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Four Portraits, One Jesus

Copyright 2007 by Mark L. Strauss
Requests for information should be addressed to:
Zondervan, Grand Rapids, Michigan 49530
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Strauss, Mark L.
Four portraits, one Jesus : an introduction to Jesus and the Gospels / Mark L. Strauss.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-310-22697-0
1. Bible N.T. Gospels Criticism, interpretations, etc. 2. Jesus Christ Person and oces. I. Title.
BS2555.52.S86 2007
266'.061 dc22
2005034280
All maps by Mosaic Graphics. Copyright 2006 by Zondervan.
All Scripture quotations, unless otherwise indicated, are taken from the Holy Bible: New International Version. NIV. Copyright
1973, 1978, 1984 by International Bible Society. Used by permission of Zondervan. All rights reserved.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmied in any form or by
any means electronic, mechanical, photocopy, recording, or any other except for brief quotations in printed reviews, without the
prior permission of the publisher.
Interior design by Tracey Walker
Composition by Tracey Walker and Sherri Homan
Printed in China
08 09 10 11 12 13 14 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2

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Contents
List of Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

PART ONE: INTRODUCTION TO THE FOUR GOSPELS

1. What Are the Gospels? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2. Exploring the Origin and Nature of the Gospels: Historical-Critical Methods of Gospel Research . . . 43
3. Reading and Hearing the Gospel Stories: Literary-Critical Methods of Gospel Research . . . . . . . . . . . 67

PART TWO: THE SETTING OF THE GOSPELS

4. The Historical Setting of the Gospels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
5. The Religious Setting: First-Century Judaism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
6. The Social and Cultural Setting of the Gospels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

PART THREE: THE FOUR GOSPELS

7.
8.
9.
10.

Mark: The Gospel of the Suffering Son of God . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Matthew: The Gospel of the Messiah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Luke: The Gospel of the Savior for All People . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
John: The Gospel of the Son Who Reveals the Father . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

171
213
259
297

PART FOUR: THE HISTORICAL JESUS

11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.

Searching for the Real Jesus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The Historical Reliability of the Gospels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Contours and Chronology of Jesus Ministry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Jesus Birth and Childhood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Beginning of Jesus Ministry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Message of Jesus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Miracles of Jesus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Messianic Words and Actions of Jesus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Death of Jesus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Resurrection of Jesus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

347
383
399
411
425
435
455
469
493
511

Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541

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Contents
List of Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

PART ONE: INTRODUCTION TO THE FOUR GOSPELS

1. What Are the Gospels? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Four Gospels, One Jesus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Synoptic Gospels and the Gospel of John . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Gospel Genre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Gospels Are Historical Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Gospels Are Narrative Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Gospels Are Theological Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Why Were the Gospels Written? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Gospel Audiences: To Whom Were the Gospels Written? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Why Four Gospels? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Why Only Four Gospels? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Reading the Gospels Today . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Reading Vertically: Following the Storyline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Reading Horizontally: Comparing Their Accounts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
When Is a Harmony Legitimate? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Addendum: Sources for Information about Jesus outside of the Gospels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Letters of Paul . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Greco-Roman Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Flavius Josephus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Later Jewish Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Apocryphal Gospels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

24
25
25
27
28
29
30
31
32
32
32
32
34
35
35
38
38
38
39
40
40
42

2. Exploring the Origin and Nature of the Gospels:

Historical-Critical Methods of Gospel Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
How the Gospels Came to Be: The Development of the Gospel Tradition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Source Criticism and the Synoptic Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Why Are the Three Synoptic Gospels So Similar? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Traditional Solutions to the Synoptic Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Markan Priority and the Two- and Four-Source Theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Matthean Priority: The Griesbach or Two-Gospel Hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Conclusion: Some Observations and Cautions on the Synoptic Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

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Form Criticism: Seeking the Spoken Word behind the Written Word . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Method of Form Criticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Assessment of Form Criticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Redaction Criticism: Studying the Evangelists as Purposeful Editors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Method of Redaction Criticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Assessment of Redaction Criticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

