Management historical development

Historical development[edit]
Some see management (by defnition) as late-modern (in the sense of late
modernity) conceptualization !n those terms it cannot have a pre-modern history"
only harbingers (such as ste#ards) !thers" ho#ever" detect management-li$e-
thought bac$ to Sumerian traders and to the builders of the pyramids of ancient
%gypt Slave-o#ners through the centuries faced the problems of
e&ploiting'motivating a dependent but sometimes unenthusiastic or recalcitrant
#or$force" but many pre-industrial enterprises" given their small scale" did not feel
compelled to face the issues of management systematically Ho#ever" innovations
such as the spread of Hindu-(rabic numerals ()th to *)th centuries) and the
codifcation of double-entry boo$-$eeping (*+,+) provided tools for management
assessment" planning and control
-ith the changing #or$places of industrial revolutions in the *.th and *,th
centuries" military theory and practice contributed approaches to managing the
ne#ly-popular factories[/]
0iven the scale of most commercial operations and the lac$ of mechanized record-
$eeping and recording before the industrial revolution" it made sense for most
o#ners of enterprises in those times to carry out management functions by and for
themselves 1ut #ith gro#ing size and comple&ity of organizations" the split
bet#een o#ners (individuals" industrial dynasties or groups of shareholders) and
day-to-day managers (independent specialists in planning and control) gradually
became more common
%arly #riting[edit]
-hile management (according to some defnitions) has e&isted for millennia"
several #riters have created a bac$ground of #or$s that assisted in modern
management theories[2]
Some ancient military te&ts have been cited for lessons that civilian managers can
gather 3or e&ample" 4hinese general Sun 5zu in the /th century 14" 5he (rt of -ar"
recommends being a#are of and acting on strengths and #ea$nesses of both a
manager6s organization and a foe6s[2]
7arious ancient and medieval civilizations have produced 8mirrors for princes8
boo$s" #hich aim to advise ne# monarchs on ho# to govern %&amples include the
9ndian (rthashastra by 4hana$ya (#ritten around :;;14)" and 5he <rince by 9talian
author =iccol> Machiavelli (c *)*))[.]
3urther information? Mirrors for princes
-ritten in *22/ by (dam Smith" a Scottish moral philosopher" 5he -ealth of =ations
discussed e@cient organization of #or$ through division of labour[.] Smith
described ho# changes in processes could boost productivity in the manufacture of
pins -hile individuals could produce A;; pins per day" Smith analyzed the steps
involved in manufacture and" #ith *; specialists" enabled production of +.";;; pins
per day[.]
*,th century[edit]
4lassical economists such as (dam Smith (*2A:B*2,;) and Cohn Stuart Mill (*.;/B
*.2:) provided a theoretical bac$ground to resource-allocation" production" and
pricing issues (bout the same time" innovators li$e %li -hitney (*2/)B*.A))" Cames
-att (*2:/B*.*,)" and Matthe# 1oulton (*2A.B*.;,) developed elements of
technical production such as standardization" Duality-control procedures" cost-
accounting" interchangeability of parts" and #or$-planning Many of these aspects of
management e&isted in the pre-*./* slave-based sector of the ES economy 5hat
environment sa# + million people" as the contemporary usages had it" 8managed8
in proftable Duasi-mass production
Salaried managers as an identifable group frst became prominent in the late *,th
century[,]
A;th century[edit]
1y about *,;; one fnds managers trying to place their theories on #hat they
regarded as a thoroughly scientifc basis (see scientism for perceived limitations of
this belief) %&amples include Henry F 5o#ne6s Science of management in the
*.,;s" 3rederic$ -inslo# 5aylor6s 5he <rinciples of Scientifc Management (*,**)"
3ran$ and Gillian 0ilbreth6s (pplied motion study (*,*2)" and Henry G 0antt6s charts
(*,*;s) C Huncan #rote the frst college management-te&tboo$ in *,** 9n *,*A
Ioichi Eeno introduced 5aylorism to Capan and became frst management consultant
of the 8Capanese-management style8 His son 9chiro Eeno pioneered Capanese
Duality assurance
5he frst comprehensive theories of management appeared around *,A; 5he
Harvard 1usiness School oJered the frst Master of 1usiness (dministration degree
(M1() in *,A* <eople li$e Henri 3ayol (*.+*B*,A)) and (le&ander 4hurch described
the various branches of management and their inter-relationships 9n the early A;th
century" people li$e !rd#ay 5ead (*.,*B*,2:)" -alter Scott and C Mooney applied
the principles of psychology to management !ther #riters" such as %lton Mayo
(*..;B*,+,)" Mary <ar$er 3ollett (*./.B*,::)" 4hester 1arnard (*../B*,/*)" Ma&
-eber (*./+B*,A;" #ho sa# #hat he called the 8administrator8 as bureaucrat[*;])"
Fensis Gi$ert (*,;:B*,.*)" and 4hris (rgyris (K *,A:) approached the phenomenon
of management from a sociological perspective
<eter Hruc$er (*,;,BA;;)) #rote one of the earliest boo$s on applied management?
