Allen, Sandra K., and Robert R. Johnson.

"A Study of Hazards Associated with

Playgrounds." Journal of Environmental Health 57.10 (1995): 23+. Questia. 19 Sept.
2009 <http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5002231742>.
1
Sandra K. Allen, and Robert R. Johnson, "A Study of Hazards Associated with
Playgrounds," Journal of Environmental Health 57.10 (1995), Questia, 19 Sept. 2009
<http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5002231742>.

A Study of Hazards Associated with Playgrounds.

by Sandra K. Allen , Robert R. Johnson

http://www.questia.com/read/5002231742?title=A%20Study%20of%20Hazards
%20Associated%20with%20Playgrounds

Introduction

Historically, playgrounds have provided children with an outlet for their boundless
energy. Children need a physical environment where they can develop motor skills as
well as participate in social interactions with their peers. For over a decade, there have
been attempts to set standards for playground safety; however, despite all efforts there are
no federal standards or regulations governing playground facilities, and only a few states
have standards or regulations governing playground facilities. Playgrounds account for
almost 200,000 injuries treated in emergency rooms annually (1). Climbing equipment
has been implicated in nearly one-quarter of the emergency room visits (2). The U.S.
Consumer Product Safety Commission ranked playground equipment as the fifth most
hazardous consumer product (3). In a 1988 report, the National Electronic Injury
Surveillance System (NEISS) estimated that there were 119,600 injuries associated with
playground equipment designed for public use (4). Abrasions, contusions, and lacerations
account for the majority of reported playground injuries.

According to the 1988 NEISS report, falling is the most common mechanism of injury on
playgrounds, accounting for 58% of all incidents. Climbing equipment was implicated in
23% of the cases, swings 16%, slides 13%, and other climbing equipment 6% of the
playground injuries associated with falling (4). Head injuries are of utmost concern,
because they are most likely to result in the death of a child. A fall from as little as three
to five inches onto a concrete or asphalt surface could result in an impact force of 210 g
(G-force: unit of force equal to the gravity exerted on a body at rest). This is above the
200 g impact force necessary to cause a fatal injury (Table 1).

The severity of head injuries due to falls is strongly correlated with the type of material
used to surface the playground. Hard playground surfaces pose a substantial risk to child
safety. A study published by the Epidemiology Hazard Analysis (EPHA) in 1990
suggests that nine out of 10 serious injuries may be attributed to falls onto playground
surfaces (5).
Traditionally, material s such as concrete, asphalt, dirt, and grass have been used as
surfacing material s for playgrounds. These types of surfacing materials are used because
they require minimal maintenance. However, despite their frequent use, these materials
are considered unsuitable for surfacing playgrounds (6). One study suggests that such
hard surfaces contribute significantly to the number of injuries incurred by children each
year (7). Sand, wood chips, and ground tire matting are common alternative surfacing
materials. These materials provide an impact-absorbant surface that may prevent or
minimize fall fatalities when maintained at the recommended depth. The U.S. Consumer
Product Safety Commission has tested surfacing materials. The test results and
suggestions as to usage and situational applicability can be found in the Handbook for
Public Playground Safety (6).

The results reported herein represent a 1994 survey of 19 playgrounds in a northern

suburb of Detroit, Michigan. The public playgrounds were surveyed in order to identify
and quantify safety hazards.

Research Procedure

A stratified random sample of public playgrounds was drawn from the Detroit Northern
Suburb Map of public parks and playgrounds. Fifty-five playgrounds were stratified into
seven distinct groups. Each group was composed of all playgrounds located in a
particular neighborhood or school district. The seven groups were chosen in order to
include equal representation of playgrounds from affluent as well as economically
disadvantaged neighborhoods. Three playgrounds from each of the seven groups were
selected by simple random sampling. From the initial 21 selected playgrounds, two were
eliminated from the study due to a lack of playground equipment at those locations.

Table 1. Drop Height at Which a Fatal Injury Can Occur from a Fall,
by Surface and Depth of Surface (8).

Surface Surface Depth(a) Drop Height G-Force(b)

Concrete 5 in. 1 in. 210

Asphalt 4 in. 2 in. 210
Foam Matting 1.25 in. 4 ft. 200
Rubber Matting 1.75 in. 5 ft. 225
Gravel 9 in. 12 ft. 190
Sand (coarse) 9 in. 6 ft. 235
Sand (fine) 9 in. 6 ft. 215
Wood Chips 9 in. 11 ft. 220
Wood Mulch 9 in. 12 ft. 135

a At ambient temperature, not compressed.

b The threshold for serious injury is a force of 50 g; the threshold

for fatal-injury is 200 g.