55
55
58
60
61
62

3. Reading and Hearing the Gospel Stories:

Literary-Critical Methods of Gospel Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Narrative Criticism: The Gospels as Story . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
The Storyteller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Narrative World and Evaluative Point of View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
The Story Receiver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Plot: The Progress of the Narrative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Rhetoric: Narrative Patterns and Literary Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Assessment of Narrative Criticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Other Literary Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Rhetorical Criticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Canon Criticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Structuralism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Reader-Response Criticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Liberationist and Feminist Approaches. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Deconstruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
The Approach of This Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

PART TWO: THE SETTING OF THE GOSPELS

4. The Historical Setting of the Gospels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
The Persian Period (539 334 BC). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
The Greek Period (334 166 BC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Alexander the Great and the Hellenization of Palestine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Ptolemaic Domination of Israel (323 198 BC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Seleucid Domination of Palestine (198 166 BC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
The Maccabees and Jewish Independence (166 63 BC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
The Maccabean Revolt (166 135 BC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
The Hasmonean Dynasty (135 63 BC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
The Roman Period (63 BC AD 135) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Herod the Great . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
The Herodian Dynasty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

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Roman Rule and the Pax Romana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

The Jewish Revolt of AD 66 73 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
After the War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

5. The Religious Setting: First-Century Judaism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

Core Jewish Beliefs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Monotheism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
The Covenant: Israel as Gods Chosen People . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
The Law (Torah): Standards for Covenant Faithfulness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Temple, Priesthood, and Sacrifices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
One Temple for the One True God . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Levites and Priests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
The High Priest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
The Sanhedrin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Synagogues, Scribes, and the Study of Torah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Synagogue Worship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Scribes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Groups within Judaism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Sadducees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Pharisees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Essenes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Zealots, Social Bandits, and Other Revolutionaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Herodians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
People of the Land (Am-ha-Eretz) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Trends in First-Century Judaism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Apocalypticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Messianic Expectation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Literary Sources for First-Century Jewish Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Josephus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Philo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
The Dead Sea Scrolls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
The Apocrypha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
The Pseudepigrapha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Rabbinic Writings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
6. The Social and Cultural Setting of the Gospels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Daily Life in New Testament Times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Food and Meals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Clothing and Style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Villages, Towns, and Cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Work, Trades, and Professions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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150
150
152
154
155
157

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Commerce, Transportation, and Communication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Entertainment and Leisure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Social Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Group Rather Than Individual Mentality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Honor and Shame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Family and Kinship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hospitality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Social Status and Position in Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Patronage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

159
160
161
161
161
163
163
164
164

PART THREE: THE FOUR GOSPELS

7. Mark: The Gospel of the Suffering Son of God . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Literary Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .173
Literary Style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Topical Ordering of Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Intercalation or Sandwiching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Triads or Sets of Threes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Irony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
The Plot of Marks Gospel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
The Beginning of the Gospel: The Preparation of the Son of God (1:1 13) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
The Authoritative Ministry of the Son of God (1:14 8:26). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
The Suffering of the Son of God as Servant of the LORD (8:27 16:8) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Marks Portrait of Jesus: The Suffering Son of God . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Other Characters in Marks Gospel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
The Antagonists: Satans Forces and the Religious Leaders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
The Disciples: Antagonists or Protagonists? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Minor Characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Theological Themes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
The Kingdom of God . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Jesus the Servant-Messiah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Discipleship: Following the Servants Suffering Path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Narrative Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
The Historical Setting of Marks Gospel: Author and Life Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Authorship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Setting and Occasion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Reading Mark Today . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205

8. Matthew: The Gospel of the Messiah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

Literary Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Concise Style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Fulfillment Formulas and Old Testament Quotations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216

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Topical Arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Structural Signals and Matthews Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Plot of Matthews Gospel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Prologue: The Genealogy and Birth Narrative (Chaps. 1 2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Appearance of the Messiah (3:1 4:11) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Ministry of the Messiah to Israel (4:12 11:1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Responses to the Messiah: Rejection by Israel, Acceptance by the Disciples (11:2 20:34) . . . . . . . . . .
The Messiah Confronts Jerusalem (21:1 26:1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Messiah Is Rejected: Arrest, Trial, and Crucifixion (Chaps. 26 27) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Messiah Is Vindicated: The Resurrection and the Great Commission (Chap. 28) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Matthews Portrait of Jesus: The Messiah. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Jesus the Messiah. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Immanuel: The Presence and Wisdom of God . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Jesus the Son of God . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Other Characters in Matthews Gospel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Disciples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Peter among the Disciples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Religious Leaders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Crowds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Theological Themes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Promise-Fulfillment and the Climax of Salvation History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Kingdom of Heaven . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Jesus and the Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Narrative and Theological Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Historical Setting of Matthews Gospel: Author and Life Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Audience and Occasion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Place and Date . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Authorship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Reading Matthew Today . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

