calculation is then made, based on previous test data and correction factors, to
determine the required steam consumption of the turbo-alternator under the prevailing operating conditions
to deliver the power output that has been measured. The boiler efficiency is then estimated, again based on
reference data and correction factors, to estimate the quantity of fuel consumed by the boiler to deliver the
steam. This predicted fuel consumption is then compared against the generated power to determine the
calculated plant efficiency.
In practice, the efficiency calculated from the plant operating conditions is verified by comparing the predicted
residual fuel stock (after accounting for deliveries) to the measured residual stock values. A discrepancy
indicates an error in delivery, stockpile or consumption measurement and is then monitored and investigated
to provide an account balance.
OECD/IEA 2010
The benefits of this system are that any efficiency shortfalls can be identified and investigated and the
comprehensive data generated in the process can be used for consumption forecasting and investment appraisal
purposes. Discrepancies are typically allocated to inaccuracies in operating data. However, errors can also occur
in stock and delivery measurements which are detected by fuel consumption calculations using operating data.
106
Such accounts traditionally incorporated checks on a weekly, monthly and annual basis. It is more common
now to concentrate on the monthly account. The weekly account is rather too short term to deliver consistent
results, and the annual account is of more interest in business planning. The accounts also include figures for oil
used for lightup and support firing, and electric power consumed in the generation process. Monthly reports
for each operating unit and the station overall are usually collated centrally within the company for analysis.
A further check on the fuel consumption of the plant can be made using belt weighers to measure the
quantity of fuel passing to the boiler. Unfortunately, these weighers only measure the mass of fuel and not
fuel quality, so a key part of the heat accounting equation is missing. Most UK plants fire a range of fuel
qualities with variable heat content and reliance on bunker belt weighers for calculation is not considered
good practice. What this does provide however is a means of monitoring trends and a second check on plant
calculations. Where fuel quality does not change significantly from hour to hour, day to day or week to week,
belt weighers may well be adequate for determining plant efficiency.
Short-term efficiency calculations are generally made by the plant monitoring systems in a similar manner to
the heat accounting process described above. However, a large number of assumptions must be made before
attempting these calculations. These assumptions introduce errors into the calculations. Even if it is assumed
that these online calculations are accurate, the efficiency of the plant would still be seen to vary considerably
during any monitoring period because of the normal short-term variations seen when operating any plant
under apparently stable conditions.
Experience has indicated that coal-fired power plant efficiency cannot be measured accurately on a continuous
basis by either fuel flow measurement or by real-time calculation. It is best established over either a short
period (several hours) at steady state using extensive and costly test procedures, or over a long period (monthly
or annually) based on averaged fuel supply data. The short-period tests are therefore used for very occasional
verification checks or for contract-related guarantees, while the longer-period checks are used for normal
business accounting purposes and due diligence.
Measurement and reporting of emissions
For compliance purposes, emissions from coal-fired power stations are currently regulated on the basis of
annual tonnages for gaseous species such as NOx, SO2 and CO2. Dust emissions reporting is based on
monthly, daily and hourly average concentrations, reported in mg/m3 at 6% O2, dry (0C, 101.325kPa).
The reporting of SO2 and CO2 mass emissions has, until recently, been based on the sulphur and carbon
contents of the fuel and on fuel consumption. NOx emissions reporting has been based on representative
emission factors for each boiler unit. Dust emissions reporting has been based on direct measurement using
optical techniques that are calibrated against manual gravimetric sampling performed by an accredited test
organisation to CEN or ISO standards. The stack gas flow rate, required to calculate the mass release of dust,
is derived from an average stack flow value for each fuel (in m3/tonne) and this has been demonstrated to be
sufficiently accurate for long-term averaging purposes.