The study sample consisted of 19 public playgrounds, which were evaluated over
a 14-week period during the summer of 1994. Each playground was observed a minimum
of three times during the 14 weeks, and all modifications made between visits were
noted. The actual surveys were completed by a single observer using a structured
instrument developed in accordance with the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission
guidelines (6), with expert opinions within the field of playground safety, and with
studies done on playground injuries and fatalities. (This instrument is available from the
authors upon written request.) The survey instrument consisted of 78 specific safety
hazards which were divided into categories based upon known hazards that NEISS has
documented to cause injury (4). The categories included the playground's location,
general maintenance of equipment, spacing and location of equipment, ground surface,
slides, climbing equipment, swings, seesaws, and other specific equipment known to
cause injuries. These categories were then subdivided into specific hazards. Each piece of
playground equipment was evaluated for possible safety hazards. All hazards associated
with each piece of equipment were noted. The playground surface material was checked
as to type, proper depth, and distance between the surface material and equipment. The
location of the playground was assessed for traffic hazards due to adjacent streets, to lack
of protective fencing, and to ease of access by children on bicycles. The playground site
was also assessed for projectile hazards posed by adjacent sports activities such as
baseball fields and for warning signs alerting motorists of the playground's location.
Comments were made at the end of each observation as to the general overall condition
of the playground. Each hazard was evaluated as to the type of injury that was likely to
occur as a result of such a hazard being present. Each hazardous condition was given a
hazard rank as shown in Table 2. Hazard ranking is a way in which the data for the
various types of hazards identified can be weighted to reflect its potential to cause injury.

Results

During the course of the 14-week study, a total of 474 separate hazards were identified at
the 19 evaluated playgrounds. Of the 474 hazards cited, the location of the playground
itself accounted for 14% of hazards, general equipment maintenance 22%, ground surface
18%, spacing and location of equipment 9%, slides 15%, climbing equipment 10%,
swings 9%, and other hazards 3%. When hazard ranking (see Table 3) is applied to the
observed hazard frequency data, the data become more useful measures of playground
hazards. When the observed hazard frequency data are multiplied by the hazard ranking
factors presented in Table 2, the location of the playground accounts for 12% of hazards,
general equipment maintenance 8%, ground surface 34%, spacing and location of
equipment 9%, slides 14%, climbing 19%,swings 5%, and other hazards 3%. Table 3
illustrates statistically the shifts in relative risk after hazard ranking is applied to the
observed hazard frequency data. The shifts in relative risk after hazard ranking are also
illustrated graphically in Figure 1.

Table 2. Hazard Ranking Based on Injury Severity-Adapted from Bond

and Peck, 1993 (9).

Injury Rank

Minor bruises and lacerations(a) 1

Moderate bruises and

lacerations(b) 2

Severe lacerations and

fractures(c) 3

Strangulation and head

entrapment 4

Head injuries 5

a A minor injury is defined as one in which the child is hurt but

continues to play.
b A moderate injury is defined as one in which the child is hurt and
leaves the playground.

c A severe injury is defined as one in which the child needs

professional medical assistance.

After hazard ranking is applied to the hazard frequency data, climbing equipment
accounts for the greatest proportion of the moderate and severe hazards observed, with
slides not far behind. Swings show a decrease in relative risk of injury compared to other
potential hazards because they account for the majority of the minor bruises and minor
lacerations. Safety guards on swings and guard rails on slides and climbing equipment
were observed to be inadequate to prevent injuries from occurring on several playgrounds
surveyed. The hazards associated with safety guards and guard rails might otherwise have
gone unnoticed, but they are reflected in the data when the hazard ranking was applied.
Of the 19 playgrounds surveyed, 91% had hazards identified that were associated with
ground surfacing material. Some or all of the accessible playground equipment with no
impact-absorbing ground cover material accounted for 58% of the playgrounds. Of those
playgrounds that did use impact-absorbing ground cover material around play equipment,
83% were of inadequate depth as specified in Table 1. In addition, the ground cover
material on many playgrounds was littered with broken glass, small pieces of metal, and
other debris.

Table 3. Percent Distribution of 474 Hazards that Were Observed on

19 Detroit, Michigan, Playgrounds.

Hazard Before Hazard Ranking After Hazard Ranking

Playground Location 14% 12%

Equipment Maintenance 22% 8%
Surface Material 18% 34%
Spacing of Equipment 9% 9%
Slides 15% 14%
Climbing Equipment 10% 19%
Swings 9% 5%
Other 3% 3%

Equipment maintenance was another major problem; 61% of all equipment was
poorly maintained. Poor maintenance resulted in a variety of potential hazards. For
example, the majority of all wood equipment was well worn and splintering. Of the 19
playgrounds surveyed, 84% had equipment with exposed bolts, screws, and nails. Paint
chipping off of playground equipment was observed at nearly all of the playgrounds
surveyed. Improper or inadequate equipment maintenance accounted for 67% of all
hazards known to cause minor bruises and lacerations. Access to playgrounds was also
found to be a potential hazard. In many cases, the playground was located in such a way
that children would be at risk from hazards associated with vehicular traffic. Of the 19
playgrounds surveyed, eight were unfenced and bordered by two or more streets, and
seven unfenced playgrounds bordered parking lots. During the natural course of play,
children were observed running out into streets. An additional seven playgrounds
bordered some type of playing field, thus increasing the risk of injury due to flying
objects, such as balls. Only four playgrounds surveyed were completely fenced in and
away from streets and playing fields. Only one of these had a bike path for safe access to
the playground area. It was also noted that none of the playgrounds were accessible to the
disabled.