218
219
220
220
225
227
230
232
235
238
239
239
240
241
242
242
243
245
245
245
245
246
247
248
249
249
251
252
253

9. Luke: The Gospel of the Savior for All People . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259

Literary Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
The Unity of Luke and Acts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Lukes Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Literary Style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Historiography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
The Travel Narrative or Journey to Jerusalem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
The Plot of Lukes Gospel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
The Prologue (1:1 4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
The Birth of the Savior (1:5 2:52) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
The Preparation of the Savior (3:1 4:13) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
The Galilean Ministry of the Savior (4:14 9:50). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
The Mission of the Savior: The Journey to Jerusalem (9:51 19:27). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273

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The Savior in Jerusalem: Conflict and Controversy (19:28 21:38). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The Passion of the Savior in Jerusalem (22:1 23:56). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Resurrection and Ascension of the Savior (24:1 53) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lukes Portrait of Jesus: The Savior for All People . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Prophet Like Moses, Mighty in Word and Deed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Christ the Lord . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Other Characters in Lukes Gospel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Apostles in Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Religious Leaders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Theological Themes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Promise-Fulfillment: The Salvation of God . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Dawn of Salvation and the Coming of the Spirit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Divine Sovereignty and the Purpose of God . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Salvation for Outsiders: A New Age of Reversals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Jerusalem and the Temple: Settings of Rejection and Salvation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Joy, Praise, and Celebration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Prayer and Intimate Fellowship with the Father. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Historical Setting of Lukes Gospel: Author and Life Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Authorship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Date . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Occasion and Narrative Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Reading Luke Today . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

275
277
279
281
281
282
282
282
283
284
284
285
286
286
287
288
289
289
289
290
290
291

10. John: The Gospel of the Son Who Reveals the Father . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Literary Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
Unique Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
Unique Literary Style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
The Relationship of John to the Synoptics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Two Historical Settings, Two Levels of Meaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Teaching Types: Personal Interviews, Public Debate, and Private Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
The Signs of the Gospel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Metaphor and Symbol. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Irony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
The Plot of Johns Gospel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
The Prologue (1:1 18) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
The Book of Signs (1:19 12:50) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
The Book of Glory (13:1 20:31) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
Epilogue (21:1 25) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
Johns Portrait of Jesus: The Son Who Reveals the Father . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
Other Characters in Johns Gospel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
The Disciples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329

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The Antagonists: The Religious Leaders, the World, and Satan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Minor Characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Theological Themes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Revelation of the Father through the Son . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Salvation as Knowing God, Eternal Life in the Present. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Paraclete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Narrative Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Historical Setting of Johns Gospel: Author and Life Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Authorship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Composition of the Gospel: A Johannine Community? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Place, Occasion, and Date . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Reading John Today . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

329
330
330
330
331
331
332
332
332
334
335
337

PART FOUR: THE HISTORICAL JESUS

11. Searching for the Real Jesus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
The Historical Quests for Jesus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The First Quest: The Nineteenth-Century Quest for the Historical Jesus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
No Quest: Rudolf Bultmann and the End of the First Quest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The New (Second) Quest and the Post-Bultmannians (1953 1970s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Contemporary Scene: A Third Quest? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Questions of Method and Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Results: Contemporary Portraits of Jesus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

348
348
350
356
358
359
365
378

12. The Historical Reliability of the Gospels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383

The Role of Presuppositions in Historical Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Were the Gospel Writers Biased? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Burden of Proof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Luke-Acts and Ancient History Writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A Generally Reliable Gospel Tradition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Testimony of the Eyewitnesses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Faithful Transmission of the Gospel Tradition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Churchs Willingness to Preserve Difficult Sayings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Distinction between the Words of Jesus and of Christian Prophets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Absence of Discussion on Key Issues in the Later Church . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Ethical Argument: Were the Disciples Deceivers? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Contradictions between the Gospels?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Paraphrasing and Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Abbreviation and Omission. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Reordering of Events and Sayings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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384
385
385
385
386
387
387
387
387
387
388
388
388
389
390