OECD/IEA 2010
From 1January 2008, the EU Large Combustion Plants Directive (LCPD) requires the reporting of emission
concentrations for SO2, NOx and dust to be based on continuous emissions monitoring systems (CEMs),
excluding startup and shutdown periods. The CEMs are subject to a rigorous quality assurance regime. For
existing coal-fired plant optedin to the LCPD, every monthly concentration average must be below the
target emission limit values (400mg/m3 for SO2, 500mg/m3 for NOx and 50mg/m3 for dust). These plants
must also demonstrate that 97% (or 95% for NOx) of all the 48-hour average concentrations measured
across a calendar year, are below 110% of the emission limit value. To allow for measurement uncertainty,
the LCPD specifies that the values of the 95% confidence interval of any single measurement shall not exceed
20% of the emission limit value, or 30% in the case of dust. In the UnitedKingdom, this is implemented as
a percentage adjustment to the hourly average measured concentration.
107
For those existing coal-fired plants optedout of the LCPD, so with a limited remaining lifetime of
20 000 operating hours, compliance will be based on annual average concentrations of SO2 and NOx
(expressed in t/GWh) and annual tonnage limits, to ensure that the same level of environmental protection
is achieved overall. However, dust compliance will continue to be based on monthly and short-term
concentration averages. Stack gas flow rate (short-term averages) will be calculated from the power stations
electrical output and overall thermal efficiency for both optedin and optedout plants.
From 2005 onwards, the annual mass emissions of CO2 from each combustion plant have been reported
under the EU Emissions Trading Scheme (EU ETS). This is based on a fuel-burn approach, which is
considered to be more accurate than the combined measurement of stack gas CO2 concentration and stack
gas flow rate. Fuel consumption (tonnes) is based on fiscal metering (weighbridges, etc.), combined with fuel
stock changes. The carbon content of the fuel is derived from ultimate or proximate fuel analysis (based on
representative fuel sampling), giving a CO2 emission factor (tCO2/tfuel) and hence the mass release of CO2.
The EU ETS requires that releases are reported during all operation, including startups and shutdowns.
Since only released CO2 is regulated, a correction for fuel carbon retained in the boiler ash is permissible by
applying an oxidation factor. The oxidation factor takes into account the ash arisings and their measured
unburned carbon content. The heat content and quantity of biomass are reported although the emission
factor for biomass fuels is zero, reflecting their more favourable environmental impact.
The annual EU ETS return is for the whole site, so is not unit specific. For most plants this is in accordance
with the definition of a plant under the Large Combustion Plants Directive.
Power companies must supply statistics to the Environment Agency (a nondepartmental public body
accountable to Parliament through the Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs) for
emissions of pollutants from their sites in the form of a pollution inventory (PI). This inventory lists all
releases and is publicly available for each site.49 Unlike the ETS figures, which are corrected for carbon
neutral fuels like biomass, the PI returns show total CO2 emissions.
Sources of efficiency and emissions data
Statistics related to output and consumption are used onsite and within the power companys own businesses,
but are also submitted as summaries to the UK Department of Energy and Climate Change (DECC), which
compiles and publishes national statistics for fuel and energy.
The published statistics include all significant fuel movements and stocks, power generation and the implied
efficiency of the different power generation plant types, together with their capacity and utilisation. Efficiency
is calculated on a gross calorific value basis, using assumed average calorific values for different fuel types based
on statistical data together with the reported consumption of fuel. The main benefit of these data is that they
represent overall as-run generation efficiencies for the sector at national level to a degree of accuracy which would
be difficult to achieve from independent estimates and assumptions made for individual units and power stations.
Commercial confidentiality precludes output and efficiency data being made publicly available for individual
power plants or even individual power companies. Data provided to DECC by energy companies are
submitted on a company basis and are then merged together into business sectors before publication. This is
sufficient to determine the overall national average load factor and efficiency of coal-fired stations.
Power plant emissions data are generally made available publicly by individual companies as part of corporate
social responsibility and environmental impact initiatives. Similar information is also included in annual
pollution inventory returns to the Environment Agency and in returns to the EU Emissions Trading
Scheme. CO2 emissions data must be submitted by the end of the March in the year following the reporting
OECD/IEA 2010
49 www.environment-agency.gov.uk/homeandleisure/default.aspx
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period. The EU ETS returns are also used to compile the UK greenhouse-gas inventory in the annual
report for submission under the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change prepared by the National
Environmental Technology Centre (NETCEN).
