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A D V A N C ES
I N
UNDERW ATER
W E L D IN G
R ic h a rd
N .
F u lto n
S e a -C o n
S e r v i c e s ,I n c .
3 0 0 0
P o s t
O ak
B o u le v a rd
H o u s to n ,
T e x a s
7 7 0 5 6
A B ST R A C T
A
d i s c u s s i o n
o f
d ryh y p e rb a rica n d
w et
w e ld in g
w
i l l
b em a d ew ithc o m m e n tso nth e
e c o n o m ic s
o f
b o th
t y p e s .
T he
U nderw ater
W e l d i n gS p e c i f i c a t i o n
AW S
D 3 .6
w
i l l
b e
d e s c r i b e d
a s
a na i dt oe n g i n e e r sa n d
c o n tra c to rstop re s c rib ea n da s s u res o u n d
u n d e rw a te rw e ld in g .
R ecent
researcha ndd evelopm ent
w orki n
u n d e r w a t e rw e l d i n g
w ill
b ed is c u s s e da n dth e
e ffe c tso fh a rd n e s s ,p o ro s ity ,a n dfa tig u eo n
w etw e ld s
w ill
b e p r e s e n t e d a n d
som e
g u id a n c e
o ffe re d
t o
a v o id
problem s.
W et
w e ld in g
a p p lic a tio n s o n h a rb o r s tru c tu re s a n d v e s s e ls
w ill
b ed e s c r i b e d .
Som e
id e a s
onem ergingdesignfor
w etw e ld in g
w
i l l
b ep r e s e n t e d a n d
n e w
d i r e c t i o n si n
u n d e rw a te rw e ld in g
w ill
b e d i s c u s s e d .
1 .
IN T R O D U C T IO N
U n d e r w a t e rw e l d i n g h a s
com e
a
lo n g
w ay
s i n c e
t h eU n i t e dS t a t e s
N avy
d id
som e
p relim in ary
w ork
d u r i n gW o r l d
W ar
1 1 .
T h eN a v yp r o d u c e d
a
h o w - t o m a n u a lc o n c e r n e d w i t h u n d e r w a t e r
w e ld in ga n dc u ttin go p e ra tio n s .
I
b e lie v e
t h a tm a n u a l ,i n
a
r e v i s e d
s ta te ,
i s s till
i n
u s e .
I t 's
i n t e r e s t i n gt on o t et h o s e
N avy
d i v e r su s e dw h a td i v e r s
n o w
c a ll
" h e a v y
g e a r " .
T h o se
p o n d e r o u s
su its
c e rta in ly
m ade
underw ater craftsm anship
v e r y
d ifficu lt to
a c h ie v e .
U n t i la b o u t
1 5
y e a r sa g o ,u n d e r w a t e rw e l d i n g
w as
o f p o o r q u a lity ,
s o
i t
w as
usedseldom .
T h e r e
w as
n o t
m u c hn e e df o rs t a n d a r d s
c o v e rin g th e q u a lific a tio n s o f w e ld e rs
o r
w eldingproceduresforuseunderw ater.
A s
t h eu s eo fu n d e r w a t e rw e l d i n gi n c r e a s e d ,t h e
n e e df o rq u a l i t ya n ds t a n d a r d si n c r e a s e d .
T he
A m erican
W e ld in g
S o c ie ty
p r o d u c e d
a
s p e c ific a tio n ,
AW S
D 3 .6 ,
w h i c hd e a l sw i t h
b o th
w et
a n d d r y w e l d i n g u n d e r w a t e r .T h i s
s p e c ific a tio n
i s
a n e x c e lle n t g u id e
o n
h o w
t o
p ro c e e d w ith d e c id in g w h a tty p e o f w e ld in g
i s
tob ep e rfo rm e da n d
h o w
i t
s h o u l d b e
d o n e .
T he
AW S
D 3 .6
d e s c r i b e s
fo u r
ty p e s
o f
u n d e r w a t e rw e l d i n g ,
a ll
w i t hd i f f e r e n t
c rite ria .
T he
ty p e
A
s p e c i f i c a t i o n d e s c r i b e s
d ry h y p e rb a ric w e ld in g s ta n d a rd s , w h ic h
a re
e s s e n tia lly th e
sam ea s
th o s e a p p lie d to a b o v e
w a te r
w o rk .
