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INTRODUCTION
Almost every product in the market has a barcode printed on it. Barcodes
are machine-readable parallel bars that store binary information, revealing
information about the product. Thus, it acts as the product fingerprint. As we go
to the supermarket to buy things, the checkout person runs our selection over the
scanner to scan the barcode, there’s an audible beep, and we are told how much
money we owe.
But the days of barcode are numbered. The reason is that a technology
called radiofrequency identification (RFID) is catching on.RFID tags are being
used by corporations to track people and products in just about every industry.
They transform everyday objects like cargo containers, car keys, and even
clothes on the rack at a shopping mall into mini nodes on a network. Databases
then record the location and status of these network nodes to determine product
movements. [4], [3]
TRANSPONDER
A tag is any device or label that identifies the host to which it is attached.
It typically does not hinder the operation of the host or adversely affect its
appearance.
ANALOG CIRCUITRY
DATA TRANSFER
POWER SUPPLY
EEPROM
DIGITAL CIRCUITRY
CONTROL LOGIC ROM
SECURITY LOGIC
INTERNAL
LOGIC/MICROPROCESOR
RAM
CLASSIFICATION OF TAGS
On the basis of the presence of battery, tags can be classified into active or
passive tags.
Active tags are powered by an internal battery and are generally read/write
devices. They contain a cell having a high power to weight ratio and are capable
of operating over a temperature range of -50 to +70 degree Celsius. Active tags
have a finite life time. A suitable cell coupled to suitable low power circuitry can
ensure functionality of ten or more years depending on operating temperatures,
read/write cycles and usage. They have greater size and increased cost compared
to passive tags.
Passive tags operate without an internal battery source, deriving the power
to operate from the field generated by the reader. They are hence lighter than
active tags and have greater life time. They have shorter read ranges compared to
active tags. They are also constrained in their ability to store data and perform
well in electromagnetically noisy environments.[2],[5]
RFID tags can also be classified on the basis of coupling into inductively
and capacitively coupled tags.
Data stored in data carriers require some organization and additions like
data identifiers and error detection bits to satisfy recovery needs. This is known
as source encoding. Standard numbering systems such as UCC/EAN can be
applied to data stored in tags. Tags are basically used to carry
READER/INTERROGATOR
surrounding it and its strength diminishes with respect to distance. The antenna
design determines the shape of the field or propagating wave delivered so that
range is also influenced by the angle subtended between the tag and antenna.
The power within the tag is generally much less than that from the reader,
requiring sensitive detection capability within the reader to handle the return
signals. In some systems, the reader constitutes a receiver and is separate from
the interrogation source or transmitter, particularly if the up-link (from
transmitter to tag) carrier is different from the down-link (from tag to reader).
100-500mW power are values quoted for RFID systems, whereas the
actual values should be confirmed with the appropriate regulatory authorities in
the countries where the technology is being applied. The form in which the
power is delivered, pulsed or continuous, and the associated values are also
indicated by the authority.[6]
RFID SYSTEM
RF MODULE CONTROL
MODULE
HOST COMPUTER
TRANSPONDER (TAG)
The reader sends out a radio frequency wave to the tag and the tag
broadcasts back its stored data to the reader. The system has two antennas, one
for the tag and the other on the reader. The data collected from the tag can either
be sent directly to a host computer through standard interfaces or it can be stored
in a portable reader and later updated to the computer for data processing. The
automatic reading and direct use of tag data is called ‘automatic data capture’.[8]
When the tag which is battery free,is to be read ,the reader sends out a power
pulse to the antenna lasting for about 50ms.The magnetic field generated is
collected by the antenna in the transponder that is tuned to the same frequency.
This received energy is rectified and stored on a capacitor within the transponder.
When the power pulse has finished, the transponder immediately transmits back
its data, using the energy stored within its capacitor as its power source. The data
is picked up by the receiving antenna and decoded by the reader unit. Once all
the data has been transmitted, the storage capacitor is discharged resetting the
transponder to make it ready for the next read cycle. The period between
transmission pulses is called sync time and lasts between 20ms and 50ms
depending on the system set up.
SYSTEM PERFORMANCE
Reading distance: The actual reading distance depends on the transponder type,
electromagnetic noise, transponder orientation, antenna type. In general, a 32mm
glass transponder can be read with a stationary reader and gate antenna from a
distance of about 1m.Larger transponders can achieve ranges upto 2m with
handheld readers offering lower ranges upto 250mm.
Data accuracy: A 16-bit cyclic redundancy check algorithm is used to ensure
that only valid data is sent from the reader to its associated controller.
Antenna selection: Of the antenna types, the one giving larger read ranges is
selected. Electromagnetic noise affects the readout pattern.
Transponder orientation: For maximum range, the antenna orientation with
respect to the transponder must be optimized for maximum coupling. The
orientation in line with a ferrite antenna produces the largest read ranges from
2mm glass transponder.
Reading speed: Many applications require that that transponder must remain in
the reading range. Since a standard stationary reader completes one cycle in abut
120ms, transponders must remain in the boundaries of a readout pattern for at
least that amount of time.[7]
IMMOBILIZER SYSTEM
Full Duplex Systems. The energy for the transponder and the data signal
generated by the transponder are transmitted at the same time.
Half Duplex Systems. The transmission of the energy for the transponder and
the data signal from the transponder are done consecutively. The transponder
stores energy in a capacitor and as soon as the transmitter is switched off, the
energy is used to transmit data. The different techniques have an impact on
system design and reading range, but have no impact on the system.[7]
Cryptographic Background
Knowledge
The authentication is based on the knowledge of a secret, for example a
password or PIN (Personal Identification Number) that has to be presented to
proof the identity. For automotive applications any method using a keyboard is
unacceptable for most of the users. In addition the level of security is
unacceptable.