4oncept of the 4orporation (published in *,+/) 9t resulted from (lfred Sloan
(chairman of 0eneral Motors until *,)/) commissioning a study of the organisation
Hruc$er #ent on to #rite :, boo$s" many in the same vein
H Hodge" Fonald 3isher (*.,;B*,/A)" and 5hornton 4 3ry introduced statistical
techniDues into management-studies 9n the *,+;s" <atric$ 1lac$ett #or$ed in the
development of the applied-mathematics science of operations research" initially for
military operations !perations research" sometimes $no#n as 8management
science8 (but distinct from 5aylor6s scientifc management)" attempts to ta$e a
scientifc approach to solving decision-problems" and can apply directly to multiple
management problems" particularly in the areas of logistics and operations
Some of the more recent developments include the 5heory of 4onstraints"
management by obLectives" reengineering" Si& Sigma and various information-
technology-driven theories such as agile soft#are development" as #ell as group-
management theories such as 4og6s Gadder
(s the general recognition of managers as a class solidifed during the A;th century
and gave perceived practitioners of the art'science of management a certain
amount of prestige" so the #ay opened for popularised systems of management
ideas to peddle their #ares 9n this conte&t many management fads may have had
more to do #ith pop psychology than #ith scientifc theories of management
5o#ards the end of the A;th century" business management came to consist of si&
separate branches"[citation needed] namely?
fnancial management
human resource management
information technology management (responsible for management information
systems)
mar$eting management
operations management or production management
strategic management
A*st century[edit]
9n the A*st century observers fnd it increasingly di@cult to subdivide management
into functional categories in this #ay More and more processes simultaneously
involve several categories 9nstead" one tends to thin$ in terms of the various
processes" tas$s" and obLects subLect to management[citation needed]
1ranches of management theory also e&ist relating to nonprofts and to
government? such as public administration" public management" and educational
management 3urther" management programs related to civil-society organizations
have also spa#ned programs in nonproft management and social entrepreneurship
=ote that many of the assumptions made by management have come under attac$
from business-ethics vie#points" critical management studies" and anti-corporate
activism
(s one conseDuence" #or$place democracy (sometimes referred to as -or$ers6 self-
management) has become both more common and advocated to a greater e&tent"
in some places distributing all management functions among #or$ers" each of
#hom ta$es on a portion of the #or$ Ho#ever" these models predate any current
political issue" and may occur more naturally than does a command hierarchy (ll
management embraces to some degree a democratic principleMin that in the long
term" the maLority of #or$ers must support management !ther#ise" they leave to
fnd other #or$ or go on stri$e Hespite the move to#ard #or$place democracy"
command-and-control organization structures remain commonplace as de facto
organization structure 9ndeed" the entrenched nature of command-and-control is
evident in the #ay that recent layoJs have been conducted #ith management ran$s
aJected far less than employees at the lo#er levels 9n some cases" management
has even re#arded itself #ith bonuses after laying oJ lo#er-level #or$ers[**]
(ccording to leadership academic Manfred 3F Nets de 7ries" a contemporary senior
management team #ill almost inevitably have some personality disorders[*A]