T y p e
B
w e ld in g
i s
p r e s c r i b e df o rs o u n d
s t r u c t u r a lw e l d m e n t s i n a p p l i c a t i o n s
le s s
c ritic a l
th a n th o s e re q u irin g ty p e
A
w elds.
T y p eBw e ld s c a n b e a c h ie v e d
b y
w et
w e ld in g ;
th e s p e c ific a tio n p e rm its re d u c e d d u c tility ,
l a r g e ri n c l u s i o n s ,a n dg r e a t e rp o r o s i t yt h a n
ind ryw eld s.
T y p e
C
w e ld s
a re
in te n d e d to b e d o n e in th e
w et
in a p p lic a tio n sw h e relo a d b e a rin g
i s
n o t
c ritic a l.
T he
o n l y e s s e n t i a lr e q u i r e m e n tf o r
ty p e
C
w e ld s
i s
t o
b ec ra c k -fre e .
T y p e
0
w e ld s
a re
t h o s et h a t
m eet
th e
re q u ire m e n tso f
a
s p e c i f i c c o d e o r s t a n d a r d .
2 .
D R Y
H Y P E R B A R IC
W E L D IN G
T y p e
A
w e ld in g
i s
f o rp r i m a r ys t r u c t u r a l
m em bers
o r
p re s s u rep ip in g .
T h is
ty p e
o f
w e ld in g
i s
a c h ie v e din
a
d r ye n v i r o n m e n t ,
e ith e r
a
h a b ita to rm in i-h a b ita t.
O ne-
atm ospherecham bers
a re
o c c a s io n a lly u s e d ,b u t
u s eo ft h i se q u i p m e n ta n d p r o c e d u r e s
seem s
t o
b e d e c l i n i n g f o r e c o n o m i c r e a s o n s .H a b i t a t s
a re
sim p le
s tru c tu re s th a t
a re
u s u a lly o p e n
b o t t o m .L a r g ea n de x p e n s i v eh a b i t a t sh a v e
g iv e n
w ay
t o
s m a lle r
a n d
l i g h t e rm i n i -
h a b i t a t s ,w h i c h
a re
som etim es
re u s e din
r e p e t i t i v eo p e r a t i o n s .
D ryw e ld in gu n d e rw a te r
i s
s till
lim ited
b y
d e p th .
O b v io u s ly ,
o n e
d e p th
c o n s tra in t
a p p l i e s t o d i v e r s .B u tt h e e f f e c to fp r e s s u r e
ont hew eldingp rocessb ecom esv ery
s i g n i f i c a n ti ng r e a td e p t h s .
A s
t h e p r e s s u r e
increases, the
a rci s
c o n s tric te d a n d h ig h e r
v o lta g e
i s
n e e d e dt om a i n t a i nt h e
a rc .
Q u a l i t y w e l d l n g w o r k h a sb e e n d o n e i n
la b o ra to rye n v iro n m e n ts
t o
1 ,3 0 0 '
a n d
o n
a c tu a l
w ork
t o
d e p t h so f
5 5 0 '.
3 .
W ET
W E L D IN G
T h e r e 'sb e e n
a
v irtu a l e x p lo s io n in th e u s e o f
1 2 1
C H 2 3 6 3 -0 /8 6 /0 0 0 0 -0 1 2 1
$ 1 .0 0
0
1 9 8 6 IE E E
w et
w e ld in g fro m
a
s lo w b e g in n in g a b o u t
1 5
y e a rs
ago.C om m ercial
u s eo f
w et
w e ld in gh a s
g r e a t l ye x p a n d e d
s o
th a tv irtu a lly e v e ry
la rg e
d iv in g
c o n tra c to r
o f f e r sw et w e ld in g
w o rk .
S tic ke le c tro d e s
w ere
e m p lo y e d
i n
e a rly
w et
w e ld in ga n dth a t
i s
s till
th e ru le to d a y .
There are
a
n u m b e r o f m ild s te e l a n d n ic k e l
b a s e de le c tro d e sa v a ila b le ,
e ith e r
fro m
e le c tro d e m a n u fa c tu re rs o r
a s
th e p ro p rie to ry
e le c tro d e s
o f
d iv in g c o n tra c to rs .
W et
w e ld in g h a s
n o w
b e e n d o n e
to d e p th s o f
3 3 0 '
m e e tin gth ere q u ire m e n tso f
AW S
D 3.6
fo r
ty p e
B
w elds.
