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A.N. Agadzhanov
27 October 2001
2001
c A.N. Agadzhanov
E-mail: ashot@stochastica.org
URL: http://www.stochastica.org
Contents
Introduction 4
Chapter 1. Assertions 5
Waring’s problem 9
Goldbach’s problem 10
Primes and Bernoulli numbers 11
Pseudoprime numbers 11
Fermat numbers 12
Twin primes 12
Pythagorean triples 12
Chapter 2. Miscellanea 13
Magic squares of prime numbers 13
Largest known primes 13
Bibliography 15
3
INTRODUCTION 4
Introduction
Assertions
Assertion 1. Each natural number n > 1 has at least one prime divisor.
Assertion 14. At least one of any three sequential natural numbers greater
than 7 has at least two different prime divisors.
Assertion 15. At least one of any 24 sequential natural numbers greater than
6 has at least three different prime divisors.
Assertion 16. For each natural number k there exist natural numbers n such
that a number 2n − 1(Mersenne number) has no less than k different divisors.
Assertion 17. Each natural number k > 11 is the sum of two or more different
primes.
Assertion 18. Each natural number k > 55 is the sum of different primes of
the form 4k + 3. Similar results take place for numbers of the form 4k + 1, 6k + 1,
and 6k + 5.
Assertion 19. (A. Rényi) There exists a constant c such that each sufficiently
large even natural number 2n is representable as 2n = p + k, where p is a prime,
and k is a product of no more than c prime multipliers. There are infinitely many
primes p such that p + 2 is a product of no more than three prime multipliers.
Assertion 20. There exists an infinitely ascending sequence of pairwise rela-
tively prime triangular numbers, i.e., numbers of the form: tn = n(n+1)
2 , (n = 1, 2, ...).
Assertion 21. There exists an infinitely ascending sequence of pairwise rela-
tively prime tetrahedral numbers, i.e., numbers of the form: tn = 16 n (n + 1) (n + 2),
(n = 1, 2, ...).
Assertion 22. (H.A. Heilbronn) There exists at least one prime between two
250
sequential members of the sequence 1250 , 2250 , 3250 , ..., k 250 , (k + 1) starting with
some number k = k0 .
N.G. Chudakov was successful in replacing the later sequence by closer one:
4
14 , 24 , 34 , ..., n4 , (n + 1) that has similar property. The English mathematician
A.E. Igham found a more precise result. He replaced fourth power by third power.
Assertion 23. There are infinitely many primes, which are not differences of
two cubes of natural numbers. In particular, there are infinitely many primes of the
form 6k + 1, which are not differences of two cubes of natural numbers.
Assertion 24. (Dirichlet Theorem) In each arithmetical progression ak + b,
(k = 0, 1, 2, ...), where a and b are natural relatively prime numbers, there are in-
finitely many primes.
Assertion 25. In each arithmetical progression ak + b, (k = 0, 1, 2, ...), where
a and b are natural numbers, there are infinitely many members, which are pairwise
relatively primes.
Assertion 26. There exist arithmetical progressions of arbitrary length, formed
from pairwise relatively prime natural numbers.
Assertion 27. If a and b are natural relatively prime numbers, then for each
natural number m there are infinitely many relatively prime to m members of an
arithmetical progression ak + b, (k = 0, 1, 2, ...).
1. ASSERTIONS 7
n such that p2n < pn−1 ·pn+1 . It is proven also that pn+1 < pn−1 +pn (n = 3, 4, 5, ...).
Ishikawa stated that if k ≥ 1, n ≥ 1, then pk · pn > pk+n . C. Pomerance proved
that there are infinitely many numbers k such that p2k > pk−i · pk+i for each i < k.
J.B. Rosser proved that for each k > 1:
k · lg k + k · (lg (lg k) − 1) − 9k < pk < k · lg k + k · (lg (lg k) − 1) + 9k
And also for each k ≥ 1:
pk ≥ k · lg k
Let dk be the distance between primes pk+1 and pk , i.e., dk = pk+1 − pk . Equality
takes place lim dpkk = 0. The sequence dk is not monotone. For a sufficiently large
k→∞
k, depending on a given in advance ε > 0 :
1 1
pk+1 < pk + (pk ) 2 + 21 +ε
dk 1
E. Bombieri and H. Davenport showed that lim inf lg pk ≤ 2, but, on the other
k→∞
hand, the fact takes place: for each ε > 0:
dk log2 pk · log4 pk
lim sup > (eγ − ε) · lg pk · ,
k→∞ lg pk (log3 pk )2
1
+ ... + k1 − lg k ≈ 0, 577... is Euler’s constant; eγ ≈ 1, 78...;
where γ = lim 1 + 2
k→∞
logk pk = lg(lg(lg(...(lg pk )))) (Taking the logarithm k times).
