Pi Pi1 Mt-043 Bombas

SECCIN DE PROCESOS
MTODO DE TRABAJO
SELECCCION DE BOMBAS
DOCUMENTO N: PI/PI1/MT-043/1.0
Edicin : 1 Revisin : 0
Fecha : Enero 2006 Fecha : Enero 2006
Funcin Nombre Firma Fecha.
Preparado por Procesos J. Aguado 17.01.2006
Revisado por Procesos J. Contreras
Aprobado por Jefe Seccin J. M. Hoyos
Fichero: PI_PI1_MT-043
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PI/PI1/MT-043/1.0
Rev.0 / Enero 2006
SELECCIN DE BOMBAS
CAMBIOS EN EL DOCUMENTO: REGISTRO DE PAGINAS APLICABLES
EDICIN/RAZN DEL CAMBIO
REVISIN FECHA SECCIN/PRRAFO AFECTADO OBSERVACIONES
1/0 17.01.2006
1 Edicin
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SELECCIN DE BOMBAS
INDICE
1.-INTRODUCCIN...................................................................
.............................. 1
2.-CARACTERSTICAS DE LAS BOMBAS..................................................
........3
2.1.-CAUDAL ....................................................................
............................................. 3
2.2.-PRESIN DE TRABAJO ..........................................................
...................................3
2.3.-VIDA.......................................................................
................................................ 4
2.4.-CARACTERSTICAS DE RENDIMIENTO Y DE SELECCIN DE LA BOMBA.................... 4

2.4.1.-CARACTERSTICAS DE RENDIMIENTO DE LA BOMBA.................................
........... 4
2.5.-CAVITACIN Y CARGA DE ASPIRACIN NETA POSITIVA (NPSH)..........................
.6
2.6.-PRDIDAS DE ENERGA EN LAS BOMBAS..............................................
.................... 9
3.-CLASIFICACIN DE LAS BOMBAS....................................................
..........10
3.1.-BOMBAS ALTERNATIVAS O RECIPROCANTES........................................
................ 12
3.1.1.-BOMBAS DE MBOLO...........................................................
............................. 14
3.1.2.-BOMBAS DE DIAFRAGMA .....................................................
............................. 17
3.2.-BOMBAS ROTATORIAS (O BOMBAS ROTATIVAS). ...................................
............. 19
3.2.1.-BOMBAS DE ENGRANAJES EXTERNOS............................................
................... 19
3.2.2.-BOMBAS DE LBULOS .........................................................
............................. 20
3.2.3.-BOMBAS DE HUSILLOS.......................................................
............................... 20
3.2.4.-BOMBAS DE ENGRANAJES INTERNOS............................................
....................23
3.2.5.-BOMBAS DE PALETAS........................................................
................................ 24
3.2.6.-BOMBAS DE PISTONES ......................................................
................................ 27
3.3.-BOMBAS MONTAFLUIDOS (ELEVADORES NEUMTICOS)..................................
....32
3.4.-BOMBAS CENTRFUGAS ..........................................................
.............................. 33
3.4.1.-CLASIFICACIN DE BOMBAS CENTRFUGAS..........................................
............ 34
3.4.2.-FUNCIONAMIENTO DE UNA BOMBA CENTRFUGA. ...................................
.......... 38
3.4.3.-CARACTERSTICAS DE UNA BOMBA CENTRFUGAS. ...................................
........ 39
3.4.4.-SELLADO DE BOMBAS CENTRFUGAS. ............................................
................... 42
3.4.5.-BOMBAS CENTRIFUGAS MAGNETICAS............................................
..................42
3.5.-BOMBAS PERIFRICAS O REGENERATIVAS ..........................................
................. 42
3.6.-BOMBAS PERISTLTICAS ........................................................
.............................. 43
3.7.-BOMBAS ESPECIALES. BOMBAS DE INYECCIN.......................................
..............44
3.8.-BOMBAS DE TORNILLO SINFN....................................................
........................... 46
4.-SELECCIN DE BOMBAS............................................................
...................47
4.1.-SELECCIN DE MATERIALES......................................................
........................... 49
DIAGRAMA DE FLUJO PARA LA SELECCIN DE BOMBAS.......................................
.......... 53
DIMENSIONADO DE BOMBAS CENTRFUGAS .................................................
................ 54
SELECCIN DE MATERIALES ..........................................................
................................... 55
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1.- INTRODUCCIN
El objeto del presente manual es el de proporcionar unos criterios bsicos que ayu
den a
seleccionar las bombas ms adecuadas para una aplicacin determinada. Los aspectos
constructivos, clculos en detalle y la especificacin de las bombas son objeto de o
tros ms
manuales ms especficos.
Las bombas son los equipos ms utilizados en las industrias de proceso. Existe una
gran
variedad de tamaos y tipos y se aplican a una infinidad de servicios. La bombas s
e emplean
para trasegar toda clase de lquidos: agua, aceites, combustibles, cidos, lquidos
alimentarios (cerveza, leche, miel, mahonesa, etc.), lquidos muy viscosos (lubric
antes,
pinturas, pasta dentfrica, asfaltos, polmeros, pegamentos, etc.), lquidos espesos c
on slidos
en suspensin (pastas de papel, melazas, fangos, desperdicios, bentonita, yeso, ce
mentos,
etc.) o slidos fundidos o reblandecidos (metales, sales, etc.) Siempre que tratem
os un tema
de circulacin de fluidos estaremos, de alguna manera, entrando en el tema de bomb
as.
El funcionamiento en si de una bomba es el de un transformador de energa, mecnica
que
puede proceder de un motor elctrico, trmico, etc., y la convierte en energa cintica,