Biometrics
Biological attributes, such as fingerprints, voice, retinal or face patterns
could theoretically be used for authentication of the driver. However, the
technical effort for such systems is still high compared to key-based
immobilizers and not acceptable for automotive applications. In addition, the
problem of renting a car to someone else and emergency use of a vehicle
becomes a critical issue.
Possession
Authentication by means of possession is the most common method and
will also be widely spread in future. The simplest implementation is the
possession of a mechanical key. A much higher security is offered if the key
contains an electronic tag such as a transponder. To start the vehicle, the
mechanical key and the code in the transponder must match.
Rolling Code Systems operate in the same way as fixed code systems
except that the secret code in the key is only valid for a certain period of time,
typically from one ignition cycle to the other. The System Security Controller
reprograms the transponder (which is a Read/Write type) periodically. The secret
is changed, but in terms of cryptographics the procedure is still a static
authentication. To guarantee the reliability of the system, resynchronization
procedures have to be implemented in case the transponder programming fails or
the transponder is reprogrammed by mistake while away from the vehicle.
Especially these procedures for resynchronization are the most critical issues in
such systems.
Crypto Transponders
System Overview
The security system calculates the expected response using the same
algorithm and the same encryption key and compares the response received from
the transponder to the calculated one. The calculation of the expected response
can be done simultaneously to the communication between transponder and
reader or after reception of the transponder response. If expected and calculated
response are equal, the information is sent to the engine management computer.
In time critical applications, the challenge and the response can be generated after
immobilization and stored for the next cycle.
Design Objectives
Maintain low power consumption despite the large number of gates for
encryption
• Low data processing effort for the encryption algorithm in the car
security system
Encryption
• The attacker will not spend more than five minutes in the vehicle
• The key is not longer than ten days available for analysis
• The key is not longer than ten days available for analysis
Dictionary attacks can be used if the key was available to the attacker for a
Transponder Antenna
The antenna consists of a coil and a capacitor for tuning the circuit to the
nominal carrier frequency of 125kHz.The coil has a ferrite core for improving the
distance of read, write and programming operations.
The AFE includes all circuits directly connected to the coil. It generates
the IC’s power supply and handles the bidirectional data communication with the
base station. It consists of the following blocks:
Controller
Power on reset
Adapt
Bitrate Generator
The bitrate generator can deliver bitrates of RF/32 and RF/64 for data
transmission from the IC to the base station.
Bit Decoder
The bit decoder forms the signals needed for write operation and decodes
the received data bits in the write data stream
Modulator
HV Generator
Memory
Crypto Circuit
Writing data into the transponder occurs by interrupting the RF field with
short gaps. After the start gap the write op-code (10) is transmitted. The next 32
bits contain the actual data. The last 4 bits denote the destination block address. If
the correct number of bits has been received, the actual data is programmed into
the specified memory block. [7]
The time elapsing between two detected gaps is used to encode the
information. As soon as a gap is detected, a counter starts counting the number of
field clock cycles until the next gap will be detected. Depending on how many
field clocks elapse, the data is regarded as ’0’ or ’1’.The required number of field
clocks is shown in figure .A valid ’0’ is assumed if the number of counted clock
periods is between 16 and 32, for a valid ’1’ it is 48 or 64 respectively. Any other
value being detected results in an error and the device exits write mode and
returns to read mode.[7]
APPLICATIONS
ADVANTAGES
DISADVANTAGES
• Cost
RFID solutions cost much higher than the conventional barcodes. A large
fraction of its cost lies in the software infrastructure and the enterprise
application and integration[4]
• Lack of standardization.
Standardization has not been provided across many fronts, ranging from
the different data formats used to interoperatability between RFID readers and
tags from different vendors to interference between RFID products from different
manufacturers.[4],[2]
CONCLUSION
The RFID tagging will take off when the cost of the tags drops to one
percent of the cost of the product it is applied to, and that date is somewhere near.
2005 is the date that researchers say when radio frequency tagging
becomes viable and until then, we must wait and see.[8]
REFERENCES
[1] Jay Warrior, Eric McHenry, Kenneth McGee, “They know where you are”,
IEEE Spectrum, July 2003, pp.21-25
[2] Ankit Khare, “RFID challenges barcoding”, PC Quest, April 2003, pp.46
[3] Andy Emmerson, “Tiny tags talk volumes”, Everyday Practical Electronics,
May 2001, pp.322
[4] Uma Gupta, “RFID and beyond”, Electronics For You, October 2003,
pp.36-40.
[5] Ulrich Kaiser, Wolfgang Steinhagen, “A low-power transponder IC for
high- performance identification systems.” IEEE Journal Of Solid-State
Circuits.Vol.30, March 1995, pp306-310
[6] http://www.aimglobal.org
[7] http://www.ti.com
[8] http://www.howstuffworks.com
ABSTRACT
Long checkout lines at the grocery store are one of the biggest complaints
about the shopping experience. This is mainly due to the time consuming use of
UPC barcodes. These codes act as product fingerprints made of machine-
readable parallel bars that store binary data.
To overcome these, the barcodes are being replaced by smart labels, also
called radiofrequency identification tags.
RFID tags are intelligent barcodes that can literally talk to a networked
system to track every product that is bought.
This paper gives an in-depth knowledge about RFID technology and its
applications
CONTENTS
• INTRODUCTION 1
• TRANSPONDER 2
• CLASSIFICATION OF TAGS 3
• READER/INTERROGATOR 6
• RFID SYSTEM 8
• IMMOBILIZER SYSTEM 10
• APPLICATIONS 23
• ADVANTAGES 24
• DISADVANTAGES 24
• CONCLUSION 25
• REFERENCES 26
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I also thank all the other faculty members of AEI department and my
friends for their help and support.