MEAM 535

University of Pennsylvania
1
Principle of Virtual Work
Aristotle
Galileo (1594)
Bernoulli (1717)
Lagrange (1788)
MEAM 535
University of Pennsylvania
2
Virtual Work
Key Ideas
Virtual displacement
Small
Consistent with constraints
Occurring without passage of time
Applied forces (and moments)
Ignore constraint forces
Static equilibrium
Zero acceleration, or
Zero mass
O
r
Pi
F
i
(a)
e
2
e
1
e
3
| |

=
=
N
i
P a
i
i
W
1
) (
r F
n generalized coordinates, q
j

=
=

(
(

=

n
j
j
N
i
j
P
a
i
q
q
W
i
1
1
) (
r
F
MEAM 535
University of Pennsylvania
3
Example
B
P
r
l

m
F
G=/2r
Q
x
Applied forces
F acting at P
G acting at Q
Constraint forces
?
Single degree of freedom
Generalized coordinate,
Motion of particles P and Q can be described
by the generalized coordinate
MEAM 535
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4
Static Equilibrium Implies Zero Virtual Work is Done
Forces
Forces that do work
Applied Forces
External Forces
Forces that do no work
Constraint forces
F
i
(a)
R
i
| | 0
) (
= +
i
a
i
R F
Implies sum of all forces on each particle equals zero
| | 0
1
) (
= +

=
N
i
i
a
i
R F | | 0 .
1
) (
= +

=
i
N
i
i
a
i
r R F
Static Equilibrium
MEAM 535
University of Pennsylvania
5
The Key Idea
Constraint forces do zero virtual work!
| | 0 .
1
) (
= +

=
i
N
i
i
a
i
r R F
0
Why?
MEAM 535
University of Pennsylvania
6
Constraints: Two Particles Connected by Rigid Massless Rod
(x
1
, y
1
)
(x
2
, y
2
)
e
F
1 R
1
F
2
F
1
R
2
F
2
(x
1
x
2
)
2
+(y
1
y
2
)
2
= r
2
R
1
= -R
2
= e
( )( ) ( )( ) 0
2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1
= + y y y y x x x x
( ) ( ) | | ( ) ( ) | | 0
2
2
2 1 2 1
1
1
2 1 2 1
=
(

y
x
y y x x
y
x
y y x x
( ) 0
2 1
= r r e
( )
0
.
. . . .
2 1
2 1 2 2 1 1
=
=
= +
r r e
r e r e r R r R
MEAM 535
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7
Rigid Body: A System of Particles
A rigid body is a system of infinite particles.
The distance between any pair of particles stays constant
through its motion.
Each pair of particles can be considered as connected by a
massless, rigid rod.
The internal forces associated with this distance constraint are
constraint forces.
The internal forces do no virtual work!
MEAM 535
University of Pennsylvania
8
Contact Constraints and Normal Contact Forces
Rigid body A rolls and slides on rigid body
B
A
B
P
1
P
2
n
contact
normal
A
v
P
2
.n =
B
v
P
1
.n
O
r
1
r
1
Contact Kinematics
C
v
P
2
.n =
C
v
P
1
.n
r
2
.n = r
1
.n
Contact Forces
N
1
= -N
2
= n
N
2
N
1
T
1
T
2
( )
0
.
. . . .
2 1
2 1 2 2 1 1
=
=
= +
r r n
r n r n r N r N


C
MEAM 535
University of Pennsylvania
9
Normal and Tangential Contact Forces
1. Normal contact forces
Normal contact forces are constraint forces
Equivalently, normal forces do no virtual work
2. Tangential contact forces
If A rolls on B (equivalently B rolls on A)
then, tangential contact forces are constraint forces
In general (sliding with friction), tangential forces will contribute to virtual
work
A
v
P
2
=
B
v
P
1
A
v
P
2
=
B
v
P
1
( )
0
.
. . . .
2 1
2 1 2 2 1 1

=
= +
r r t
r t r t r T r T
N
2
N
1
T
1
T
2
t
MEAM 535
University of Pennsylvania
10
Statement
A system of N particles (P
1
, P
2
,, P
N
) is in static equilibrium if
and only if the virtual work done by all the applied (active) forces
though any (arbitrary) virtual displacement is zero.
A holonomic system of N particles is in static equilibrium if and
only if all the generalized (active) forces are zero.
Only applied or active forces contribute to the generalized force
The jth generalized force is given by
0
1
1
) (
=