generando presin y velocidad en el fluido.
A la de escoger un sistema de bombeo adecuado, los factores ms importantes a tene
r en
cuenta son la presin de succin y la presin de descarga final, con una prdida de pres
in
aceptable y la velocidad de flujo especificada, as como el tipo de fluido a bombe
ar (la
eficiencia de cada bomba vara segn el tipo de fluido). Adems, pueden existir exigen
cias
espciales cuando se trate de sectores especficos como el alimentario, farmacutico,
nuclear
y otras industrias que ponen requisitos en la seleccin del material de la bomba.
En la actualidad, el diseo de las bombas est bastante regulado y normalizado. Las
normas
ms comunes empleadas para el diseo y aplicacin de las bombas son:
.. API (American Petroleum Institute)
.. AWWA (American Waterworks Assciation).
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.. NFPA (National Fire Protection Agency).
.. UL (Underwriters Laboratories) Laboratorios Oficiales de las Compaas
Aseguradoras.
.. ASME (American Society of Mechanical Engineers)
.. ANSI (American National Standard Institute)
Estas normas especifican el diseo, la construccin y ensayos de detalle para la sel
eccin del
material de la bomba, inspeccin y control de calidad, planos y otros requisitos e
manejo,
zonas de seguridad, procedimientos de construccin y otros datos de inters.
Existe una gran cantidad de buenos libros y textos sobre bombas e hidrulica, que
se pueden
conocer a travs de los catlogos de libreras especializadas. Tambin hay publicaciones
y
manuales de vendedores de bombas que son muy tiles para aprender sobre bombas.
Asimismo, en Internet puede consultarse una gran cantidad de pginas web con multi
tud de
ejemplos y aplicaciones, con gran informacin de ilustraciones en dibujos, fotogra
fas,
animaciones e imgenes de video que pueden resultar muy instructivas. Al final del
presente
Mtodo de Trabajo se recoge un breve listado de referencias bibliogrficas.
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2.-CARACTERSTICAS DE LAS BOMBAS
2.1.- Caudal
El caudal de una bomba esta determinado por la siguiente relacin:
CAUDAL = CILINDRADA * VELOCIDAD
El caudal as obtenido es llamado caudal terico, que es superior al caudal real en
funcin
del rendimiento volumtrico de la bomba, es decir de las fugas internas de la mism
a.
Se define el rendimiento volumtrico como la relacin entre el caudal real y el teric
o:
.=
Q
Q
v real
teorico
Este rendimiento volumtrico oscila entre el 80 y el 99% segn el tipo de bomba, su
construccin y sus tolerancias internas, y segn las condiciones especificas de velo
cidad,
presin, viscosidad del fluido, temperatura, etc.
El rendimiento total de una bomba es el producto de sus rendimientos volumtrico y