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Reporting Similar Events and Sayings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The Historical Reliability of John . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Author as Eyewitness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Alleged Contradictions with the Synoptics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Johns Style and the Words of Jesus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Christology of John. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Conclusion: The Gospels as History and Theology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

391
392
392
393
394
395
395

13. The Contours and Chronology of Jesus Ministry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399

Basic Contours of Jesus Ministry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
A Portrait of Jesus from Afar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
The General Progress of Jesus Ministry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
A Chronology of Jesus Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
The Date of Jesus Birth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
The Date of Jesus Ministry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
The Date of Jesus Crucifixion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408

14. Jesus Birth and Childhood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411

The Genre of the Birth Narratives: History or Fiction? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Ancestry of Jesus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Virginal Conception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bethlehem Birthplace. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Census . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Birth of Jesus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Jesus Family Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

412
412
415
416
416
417
419

15. The Beginning of Jesus Ministry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425

John the Baptist, Herald of Messianic Salvation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
The Baptism of Jesus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
The Temptation of Jesus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430

16. The Message of Jesus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435

Jesus the Teacher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
Jesus Central Message: The Kingdom of God . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
The Jewish Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
Jesus and the Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
Jesus and the Law: The Ethics of the Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
The True Essence of the Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
Jesus as Fulfillment of the Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
The Greatest Commandment and the Character of God . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
Grace and Works: The Free Gift and the Cost of Discipleship. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445

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Social Justice: The Rich and the Poor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446

The Parables of the Kingdom. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
The Nature of Parables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
The Purpose of the Parables: To Reveal and to Conceal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
Interpreting the Parables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449

17. The Miracles of Jesus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455

The Question of Miracles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
Philosophical Objections to Miracles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
Miracles and the Historical Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
Did Jesus Perform Miracles? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
Ancient Parallels to Jesus Miracles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
The Significance of Jesus Miracles: The Power and Presence of the Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
Exorcisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
Healings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
Raising the Dead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
Nature Miracles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466

18. The Messianic Words and Actions of Jesus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469

The Authority of Jesus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Announcing and Inaugurating the Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Authority over Demons and Disease. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Authority to Speak for God: Jesus Use of Ame n (Truly I Say to You). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Authority over the Law and the Sabbath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Authority to Forgive Sins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Authority at the Final Judgment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Aims of Jesus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Calling Disciples: A New Community of Faith. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dining with Sinners: The Universal Offer of the Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Jesus and the Gentiles: Salvation for All Humanity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Triumphal Entry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cleansing the Temple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Messianic Titles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Christ (Messiah) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Son of Man . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Son of God . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lord. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Jesus as God? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

470
470
470
471
471
472
473
473
474
477
478
479
480
481
481
483
485
487
488

19. The Death of Jesus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493

Historical Circumstances of the Death of Jesus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494

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Pilate and the Romans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Jewish Opposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Jesus Perspective on His Coming Death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Did Jesus Foresee His Death? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Significance of Jesus Death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

494
497
503
503
504

20. The Resurrection of Jesus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511

Rationalistic Explanations for the Resurrection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Swoon Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Wrong Tomb Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Theft Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Visionary and Legendary Development Theories. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Historical Evidence for the Resurrection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Jesus Was Crucified by the Romans around AD 30 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Jesus Was Buried in the Tomb of Joseph of Arimathea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Tomb Was Discovered Empty on the Third Day . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Many Credible Witnesses Saw Jesus Alive. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Transformed Lives of the Disciples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Significance of the Resurrection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Jewish Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Significance of the Resurrection for Jesus and the Church . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

512
512
514
515
516
518
518
518
518
520
521
521
521
522

Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541

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PART ONE
Introduction to the Four Gospels

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CHAPTER 1
What Are the Gospels?
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Four Gospels, One Jesus

The Synoptic Gospels and the Gospel of John
The Gospel Genre
Why Were the Gospels Written?
The Gospel Audiences: To Whom Were the Gospels Written?
Why Four Gospels?
Why Only Four Gospels?
Reading the Gospels Today
Addendum: Sources for Information about Jesus outside of the Gospels

OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
Describe the genre of the Gospels as history, narrative, and theology.
Explain why there are four Gospels.
Explain what it means to read vertically and horizontally through the Gospels.
Discuss the benefits and potential liabilities of harmonizing the Gospels.