=
=

(
(

=

n
j
j
N
i
j
P
a
i
q
q
W
i
r
F

=
=
(
(

=
(
(

=
N
i
j
P
a
i
N
i
j
P
a
i j
q
q
Q
i
i
1
) (
1
) (
&
& r
F
r
F
Why?
MEAM 535
University of Pennsylvania
11
Velocity Partials
In any frame A
Define the jth velocity partial
The jth generalized force is
( )
dt
dq
q dt
dq
q dt
dq
q t
dt
d
t q q q
n
n
P P P P
P
P A
n
P P
i i i i
i
i
i i

+ +

=
=
=
r r r r
r
v
r r
K
K
2
2
1
1
2 1
, , , ,
n
P
n
P P
P
P A
q q q
t
i i i
i
i
& K & & v v v
r
v + + + +

=
2
2
1
1
j
P
j
P
P
j
q q
i i
i
&
&

=
r r
v
n speeds
| |

=
=
N
i
P
j
a
i j
i
Q
1
) (
v F
a
1
a
3
a
2
O
A
P
i
r
Pi
dt
d
i
i
P
A
P A
r
v =
MEAM 535
University of Pennsylvania
12
Example Illustrating Partial Velocities
Three Degree-of-Freedom Robot Arm
REFERENCE
POINT
l
1
l
2
l
3

(x,y)
x
y
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
3 2 1
3 2 1 3 2 1 2 1 1
3 2 1 3 2 1 2 1 1
sin sin sin
cos cos cos
+ + =
+ + + + + =
+ + + + + =
l l l y
l l l x
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
3 2 1
123 3 2 1 3 12 2 1 2 1 1 1
123 3 2 1 3 12 2 1 2 1 1 1
+ + =
+ + + + + =
+ + + =
& & & &
& & & & & &
&
& & & & & &
&
c l c l c l y
s l s l s l x
3 3
2 2
1 1
=
=
=
&
&
&
u
u
u
differentiating
MEAM 535
University of Pennsylvania
13
Example (continued)
Equations relating the joint velocities and the end effector velocities
The three partial velocities of the point P (omitting leading superscript A) are
columns of the Jacobian matrix
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
123 3 2 1 3 12 2 1 2 1 1 1
123 3 2 1 3 12 2 1 2 1 1 1
c l c l c l y
s l s l s l x
+ + + + + =
+ + + =
& & & & & &
&
& & & & & &
&
REFERENCE
POINT
l
1
l
2
l
3

(x,y)
x
y
P
1
v
P
2
v
P
3
v
P
in matrix form
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
(
(
(

+ + +
+ + +
=
(

3
2
1
123 3 123 3 12 2 123 3 12 2 1 1
123 3 123 3 12 2 123 3 12 2 1 1
u
u
u
c l c l c l c l c l c l
s l s l s l s l s l s l
y
x
&
&
P
1
v
P
2
v
P
3
v
MEAM 535
University of Pennsylvania
14
Example 1
Generalized speed:
u=d/dt
Velocities

Generalized Active Forces

F = -Fa
1

No friction, gravity
B
P
( )
1 1
cos
sin
a v

+
=
R
P A
= =
= + =
& & & &
& cos cos ; sin sin
sin sin ; cos cos
l r l r x
l r l r x

=
& &
cos
cos
l
r
r
l

m
F
G=2/r
Q
( )
2 1 1
cos sin
2
a a v + =
r
Q A
( )
2 1
cos sin
2
a a G +

=
r
Q P
Q
1 1 1
v G v F + =
( )

+
+ =
cos
sin
1
FR
Q
x
MEAM 535
University of Pennsylvania
15
Example 2
C
h

2l
O
P
Q
C
P
Q
Assumptions
No friction at the wall
Gravity (center of mass is at
midpoint, C)
Massless string, OP
homogeneous rod,
length 3l
l
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16
Equivalent System of Forces
F
i
i
F
j
O
r
j
r
i
A system of forces acting on a
rigid body can be replaced by
A resultant force F
A moment about a
convenient reference
point O

=
=
r
i
i
1
F F

=
=
r
i
i i O
1
F r M
C'
O
C
F
O
M
A couple is a set of forces whose resultant force is zero, but the resultant
moment is non zero.
MEAM 535
University of Pennsylvania
17
Resultant Moment Depends on Reference Point
Resultant force is independent of origin
(reference point)
Resultant moment is dependent on the
origin
F
O
M
F
O

=
+ =
r
i
PO
O P
1
F r M M
O
M
P
P
MEAM 535
University of Pennsylvania
18
Generalized Forces for Rigid Bodies
Generalized force Velocity partials
But,
Velocity partials can be rewritten
n
P
n
P P
P
P A
q q q
t
i i i
i
i
& K & & v v v
r
v + + + +