T h e u s e o f
w et
w e l d i n gi n
g re a te r d e p th s o n ly
a w a its
th e
n e e d
fo r th e
a p p lic a tio n .
4 .
C H A R A C T E R IS T IC S
O F
W ET
W E L D IN G
W e ld in g
in th e
w et
p r o d u c e s
som e
in te re s tin g
c h a ra c te ris tic s o f th e w e ld m e n t b e c a u s e o f
t h e r a p i d q u e n c h .T e n s i l e s t r e n g t h o f t h e
w e ld s g e n e ra lly e x c e e d th a t o f b a s e
m e ta l.
T h e
h a r d n e s s
o f th e
w eldm entsincreases
a n d
th e re
i s
som e
lo s s
o f
d u c tility .
T he
lo s s
o f
d u c tility
i s
r e c o g n i z e d
b y
AW S
D 3 .6 .
T y p eB
w et
w e ld s
a re
b e n t
t o
a
6 t r a d i u s v s .
a
2 t
r e q u i r e m e n t f o r t y p e
A
w elds.
W et
w e ld s
a re
s u b j e c t t o i n c r e a s e d p o r o s i t y
a s
th e d e p th o f
w ork
i n c r e a s e s .
A t
1 5 0 '
a n d
b e lo w ,
th e
p o ro s ity le v e ls
a re
v e ry s ig n ific a n t.
Tw o
p o s s ib le
w ays
o f
r e d u y g
w eld
m e ta l
p o ro s ity
h a v eb e e n s u g g e s t e d .
O ne
m ethodp roposes
a d d i n ge x o t i c
m e ta ls
t o t h e w e l d p o o lt o
g a th e r th e h y d ro g e n
b y
fo rm in g h y d rid e s.
A
second suggestion proposes changes w elding
param eters.
A s
a n e x a m p l e ,i n c r e a s e d
w e ld
t r a v e ls p e e dc a nr e d u c ep o r o s i t y .H o l d i n g
a
sh o rt
a rc
a l s o s e r v e s t o r e d u c e p o r o s i t y .
P e r h a p s
a
c o m b i n a t i o n o ft h e s em e t h o d sc o u l d
b e
a p p l i e d t o r e d u c e t h e h i g h p o r o s i t y .H i g h
p o ro s ity le v e ls in
w et
w e ld s
m ay
n o tb e
a
s e rio u s p ro b le m b e c a u s e th e w e ld s tre n g th
re m a in sh ig h .
I t
a p p e a r st h e p o r o s i t y m i g h t
b eb e n e f i c i a l .
T he
i n d i v i d u a lp o r e sc a n
a c t
a s
c r a c ks t o p p e r s .
Som e
r e s e a r c hw o r kh a s
b e e n d o n e
to v e rify th a t in d e e d
s o
e
p o ro s ity
could help to retard crack
g ro w th .1
5 .
H A R D N ESS
A N D
F A T IG U E
I
N
W ET
WELDS
T h eh a r d n e s so f
w et
w e ld s
i s
a
c o n c e r n t o
m any
e n g i n e e r s .
H i g h r e a d i n g s
a t
t h et o e
o f
t h e h e a t a f f e c t e d z o n e
a re
ty p ic a l fo r e ith e r
fe rritic o ra u s tin e tic
w et
w e l d s .T h e s ep e a k
h a r d n e s s e s
a re
v e ry lo c a liz e d , b u t fre q u e n tly
e x c e e d h a r d n e s so f4 0 0 V i c k e r s .
R e c e n tre s e a rc ho nth efa tig u ep ro p e rtie so f
w et w e ld s
in d ic a te s
th a t
c o n c e r n
a b o u t
h ig h
h a r d n e s s m ay
n o t b e w a rra n te d .T h e B ritis h
W e ld in g In s titu te fo u n d th a t " u s in g n ic k e l
b a s e c o n s u m a b l e s ,w i t h c o n s e q u e n tf r e e d o m
f r o m m a j o rh y d r o g e n c r a c k i n g ,t h e f a t i g u e
s tre n g th o f
a
w et
w eld
w as
com parable
w ith
a
w eld
m ade
i n
T h is
c o n c lu s io n
w as
s u b s ta n tia te d
b y
fa tig u e
te s ts
m a d eb y
th e
O c c id e n ta l
P e tro le u m ,
L td .