23

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FOUR GOSPELS, ONE JESUS

When my oldest son was two years old, we took him to a portrait studio to have his picture
taken. Two-year-olds are a bundle of emotions, and getting them to sit still through a photo
shoot is a real challenge. During that short session, my son went through a range of moods,
from contentment, to laughter, to pouting, to anger, to tears. I remember getThe four unique
ting the proofs afterward. The first showed him serenely content, smiling at the
camera. In the second, he was laughing delightedly as the photographer waved
Gospels testify to
a stuffed animal in his face. In the next, he was beginning to get bored and had
put on a cute little pout. The fourth showed him downright angry, with a defiant
the one gospel
just try to make me smile look on his face. By the last shot, he had dissolved
into tears. The poor little guy had had enough. Which of these pictures captured
the good news of
my sons personality? The answer, of course, is all of them! Each one caught a
different side of his multifaceted personality. Together they give us an insightful
salvation available
glimpse into who he is.
This little story is a good analogy for the New Testament Gospels. Each of
through Jesus the
the four Gospels Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John paints a unique portrait of Jesus Christ. Each provides special insight into who he is and what he
Messiah.
accomplished. The Gospels exhibit both unity and diversity, bearing witness
to the same Jesus (unity) but viewing him from unique perspectives (diversity).
What are these four unique portraits? At the risk of oversimplifying, we may say that Matthew presents Jesus as the Jewish Messiah, the fulfillment of Old Testament hopes; Mark
portrays him as the suffering Son of God, who offers himself as a sacrifice for sins; Lukes
Jesus is the Savior for all people, who brings salvation to all nations and people groups; and
in John, Jesus is the eternal Son of God, the self-revelation of God the Father. These are not
contradictory portraits but complementary ones. Having four Gospels gives us a deeper,
more profound understanding of Christology the nature of Jesus person and work.

Figure 1.1Four Portraits of the One Jesus

Matthew

Mark

Luke

John

The Gospel of the

Messiah

The Gospel of the

suffering Son of
God

The Gospel of the

Savior for all people

The Gospel of the

divine Son who
reveals the Father

Most structured

Most dramatic

Most thematic

Most theological

Not only are the Gospels unique in their portraits of Jesus, they are also unique in their
presentations. Mark is the most dramatic of the four, a powerful and vivid story which grips
the reader from beginning to end. Matthew is the most structured of the Gospels, crafted
24

Part One:
Introduction to the Four Gospels

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around five carefully ordered teaching sections. Luke is the most thematic, with themes like
Gods love for the lost, the role of the Spirit, and Jerusalems role in Gods plan resurfacing
again and again. Johns is the most theological of the four, with more explicit statements
concerning Jesus identity and purpose. We should add that all of the Gospels are all of
these things dramatic, structured, thematic, and theological but there are important
differences in emphasis.

THE SYNOPTIC GOSPELS AND THE GOSPEL OF JOHN

There are also degrees of diversity among the Gospels. The first three Matthew, Mark,
and Luke are known as the Synoptic Gospels (from the Greek synopsis, meaning viewed
together) because they view the life and ministry of Jesus from a similar perspective, follow
the same general outline, and record a great deal of common material. The Gospel of John
presents a strikingly different perspective. The author of the Fourth Gospel omits much
material found in the Synoptics and includes much unique material. John also writes with
a different style and dwells more on the theological significance of Jesus words and deeds.
Scholars debate whether the author knew the Synoptic Gospels and supplemented them or
was writing independently of them. We will discuss this issue in more detail in our introduction to the Fourth Gospel.