=
2
2
1
1
| |

=
=
N
i
P
j
a
i j
i
Q
1
) (
v F
i
B A P A P A
i
+ = v v
P
i
F
j
P
j
r
i
r
j
P

j
| |
( )
| |
j
n
j
j
i
B A P A
OP
B A OP
j
n
j
j
P A P
P A
q
q
t t
q
q t
i i
i
&
&
&
&

+
+

=
=
=
1
1
v
r
r
v r
v
F
i
O
MEAM 535
University of Pennsylvania
19
Generalized Forces for Rigid Bodies
Generalized force Velocity partials
Angular velocity partial
Generalized force can be rewritten
( )
i
B
j
A P
j
A
j
i
B A
j
P A
P
j
A
q q
i
+ =


+

=
v
v
v
& &
| | ( ) | |

=
= =
N
i
i
B
j
A
i
N
i
P
j i j
Q
1 1
F v F
( ) | |

=
N
i
B
j
A
i i
1
F
B
j
A
P
P
j j
Q + = M v F
( )
j
B A
B
j
A
q&

=
| |

=
=
N
i
P
j
a
i j
i
Q
1
) (
v F
P
i
F
j
P
j
r
i
r
j
P

j
F
i
O
MEAM 535
University of Pennsylvania
20
Example
Generalized speed:
u=d/dt
Velocities

Generalized Active Forces

-Fa
1
a
3
r
l

F
B
P
( )
1 1
3 1
cos
sin
a v
a

+
=
=
R
P A
B A
( )

+
+ =
cos
sin
1
FR
Q
= =
= + =
& & & &
& cos cos ; sin sin
sin sin ; cos cos
l r l r x
l r l r x

=
& &
cos
cos
l
r
x
MEAM 535
University of Pennsylvania
21
Example
Generalized coordinates
(
1
,
2
)
Generalized speeds
(u
1
, u
2
)
Velocity Partials
Generalized forces
l
1
l
2

1
P
M
z
(F
x
, F
y
)
C
2
C
1
y
x
P
j
A C
j
A C
j
A B
j
A B
j
A
v v v , , , ,
2 1 2 1

dt
d
u
j
j

=
( )
( )
2 2
1 2 1
3 2 1 2 2
2 1 3 2 3 2 3 1
B
j
A
z
P
j
A
y x
C
j
A
C
j
A B
j
A B
j
A
j
M F F g m
g m Q
+ + +
+ =
a v a a v a
v a a a a
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22
Example (continued)
l
1
l
2

1
P
M
z
(F
x
, F
y
)
C
2
C
1
y
x
Generalized forces
Velocities
Generalized Forces
( )
( )
2 2
1 2 1
3 2 1 2 2
2 1 3 2 3 2 3 1
B
j
A
z
P
j
A
y x
C
j
A
C
j
A B
j
A B
j
A
j
M F F g m
g m Q
+ + +
+ =
a v a a v a
v a a a a
( ) , ,
3 2 1 3 1
2 1
a a u u u
B A B A
+ = =
( )
( ) ( )( )
( ) ( )( )
2 1 2 12 1 12 2 1 2 1 1 1 1
2 1 2 12 1 12 2
2
1
1 2 1 1 1 1
1 2 1 1 1 1
2
1
2
1
u u c s l u c s l
u u c s l u c s l
u c s l
P A
C A
C A
+ + + + =
+ + + + =
+ =
a a a a v
a a a a v
a a v
( ) ( )
( )
z
y x
M c l c l g m c gl m
c l c l F s l s l F Q
+ +
+ + + =
12 2
2
1
1 1 2 1 1 1
2
1
12 2 1 1 12 2 1 1 1 1
( ) ( ) ( )
z y x
M c l g m c l F s l F Q + + =
12 2
2
1
2 12 2 12 2 2 2
MEAM 535
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23
Conservative Holonomic Systems
All applied forces are conservative
Or
There exists a scalar potential function
such that all applied forces are given by:
The virtual work done by the applied
forces is:
( ) t q q q
n
a
i
, , ,
2 1
) (
K = F

=
=

(
(

=

n
j
j
N
i
j
P
a
i
q
q
W
i
1
1
) (
r
F
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

j
i
j
i
j
i
i i i j
P
a
i
q
z
q
y
q
x
z y x q
i
r
F
) (
j
j
q
Q

= =

=
n
j
j
j
q
q
W
1
MEAM 535
University of Pennsylvania
24
Statement
A conservative, holonomic system of N particles (P
1
, P
2
,, P
N
) is
in static equilibrium if and only if the change in potential energy
though any (arbitrary) virtual displacement is zero.
0 =