(C a le d o n ia )
i n
1 9 8 4 . O c c i d e n t a l f o u n d t h a t
1 2
w et
w e ld e d
a u s t i n e t i cs a m p l e s ,
te s te d
i n f a t i g u e ,f a i l e d
a b o v e th e d e s ig n lin e ,c o m p a ra b le w ith
a ir
w elds.
I n 1 9 8 6 ,
we
e x p e c t p u b l i c a t i o n o f
tw o
w e tw e l d i n g t e s t i n g a n d d e v e l o p m e n tp r o g r a m s ,
w h ic h
c o m p le m e n t
e a c h
o th e r.
S e a - C o n
S e r v i c e s ,I n c . ,i n a n o i la n d g a s i n d u s t r y
s u p p o r t e d
p ro g ra m ,
h a s
fo u n d
o u ts ta n d in g
fa tig u e
r e s u l t s
o nb o thf e rritic
a n d
a u s tin e tic w etw e l d s .C o r r o s i o n f a t i g u e
te s ts
w ere
run on specim ens w elded
a t3 3 'a n d 3 3 0 '.
F ig u re
1-
F A T IG U ET E S TS P E C IM E N
F ig u re
1
show s
a
fa tig u e
te s t
o f
a
f i l l e
w e l d ,w h i c h
fa ile d in th e h e a t a ffe c te d
z o n e .
T h e S o u th w e s tR e s y rc h In s titu te ,in
a
w et
w e ld in gp ro g ra m ,
s p o n s o r e d
b y
th eS h ip
S t r u c t u r e sC o m m i t t e e ,h a sd o n ef r a c t u r e
m e c h a n i c so n
w et
w e ld m e n tsth a t
s h o w
th a t
w et
w e ld s
a re
n o tb r i t t l e .F u r t h e r ,t h e
w et
w e ld s
h a v e
show n
e x c e lle n tto u g h n e s sp ro p e rtie s .
I t
a p p e a rs th a t th e h ig h h a rd n e s s fo u n d in th e
h e a t
a f f e c t e d z o n e s
w ill
b e
a
s o u r c eo f
c o n t r o v e r s yi nt h ew e l d i n ge n g i n e e r i n g
f r a t e r n i t y .T h e d a t a
n o w
a v a ila b leo n
w et
w e ld in gs h o w sn oc o rre la tio nb e tw e e nh a rd n e s s
a n d
t o u g h n e s s .
T he
fa tig u e
a n d
fra c tu re
m e c h a n ic s
te s ts
th a th a v e b e e n d o n e o n
w et
w e ld ss h o w th a tth e y
a re
n o tb rittle :T h e y
s h o we x c e lle n t
fa tig u e
a n d
t o u g h n e s s
p ro p e rtie s .
F u rth e r,
te s t
r e s u l t s
a n d
p r a c t i c a le x p e r i e n c ei n d i c a t et h a t
s t r e s s
c o r r o s i o nc r a c k i n g
i s
u n lik e lyins tru c tu ra l
s te e l
w e l d s ,w i t hh a r d n e s s e sb e l o w
4 5 0
V ickers,
ine x p o s u ret ot h em a rin e
e n v iro n m e n t;
E
F ig u re
2
s h o w sc o m p a r i s o n s
o f
s t a t e - o f - t h e - a r t
w et,
d r y h y p e r b a r i c ,a n d s u r f a c e w e l d s .
1 2 2
F ig u re
2
-
T Y P IC A L UNDERW ATER
W ELDS
V S.
S U R F A C EW E L D IN G
6 .
E C O N O M IC S
I N
U N D E R W A T E R
W E L D IN G
T h ed r i v i n gf o r c es t i m u l a t i n gt h eu s eo f
underw ater
w e ld in g
i s
econom ics.
I t
i s
g e n e ra lly v e ry
c o s t
e ffe c tiv e
t o
re p a ir o r
m o d ify
a
stru c tu re
b yu n d e r w a t e rw e l d i n g
i n s t e a do fr e p l a c i n g
i t
e n t i r e l y .H a v i n g
g o n ep a s t
th eq u e s tio no f
re p a ir
v s.
re p la c e m e n t, th e d e s ig n e r m u s t th e n d e c id e
w h e th e r
tou s e
w et
o r
d ryw e ld in g .
T he
g r o w in gte n d e n c ytou s e
w et
w e ld in g
i s
a g a in
d ic ta te d
b y
econom ics:
I t
i s
le s s
e x p e n s i v e
t o
u se
w et
w e l d i n gt h a n
t o
e m p l o yd r y
h y p e r b a r i ct e c h n i q u e s .