United States
US firms operating coal-fired plants may be either public utilities or private companies. Private companies
tend to use ASME performance test codes for initial plant performance assessment purposes, followed by the
use of their own internal data processing and reporting methodologies to track fleet and unit performance
on an ongoing basis. Design heat rate or efficiency is sometimes available, but actual heat rate is not typically
shared for competitive reasons.
Regulated public utilities are required by the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) to report a standard
set of information. The manner used to calculate these data is not prescribed in detail. Firms do not have to run a
performance test to develop the information and it is not currently used for regulation. While ASME performance
test codes are used by public utilities, they are not used for routine purposes owing to their cost and complexity.
In the UnitedStates there are two jurisdictions that have an interest in the efficiency of and emissions from
coal-fired power plants: the federal government and the state government. Each of the fifty individual state
governments has its own requirements but, as a group, they are very similar and generally have reporting
requirements that mimic the federal requirements or use the federal data directly.
Efficiency measurement methodology
A generating units efficiency is generally reported as a heat rate (HR). This describes the amount of energy,
expressed in British thermal units (Btu), necessary to provide one kilowatt-hour of electricity to the grid.
It is inversely related to efficiency by a constant (HR = 3412Btu/kWh / % efficiency). The heat rate is
an average operating value over a period of time, usually a month or a year; startup fuel, part-load and
offdesign operation, physical condition of the equipment, ambient conditions and fuel quality all have an
influence. Heat input is always based on the fuels higher heating value (HHV) for coal-fired generating units
and electricity output is on a net basis.
There are two methods commonly used for heat rate reporting for thermal power stations. The most common
is the direct method, known as input/output (I/O). The heat input to the generating unit, being the product
of coal tonnage and heating value, is measured directly as is the electricity output to the grid. The coal
tonnage can be measured by gravimetric feeders or conveyor belt scales.
The indirect method, known as output/loss (O/L), is a calculation of heat rate based on ASME steam
generator efficiency test methodology (ASME, 1991). Steam generator losses are determined and the heat
transferred to the turbine cycle is measured to calculate steam generator efficiency. The total heat input to
the unit is the turbine heat input divided by the steam generator efficiency. The electricity output to the grid
is measured directly.
OECD/IEA 2010
Coal-fired plants receive deliveries of coal by train, barge, conveyor and truck. The deliveries are often
weighed and sampled for heat content and other qualities not directly related to the heat rate calculation.
The measurements can be done on site by the station operator or at the point of origin by the vendor. Truck,
rail and conveyor belt scales are used as well as barge draft measurement, which uses the displacement of the
barge to determine the mass of coal on board. Scales are usually maintained to standards published by the
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) and sometimes certified to those standards by the
states. Maintenance and calibration of these scales are usually defined in the contractual agreement between
the supplier and operator, but must meet state requirements as a minimum.
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On the consumed side, coal is either weighed by a conveyor belt scale, a gravimetric feeder or estimated by
indirect means. The belt scale measurement is not suitable for short-term calculations because it delivers coal
to a bunker rather than directly to the steam generator. Since coal is treated as consumed when it passes
over the scale, accuracy is dependant on an estimate of the change in the amount of coal held in the bunker.
The relative impact of this error is reduced as the measurement interval increases. Using gravimetric feeders
eliminates this issue, so operators can estimate real-time heat rate as well as the operating heat rate over an
interval. The measurement error depends on the number of feeders and their calibration characteristics, and
could be better or worse than a belt scale. Plant operators often use the O/L method as a check of the I/O
method and for real-time heat rate, even if they are not using it for reporting purposes.