Factors relating to equipment use were also employed to assess the risk for injury.
Children were observed using playground equipment with no adult supervision on seven
of the 19 playgrounds surveyed. At five locations, guardians were observed placing small
children on playground equipment that was obviously beyond the child's developmental
level. Crowding on equipment was observed at two locations. This also increases the risk
for injury.

Conclusions

The results of this study are consistent with the NEISS report and studies done in other
urban areas. The NEISS report cites falling as the most common cause of injury on
playgrounds (4). In a survey of 47 public playgrounds in Boston, Massachusetts,
climbing equipment accounted for 34% of hazards, slides 30%, and swings 22% (9), after
a similar hazard ranking was applied to the observed hazard frequency data. The Boston
study considered equipment only; it did not evaluate the playground location. In addition,
the Boston study did not address hazards associated with ground surface. In a survey of
57 school playgrounds in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 99% of the climbing equipment
and slides were considered unsafe due to the lack of proper ground surfacing material (8).
Despite the differences in methodology, the conclusions reported herein are strikingly
similar to those reported in the Boston and Philadelphia studies.

This study demonstrates that children who use playgrounds in the northern suburbs of
Detroit, Michigan, are at risk to a variety of hazards. These hazards are likely to be found
on playgrounds across the United States. Many of the hazards associated with
playgrounds could be minimized if reasonable standards were mandated and enforced.

Recommendations

This study demonstrates the need for a national comprehensive playground safety
program that can provide recommendations to policymakers in order to set standards and
regulations for playground safety. The Handbook for Public Playground Safety could be
used as a starting point for federal, state, and local safety regulations governing
playgrounds.

Once safety regulations for playgrounds are mandated, new playgrounds should be built
according to recommended safety standards, and old playgrounds should be renovated to
meet safety standards. Such recommendations are as follows:

1. Playgrounds must be accessible to all children, including the disabled.

2. There should be a well-defined playground area for preschool children with equipment
designed for their safety and developmental needs.

3. Playground equipment should be checked on a routine basis for safety hazards.

Wooden equipment should be routinely sanded and exposed nails hammered into the
wood. Swings should be checked for pinch points due to S-hooks; climbing equipment
should not have exposed nuts and bolts.

4. Playground equipment that does not meet safety standards should be repaired or
removed.

5. Ground surfaces should be covered with materials that will absorb the impact of falls.
Ground surfacing material should not be allowed to pack down, and the depth of material
should be kept at a safe level.

References

1. Centers for Disease Control (1988), "Playground related injuries in preschool-aged

children-United States, 1983-1987," MMWR, 37:629-632.

2. Boyce, W.T., S. Sobolewski, L.W. Sprunger, and C. Schaefer (Sept. 1984),

"Playground equipment injuries in a large, urban school district," Am J of Pub Health.

3. Reichelderfer, T.E., A. Overbach, and J. Greensher (1979), "Unsafe Playgrounds,"

Pediatrics.

4. National Injury Information Clearinghouse (July 1993), NEISS Summary Report, U.S.
CPSC Washington, D.C.

5. Tinsworth, D.K., and J.T. Kramer (April 1990), Playground Equipment Related
Injuries and Deaths, EPHA, Washington, D.C.

6. U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission (1990), Handbook for Public Playground
Safety.

7. Sosin, D.M., P. Keller, J.J. Sacks, M.J. Kresnow, and P.C. Van Dyck (May 1993),
"Surface-specific Fall Injury Rates on Utah School Playgrounds," Am J of Pub Health.

8. Ramsey, L.F., and J.D. Preston (March 1990), Impact Attenuation Performance of
Playground Surface Material, U.S. CPSC, Washington, D.C.

9. Bond, M.T., and M.G. Peck (March 1990), "The Risk of Childhood Injury on Boston's
Playground Equipment and Surfaces," Am J of Pub Health.

10. Ridenour, M.V.F. (1987), "Elementary School Playgrounds: Safe play areas for
inherent dangers," Precept Motor Skills, 64:447-451.

Sandra K. Allen, A.B., M.B.A., Ph.D., Dept. of Health & Safety, Indiana State
University, Terre Haute, IN 47809

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Publication Information: Article Title: A Study of Hazards Associated with Playgrounds.

Contributors: Sandra K. Allen - author, Robert R. Johnson - author. Journal Title: Journal
of Environmental Health. Volume: 57. Issue: 10. Publication Year: 1995. Page Number:
23+. COPYRIGHT 1995 National Environmental Health Association; COPYRIGHT
2004 Gale Group