A
ru leo f
th u m b
w h ic h
c a nb eu s e df o r
m ost
underw ater
w e ld in g
p ro je c ts
i s
th a t
w et
w e ld in g
w ill
c o s th a l f
o fd r y w e l d i n g .
T he
c o s t
d i f f e r e n t i a lc a n b e
la rg e r
i f
th e s tru c tu re to b e
w o r k e du p o n
i s
c o m p le x a n d re q u ire s
a
c o m p lic a te d h a b ita t.
MECHANICAL
W ET
W ELD
R E P A IR
R E P A IR
D IF F E R E N C E
R E ? A R
a a o .o c a /o /iv )
(s u o o o /w q
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
T he
costcom parison given in Figure
3
show s
a
v e ry d ra m a tic p o te n tia lc o s ts a v in g in u s in g
w et w e ld in g
v s . th e m e c h a n ic a l re p a ir w h ic h
w as
a c tu a lly d o n e o n
a
s u b s e a p ip e lin e .
7 .
D E S IG N
C O N S ID E R A T IO N S
FO R
W ET
W E L D IN G
W e ld in g p ro c e d u re q u a lific a tio n ,w h ile n o t
s p e c ific a lly
a
d e s i g nc o n s i d e r a t i o n ,
i s
v e r y
i m p o r t a n tt ot h eq u a l i t ya s s u r a n c eo f
w et
w e ld in g .
T he
d i v i n gc o n t r a c t o rs h o u l da l w a y s
q u a l i f yw e l d i n gp r o c e d u r e sa n dw e l d e r s
a c c o rd in g to
AW S
D 3 .6
a t
th e
w a te r
d e p th a n d
m a te ria ls
t o
b ee n c o u n te re do n
s ite .
Som e
s u g g e s t i o n st oa v o i dp r o b l e m si n
w et
w e ld in g :
A .
B .
C .
D .
E .
F .
A v o id h ig h ly re s tra in e d w e ld m e n ts , lik e
b u ttw e ld s w hen
p o s s i b l e .
I n
d e s ig n in g , m a x im iz e
th e
u se
of fillet
w elds.
A v o id
a r e a s
o fh ig h re s tra in ta n d p la s tic
d e fo rm a tio n
b y
u s in g re in fo rc in g p la te s o r
s c a llo p e d s p lit s le e v e s (S e e F ig u re
4 ).
D e te rm in eth ec a rb o ne q u iv a le n to fth e
m a te ria l
p rio r
top e rfo rm in ga n y
w et
w e ld in g .
C a r b o n e q u i v a l e n t sa b o v e
0 .4
w ill
re q u ireu se
o f
a u s tin e tic e le c tro d e s
toa v o idc ra c k in g .
C onsider
o n
s ite
v is ib ility .
I f
v is ib ility
i s
s o
p o o rt h a te v e n u s i n g
o p t i c a l d e v i c e s , s u c h
a s
th e v ie w s c o p e
show n
inF ig u re
5 ,
d o e sn o tp e r m i tt h e
perform anceo f
g o o d
w et
w e ld in g ,
th e n
a n o t h e rr e p a i ro rc o n s t r u c t i o n m e t h o d
s h o u ldb eu s e d .
C onsider
d e p thc o n s tra in t:.
S ta te -o f-th e -
a rtw et w e ld in g h a s p ro d u c e d s o u n d w e ld s
b e lo w
3 0 0 \u2019,
m e e tin g th e re q u ire m e n ts fo r
ty p eBo n
s te e ls
h a v in g c a rb o n e q u iv a le n ts
le s s
th a n
0 .4 .
T he
p r e s e n t
d e p th
c a p a b ility
fo r
w et
w e ld in g
m a te ria ls
w ith
c a r b o n e q u i v a l e n t se x c e e d i n g
0 .4
i s
a b o u t
1 0 0 \u2019.
F ig .
4
-
V IE K S C O P EF O RU S E
IN
T U R B ID
W ATER
A dherence
to th e a b o v e s u g g e s tio n s
w ill
s e r v e
t o
p r o d u c e s o u n d
w et
w eldsandavoidproblem s.
In u sin g
fille t
w elds,
w e
s u g g e s t t h a t
som e
re d u c tio n fro m e q u iv a le n td ry w e ld ss h o u ld b e
1 2 3
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