In order to manage imbalances in received and consumed coal, and to provide an operating reserve, an onsite
coal storage pile is maintained. Each power station maintains a fuel account based on deliveries, consumption
and change of coal pile inventory. This can be either mass or heat content (Btu) based. Annual inventories
are performed on the coal pile to reconcile the received and consumed quantities with the quantity stocked.
Usually this results in an adjustment to the consumed quantity, based on the assumption that the plant
received what it paid for and that the coal inventory is correct. Plants with known scale issues or large
adjustments may repeat the inventory one or more times during the year.
Clean Air Act Amendments: Title IV regulations and compliance
The Title IV Acid Rain Program rules were developed in response to the Clean Air Act Amendments
(CAAA) of 1990. Subsequent to the CAAA, state environmental agencies were required to promulgate rules
implementing the federal acid rain rules.
PhaseI of the acid rain reduction programme went into effect in 1995 and PhaseII of the programme went
into effect in 2000. PhaseI affected 263 units at 110 mostly coal-burning electric utility plants located in
21Eastern and Midwestern states. An additional 182 units joined PhaseI of the programme as substitution or
compensating units, bringing the total PhaseI affected units to 445. PhaseII tightened the annual emissions
limits imposed on these large, higher emitting plants and also set restrictions on smaller, cleaner plants fired
by coal, oil and natural gas, encompassing over 2000 units in all. The programme affects existing utility units
serving generators with an output capacity of greater than 25MW and all new utility units.
Emissions of SO2, NOx and CO2 must be monitored and reported quarterly, and are publicly available.
Sources of efficiency and emissions data
Statistics related to heat rate are used by the operator to monitor generating unit performance. They are
submitted to state and federal jurisdictions on a unit basis, but public availability is restricted or the data
aggregated for reasons of commercial confidentiality.
The Energy Information Administration (EIA) of the Department of Energy (DOE) is required to publish,
and otherwise make available to the public, high-quality statistical data that reflect national electric supply
and demand activity as accurately as possible. Data are collected on a unit basis. The EIA collects heat-rate
data with the following forms and maintains a database as well as issuing its own reports such as Electric Power
Monthly and Electric Power Annual.50
The EIA860 Annual Electric Generator Report collects annual data on existing power plants of electric power
producers and their fiveyear plans for constructing new units and modifying and retiring units. Tested,
full-load heat rate is collected, rather than operational heat rate. These data will be protected and will not be
disclosed to the public.
OECD/IEA 2010
50 www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/electricity/forms/datamatrix.html
110
The EIA906 Power Plant Report collects data from electric generators on net generation; energy source
consumption; end-of-month stocks of coal and petroleum; and useful thermal output from cogenerators
for each plant by prime mover and energy source combination. Heat rate is not collected directly but can be
calculated from net generation, fuel consumed and heat content, which are collected. This information is not
considered confidential and may be publicly released in identifiable form.
Completion of the following form is a requirement for those subject to the jurisdiction of the Federal Energy
Regulatory Commission (FERC).
The FERC1 Annual Report of Major Electric Utilities, Licensees, and Others collects financial and operational
data from regulated electric utilities. This form contains a specific heat-rate data point but it is plant rather
than unit based. It is also considered to be a nonconfidential public use form.
The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) tracks CO2 emissions (and gross power output) from US
power plants via quarterly data inputs from the plants and makes this data public.51
At the state level, each state has its own reports but the data are often taken from the EIA directly or closely
duplicates it. The heat-rate data are almost always treated as confidential. Cases before the state public utility
commissions are also a potential source of heat-rate data given their public nature. However, it is often
requested that these data be withheld from the public for reasons of commercial confidentially.
OECD/IEA 2010
51 http://camddataandmaps.epa.gov/gdm/index.cfm?fuseaction=emissions.wizard
111
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How much of world energy consumption and electricity generation is from renewable energy?
How old are U.S. power plants?
What is U.S. electricity generation by energy source?
What is a capacity factor?
What is the difference between electricity generation capacity and electricity generation?
What is the efficiency of different types of power plants?
What is the outlook for home heating fuel prices this winter?
What types and amounts of energy are produced in each state?