Figure 1.2The Synoptics and John

Synoptic Gospels
(Matthew, Mark, Luke)

Gospel of John

1. Emphasize the Galilean setting of the

first part of Jesus ministry

1. Considerable movement between

Galilee and Judea

2. Little information given to determine

the length of Jesus ministry; material
could fit into a single year

2. Mentions at least three different

Passover feasts (2:13; 6:4; 13:1), and so a
ministry of 2 to 3 years

3. Jesus teaches mostly in parables, short

sayings, and epigrams

3. Relates long speeches by Jesus,

dialogues with his opponents, and
interviews with individuals

4. Teaching focuses on the kingdom of

God; healings and exorcisms demonstrate the power of the kingdom and the
dawn of eschatological salvation

4. Teaching focuses on Jesus himself and

the Sons revelation of the Father. Signs
or miracles reveal Jesus identity and
glorify the Father; no exorcisms

THE GOSPEL GENRE

The first question readers must ask when approaching any literature is, What am I reading?
This is the question of genre, or type of literature. If I pick up a newspaper and read, The
President prepares to address Congress, I recognize this as a news report and expect to read
factual information. On the other hand, if I pick up a book and read, Once upon a time,
Chapter One:
What Are the Gospels?

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Figure 1.3The Background to the Term Gospel

he English term gospel comes from the Old English godspell, a translation of the Greek noun
euangelion, meaning good tidings or good news. Euangelion was used in the Greek world for
the announcement of good news, such as victory in battle, or for the enthronement of a Roman
ruler. An inscription for the birthday of the Roman emperor Augustus reads, Good news [euangelia] to
the world!
In the Old Testament, the announcement of Gods end-time deliverance of his people is sometimes
referred to as good news. Isaiah 52:7 reads, How beautiful on the mountains are the feet of those who
bring good news . . . who proclaim salvation, who say to Zion, Your God reigns! (cf. Isa. 40:9; 61:1; Ps.
96:2). Jesus probably drew from this Old Testament background when he began preaching that Gods
day of salvation had arrived: The time has come. . . . The kingdom of God is near. Repent and believe the
good news! (Mark 1:15; cf. Luke 4:18).
Though Jesus was probably speaking Aramaic, the early church translated his words into Greek and
euangelion soon became a technical term for the good news about Jesus Christ. In 1 Thessalonians, one
of the earliest New Testament letters (c. AD 50 51), Paul writes that our gospel came to you not simply
with words, but also with power, with the Holy Spirit and with deep conviction (1 Thess. 1:5, emphasis
added). Here Paul uses euangelion of the spoken word, the oral proclamation of the good news about
Jesus Christ.
In time, euangelion came to be applied not only to the oral preaching but also to the written versions
of the good news about Jesus Christ. Mark introduces his work with the words, The beginning of the
gospel about Jesus Christ, the Son of God (Mark 1:1, emphasis added), and the church soon came to
call these works Gospels. This tells us something about the way they viewed them. These were not dry
historical accounts of the life of Christ but written versions of the oral proclamation. The Gospels have a
living and dynamic quality, calling people to faith in Jesus. The Gospels were meant to be proclaimed . . .
and to be believed.

Different kinds of literature (genres) require different reading strategies.

strategies

26

t
there
were three bears, I know I am reading a
tale. I am not concerned about whether
ffairy tale
tthese bears actually existed, what country
tthey were from, or whether they were grizzzlies or brown bears. I read to be entertained
aand, perhaps, to look for moral lessons. In
ccases like these, we identify genre easily. But
identification is not always so easy, and it is
id
possible to misidentify literary genres. One
p
person standing in a grocery-store checkout
p
line may read the National Enquirer headli
line Aliens Invade Los Angeles and fear
li
tthat they are in mortal danger. Another
identifies the genre as entertainment tabloid
id
aand chuckles. Identifying genre is essential
ffor both interpretation and application.

Part One:
Introduction to the Four Gospels

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To understand the Gospels, we must first ask, What are we reading? What kind of
documents are these and what sort of information are they meant to convey? Are they historical accounts meant to pass on factual information, or are they theological documents
meant to teach spiritual truths? Or are they both? The identification of genre enables us to
answer these questions. The genre of the Gospels may be examined under three headings:
history, narrative, and theology.