Many mathematicians tried to find such relatively elementary function f (x), which
for each natural x (or at least for an infinite sequence of such x) would give prime
numbers. With the help of such function it is possible to compute as many primes
as one wants, if it is possible to compute f (x) for each x. Euler found relatively
long sequences of primes using quadratic functions. Thus, for example, x2 + x + 17
for x = 0, 1, ..., 15, and x2 − x + 41 for x = 0, 1, ..., 40 give only prime values.
The following polynomials have the same property: 2x2 + 29 for x = 0, 1, ..., 28;
x2 + x + 41 for x = 0, 1, ..., 39, and x2 − 79x + 1601 for x = 0, 1, ..., 79. However,
the following theorem takes place:
Assertion 38. (Goldbach Theorem) Each polynomial with integer coefficients
gives composite values for some natural arguments.
On the other hand, it is valid:
πΓ(x)
sin x
Assertion 39. Integer-valued zeros of the analytic function 1 − π are
sin( x )
primes. (Γ (x) is the Euler’s gamma function.)
Assertion 40. (U.V. Matiyasevich) There exists the polynomial in 21 variables
with integer coefficients, which has the following property: the set of its positive
values at integer arguments coincides with prime number set.
Several functions taking only primes values at natural arguments are known now.
n
Assertion 41. (W.H. Mills) There exists a real number α for which α3 is
always a prime for each natural n.
x
Assertion 42. (I. Niven) For each c > 83 there exists α such that αc is
always a prime for each natural x.
WARING’S PROBLEM 9
Assertion 43. (E.M. Wright) There exists a real number α such that the
numbers [2α ], [2α1 ], [2α2 ], ... are primes, where α1 = 2α , α2 = 2α1 ,...
Assertion 44. (W. Sierpinski) There exists a real number α with the help of
which it is possible to compute n-th prime number:
h n
i n−1
h n−1
i
pn = α · 102 − 102 · α · 102
Since the second half of the XIXth century Number Theory starts to develop in
many respects due to achievements in Function Theory (in particular, in Complex
Function Theory).
6
Assertion 45. (N.L. Chebyshev) For each sufficiently large x and δ > 5 there
always exists a prime lying between x and δ · x.
Assertion 46. For each ε > 0, and for each x > x0 , where x0 is a sufficiently
large number, there exists at least one prime lying between x and (1 + ε) · x.
Now a considerably stronger result is known:
Assertion 47. There exists 0 < θ < 1 such that if x is a sufficiently large
number, then there exists at least one prime between x and x + xθ .
Many mathematicians were engaged in the determination of a possible smaller value
48
θ. For example, N.G. Chudakov and A.E. Ingham found the value 77 + ε for θ, and
38
later even 61 + ε
Waring’s problem
The classical problem of Edward Waring (1734 - 1798) is connected with the
possibility of the representation of natural numbers as the sum of n-th powers. In
1770 Waring stated (without proof) that each natural number is representable as
the sum of 4 squares, no more than 9 cubes, 19 fourth powers, and so on.
Waring’s problem is formulated as follows:
Does for each exponent n ≥ 2 there exist natural number k (n) such that each natural
number N can be represented as:
(1) N = xn1 + xn2 + ... + xnk(n) ,
where x1 , ..., xk(n) take values 0, 1, 2, ...
It is important to note that k (n) does not depend on N . D. Hilbert solved Waring’s
problem for the first time in 1909. However, Hilbert’s estimate for k (n) was suf-
ficiently crude. Afterwards, simpler proofs of Waring’s hypothesis were given, and
the estimate of k (n) were defined essentially more accurately. Note that for each n
one can consider the least value k, for which a natural number N is representable in
the form (1). This least value is usually denoted by g (n). For example, g (2) = 4,
g (3) = 9. In general case
3n
n
g (n) ≥ 2 + n − 2
2
But if the following inequality takes place for a natural number n, different from 4
and 5:
GOLDBACH’S PROBLEM 10
3n
n
3
3n − 2n · ≤ 2n
− ,
2n 2n
then
3n
n
(2) g (n) = 2 + n − 2
2
In 1957 K. Mahler proved that there exists n0 such that (2) is valid for each n ≥ n0 .
The case n = 3 was examined by A. Wieferich in 1909, the case n = 6 - by Indian
mathematician S. Pillai in 1940. Respective results were obtained for n ≥ 7 by
L.E. Dickson and I. Niven. J. Liouville first proved the existence of g (4) in 1859.
In 1986 a group of mathematicians and programmers with the help of computers
found that g (4) = 19. Regarding g (5) it is known that 37 ≤ g (5) ≤ 40 (J.R. Chen).
The results concerning the generalization of Waring’s problem can be found in [6].
It is important for us that the number of summands in (1) increases if n increases.
A corollary of this fact is:
Assertion 48. From the positive solution of Waring’s problem it follows that
there are infinitely many primes. And to each value n there corresponds an infinite
subset of the set of primes.