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Assumptions:
Power plant heat rate
Coal = 10,444 Btu/kWh
Natural Gas = 8,152 Btu/kWh
Petroleum = 10,829 Btu/kWh
Fuel heat contents
Coal = 19,530,000 Btu per Short Ton (2,000 lbs) Note: heat contents of coal vary widely by types of coal
Natural Gas = 1,021,000 Btu per 1,000 Cubic Feet (Mcf)
Petroleum Fuel Oil = 5,871,390 Btu per Barrel (42 gallons) Note: Heat contents vary by type of petroleum product
Last updated: February 15, 2013
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Table 8.4. Average Power Plant Operating Expenses for Major U.S.
Investor-Owned Electric Utilities, 2001 through 2011 (Mills per Kilowatthour)
Operation
Maintenance
Hydroelectric
Gas Turbine
and Small
Scale
Nuclear
Fossil
Steam
Hydroelectric
Gas Turbine
and Small
Scale
Year
Nuclear
Fossil
Steam
2001
8.44
2.47
4.27
3.65
5.02
2.61
2.89
3.33
2002
9.00
2.59
3.71
3.26
5.04
2.67
2.62
2.38
2003
9.12
2.74
3.47
3.50
5.23
2.72
2.32
2.26
2004
8.97
3.13
3.83
4.27
5.38
2.96
2.76
2.14
2005
8.26
3.21
3.95
3.69
5.27
2.98
2.73
1.89
2006
9.03
3.57
3.76
3.51
5.69
3.19
2.70
2.16
2007
9.54
3.63
5.44
3.26
5.79
3.37
3.87
2.42
2008
9.89
3.72
5.78
3.77
6.20
3.59
3.89
2.72
2009
10.00
4.23
4.88
3.05
6.34
3.96
3.50
2.58
2010
10.50
4.04
5.33
2.79
6.80
3.99
3.81
2.73
2011
10.89
4.02
5.13
2.81
6.80
3.99
3.74
2.93
Hydroelectric
Gas Turbine
and Small
Scale
Fuel
Total
Hydroelectric
Gas Turbine
and Small
Scale
Nuclear
Fossil
Steam
Year
Nuclear
Fossil
Steam
2001
4.67
18.15
--
43.55
18.13
23.23
7.16
50.53
2002
4.60
16.09
--
31.84
18.65
21.36
6.33
37.47
2003
4.60
17.29
--
43.89
18.95
22.75
5.79
49.66
2004
4.58
18.21
--
45.18
18.93
24.31
6.60
51.59
2005
4.63
21.69
--
55.52
18.15
27.88
6.68
61.10
2006
4.85
23.09
--
53.89
19.57
29.85
6.46
59.56
2007
4.99
23.88
--
58.75
20.32
30.88
9.32
64.43
2008
5.29
28.43
--
64.23
21.37
35.75
9.67
70.72
2009
5.35
32.30
--
51.93
21.69
40.48
8.38
57.55
2010
6.68
27.73
--
43.21
23.98
35.76
9.15
48.74
2011
7.01
27.08
--
38.80
24.70
35.09
8.88
44.54
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1
1
*1
1
= 947,950 Btu
GJ
= 278 kWh
GJ
= 27 m3
GJ
= BTU x 1.054 x
GJ
0.000001
1 Btu = 1.05 kJ
100,000 Btu = 29 kWh
1 kWh = 3412 Btu
1 hp = 746 W
1 hp = 2545 Btu/h
1 W = 3.4 Btu/h
*1 ft3 = 1,000 Btu
*1 Mcf = 1 MMBtu
*1 Mcf = 1.05 GJ
*1 m3 natural
= 35,375 Btu
gas
Abbreviations
hp - horsepower
J - joule
kJ - kilojoule (thousand
joules)
kW - kilowatt
kWh - kilowatt hour
m3 - cubic metre
Mcf - thousand cubic feet
MMBtu - million british thermal
units
W - watt
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Conversion Table I
Conversion Table II