The Gospels Are Historical Literature

The Gospels are historical in at least three ways. First, they have a history of composition.
The authors drew on traditions and sources available to them to compile their works. The
methods used to determine how the Gospels came to be are collectively known as historical criticism, or the historical-critical method. In the next chapter, we will examine types of
historical criticism: source criticism, form criticism, and redaction criticism.
Second, the Gospels are historical in that they are set in a specific historical context. This
setting is first-century Palestine during the period of Roman occupation. To understand
the Gospels, we must enter into the world in which they were written, a world very different
than our own. In part 2 (chaps. 4 6), we will examine the historical, religious, and cultural
settings of the Gospels.
Third, the Gospels are historical in that they are meant to convey accurate historical
information. This is implicit in all four Gospels and is explicitly stated by John (21:24) and
Luke. Luke leaves no doubt that he intends to write history:
Many have undertaken to draw up an account of the things that have been fulfilled
among us, just as they were handed down to us by those who from the first were eyewitnesses
and servants of the word. Therefore, since I myself have carefully investigated everything
from the beginning, it seemed good also to me to write an orderly account for you, most excellent Theophilus, so that you may know the certainty of the things you have been taught.
Luke 1:1 4

Notice the authors piling up of terms of historical veracity. Luke certainly claimed
to be writing accurate history. Of course, one could question whether Luke was a reliable
historian or whether his sources were reliable. We will examine these questions in part 4.
The point here is that Lukes intentions were historical.
The fact that the Gospels are historical in this third sense has profound implications
for Christianity as a religion. The faith of the Gospel writers is based not on the esoteric
teachings of a first-century philosopher nor on religious myths with symbolic meaning.
It is based on the historical person and work of Jesus Christ. The Gospels claim to be the
record of Gods actions in human history, his entrance into human history in the person
of his Son. As an essentially historical religion, Christianity rises or falls on the historicity
of core Gospel events: (1) Jesus words and deeds, (2) his death on the cross, and (3) his
resurrection, the vindication of his claims. As the apostle Paul wrote with reference to Jesus
resurrection, If Christ has not been raised, our preaching is useless and so is your faith
(1 Cor. 15:14). For Paul, as for the Gospel writers, the historicity of these events confirms
the truth of Christianity.

Chapter One:
What Are the Gospels?

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The Gospels Are Narrative Literature

Although historical in nature, the Gospels are not merely collections of reports or sayings
of the historical Jesus. They are also narratives with features typical of stories, including
plot, characters, and setting. While all four Gospels are concerned with the same historical
events the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ they present different versions of
these events. They present characters from different perspectives. They develop plot in different ways. They emphasize different settings. Viewing the Gospels as narratives provides
important insights into their literary and theological distinctions. In chapter 3, we will
examine narrative criticism and other literary approaches to the Gospels.

Figure 1.4The Gospel Genre

Ancient Biographies?
vigorous debate has taken place over the last century concerning the Gospel
genre and its relationship to other ancient literature. Some scholars have held
that the Gospels are unique in the ancient world, a genre created by the early
Christians. This view was particularly popular among the form critics (we will discuss
them in the next chapter), who considered the Gospels to be nonliterary collections
of oral traditions, or folk literature. The Gospels were treated as products of the Christian community rather than of individual authors.
The last quarter century has seen much greater emphasis on the Gospels as literary
works. It is recognized that the Gospel writers were not merely collectors of traditions
but literary artists crafting their narratives. This has generated renewed interest in the
literary features of the Gospels and their relationship to other ancient genres.
There is a consensus growing among scholars today that while the Gospels have
many unique features, they also have much in common with Greco-Roman works, especially the broad category of writings known as biographies (bioi), or lives. These
writings were written to preserve the memory and celebrate the virtues, teachings, or
exploits of famous philosophers, statesmen, or rulers. Examples of this category are
Plutarchs Parallel Lives, Suetoniuss Lives of the Caesars, and Jewish philosopher Philos
Life of Moses. Since the Gospels arose in the Greco-Roman world of the first century,
it is profitable to compare them with other writings of this era, identifying common
literary features and narrative techniques.
At the same time, the uniqueness of the Gospels must be kept in mind. They arose
in the context of the needs and concerns of the early Christian communities, and in
the preaching and teaching of the good news. The Gospels were not meant simply
to preserve the memory or pass on the teachings of a great leader. They were written
to proclaim the good news of salvation and to call people to faith in Jesus Christ, the
risen Lord and Savior.

For more details, see Richard A. Burridge, What Are the Gospels? A Comparison with Graeco-Roman
Biography, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004).

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ur Gospels
Introduction to the Four

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