Goldbach’s problem
In 1742 the Petersburg academician C. Goldbach stated the following hypothe-
sis in the letter to L. Euler : ”Each natural number greater than 2 is the sum of no
more than three primes”. In 1923 the English mathematicians G.H. Hardy (1877-
1947) and J.E. Littlewood (1885-1977) showed the possibility of representation of
sufficiently large odd number as the sum of three primes. However, they proceeded
from the result which has not been proved till now. In 1930 L.G. Shnirelman
(1905-1938) proved the following:
Assertion 49. Each natural number greater than one is the sum of no more
than C primes.
But Shnirelman showed the sufficiently large value for the summand number
C = 800000. Later on, it was decreased to 67 (G. Ricci), and then an inequality
was obtained C ≤ 20 (Shapiro, Varga). In 1937 I.M. Vinogradov proved Gold-
bach’s hypothesis for each sufficiently large odd n such that log (log n) > 60368
(the boundary was decreased later).
Assertion 50. From I.M. Vinogradov’s theorem about representability of suf-
ficiently large odd numbers it follows that there are infinitely many primes.
In 1957 I.M. Vinogradov proved the theorem:
Theorem 1. Any sufficiently large even number can be represented in the form
of two summands, each having no more than three prime multipliers.
Assertion 51. From I.M. Vinogradov’s theorem about representability of suf-
ficiently large even numbers it follows that there are infinitely many primes.
PSEUDOPRIME NUMBERS 11
I.M. Vinogradov not only proved the representability of sufficiently large odd num-
bers N in the form of the sum of three primes, but also gave an asymptotic formula
for number J (N ) of such representations. He proved that:
!
N2 Y
1 Y 1
J (N ) ≈ 1 + 1 − ,
2 log3 N p 3
(p − 1) p|n p2 − 3p + 3
where first product is spread on all primes, and the second is spread on prime
divisors of N .
Bernoulli numbers with odd indices greater than one are equal to zero. Bernoulli
numbers with even indices are connected with sums of even negative powers of
natural numbers by the following remarkable equalities:
k
(−1) · (2k)!
1 + 2−2k + 3−2k + 4−2k + ...
B2k = 2k−1 2k
2 ·π
Definition 1. Let us say a prime l to be regular or Kummerian if numer-
ators (m − 1) of Bernoulli numbers (l = 2m + 1) B2 , B4 , ..., Bl−3 = B2(m−1) are
not divisible by l. Primes, that are not regular, are said to be irregular. Each
prime less than 37 is Kummerian, and 37 is not Kummerian, as the numerator of
B32 = − 7709321041217
510 is divisible by 37.
Assertion 52. (J.L. Jensen) There are infinitely many irregular primes.
Pseudoprime numbers
Definition 2. A composite number n satisfying the comparison 2n ≡ 2 (modn)
.
(i.e., (2n − 2) .. n) is said to be a pseudoprime or Paley number.
Each prime satisfies the comparison. Thus, if 2n 6≡ 2 (modn), then n is a composite
number. It is proven that there are infinitely many pseudoprime numbers.
Assertion 53. (P. Erdös) For each k ≥ 2 there are infinitely many pseudo-
prime numbers, having k different divisors.
Assertion 54. (M. Chipolla) There exist pseudoprime numbers with an arbi-
trary large number of prime divisors.
PYTHAGOREAN TRIPLES 12
Fermat numbers
n
Definition 3. Numbers of the form Fn = 22 + 1 (n = 0, 1, 2, ...) are said to
be Fermat numbers.
From the Polya’s theorem about relative primality of Fermat numbers it follows:
Assertion 55. There are infinitely many prime divisors of Fermat numbers.
Twin primes
Definition 4. If p and p + 2 are primes, then they are said to be twins.
Assertion 56. There are infinitely many pairs of sequential primes, which are
not pairs of twin primes.
Assertion 57. (V. Brun) For each k ≥ 1 there exist k sequential primes,
which are not twins.
The sum of the series:
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
B= + + + + + +...+ + +... = 1, 902160239321
3 5 5 7 11 13 p p+2
is said to be Brun’s constant.
Pythagorean triples
The famous Pythagorean theorem a2 +b2 = c2 , where a, b are legs of a right tri-
angle, and c is its hypotenuse, expresses Diophantine equation of the second order.
Let us recall that a triple of natural numbers a, b, c is said to be Pythagorean if it
satisfies equation a2 + b2 = c2 . If two numbers of such triple have common divisor,
then the third number is divisible by that divisor too. Therefore only primitive
Pythagorean triples, i.e., triples of relatively prime numbers can be examined. It
is known that for each primitive Pythagorean triple a, b, c one can find relatively
prime natural numbers p and q of different evenness (p > q) such that:
x = 2pq, y = p2 − q 2 , z = p2 + q 2 .
Inverse proposition is also valid: with the same restrictions on p and q numbers
a, b, c, obtained by the above cited formulas, form a primitive Pythagorean triple.
Assertion 58. There are infinitely many Pythagorean triples.
CHAPTER 2
Miscellanea
67 1 43
13 37 61
31 73 7
71 167 29
47 89 131
149 11 107
Factorial primes:
6917! − 1 (23560 digits, found in 1998 by Caldwell and Gallot).
15