mecnico:
.
=.
.
total volumetrico mecanico
El rendimiento total de una bomba nueva puede oscilar entre el 50 y el 90%, valo
res que
disminuirn con el uso y el desgaste de los elementos internos propios de la bomba
.
2.2.- Presin de Trabajo
Todos los fabricantes otorgan a sus bombas un valor denominado presin mxima de
trabajo, algunos incluyen las presiones de rotura o la presin mxima intermitente,
y otros
adjuntan la grfica de presin /vida de sus bombas. Estos valores los determina el f
abricante
en funcin de una duracin razonable de la bomba trabajando en condiciones determina
das.
El valor de la presin mxima de trabajo suele calcularse para una vida de 10.000 ho
ras; en
algunos casos se especifican tambin las presiones mximas intermitentes o puntales.

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2.3.- Vida
La vida de una bomba viene determinada por el tiempo de trabajo desde el momento
en que
se instala hasta el momento en que su rendimiento volumtrico haya disminuido hast
a un
valor inaceptable, sin embargo este punto varia mucho en funcin de la aplicacin. A
s por
ejemplo hay instalaciones donde el rendimiento no puede ser inferior al 90%, mie
ntras que
otras se aprovecha la bomba incluso cuando su rendimiento es inferior al 50%. La
vida de
una bomba tambin varia considerablemente en funcin del nivel de contaminacin del
fluido con el que se esta trabajando.
Vida de las bombas
Presin
400
300
200
100
0
Fig. 1: Vida de las bombas en funcin de la presin
2.4.- Caractersticas de Rendimiento y de Seleccin de la Bomba
2.4.1.-Caractersticas de rendimiento de la bomba
El aumento de carga real que gana un fluido a travs de una bomba se puede determi
nar por
la siguiente ecuacin:
Vida
0 5 1015202530
Miles de horas
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p2 -
p1 V22 -V12
ha =+
z2 -
z1 +
.
2g
Donde 1 y 2 son las secciones de entrada y de salida de la bomba.
La potencia ganada por el fluido esta dada por:
Pf =.
Qha
y esta cantidad, expresada tradicionalmente en trminos de caballos de potencia o
kilowatios
se denomina fuerza o potencia hidrulica.
Cuando un lquido fluye a travs de una bomba, slo parte de la energa comunicada por e
l
eje del impulsor es transferida el fluido. Existe friccin en los cojinetes y junt
as, no todo el
lquido que atraviesa la bomba recibe de forma efectiva la accin del impulsor, y ex
iste una
perdida de energa importante debido a la friccin del fluido. sta prdida tiene varias

componentes, incluyendo las prdidas por choque a la entrada del impulsor, la fric
cin por el
paso del fluido a travs del espacio existente entre las palas o labes y las prdidas
de alturas
al salir el fluido del impulsor. El rendimiento de una bomba es bastante sensibl
e a las
condiciones bajo las cuales est operando. El rendimiento . de una bomba viene dad
o por:
potencia sumnistrada al fluido P .
Qha
.=
=
f =
potencia en el eje (al freno) Weje T.
Donde el denominador representa la potencia total aplicada al eje de la bomba, q
ue a
menudo se denomina potencia al freno. T es el par ejercido por el motor sobre el
eje de la
bomba y . el rgimen de giro del eje en radianes por segundo.
Rendimiento volumtrico
El rendimiento volumtrico de la bomba es el cociente que se obtiene al dividir el
caudal de
liquido que comprime la bomba y el que tericamente debera comprimir, conforme a su

geometra y a sus dimensiones. Dicho en otros trminos el rendimiento volumtrico expr
esa
las fugas de liquido que hay en la bomba durante el proceso de compresin, fugas q
ue se
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deben a las holguras existentes en el interior de los componentes de la bomba.
El rendimiento volumtrico es un factor de la bomba muy importante, pues a partir
de l se
puede analizar la capacidad de diseo y el estado de desgaste en que se encuentra
una
bomba. El rendimiento volumtrico se ve afectado tambin por la presin del fluido
hidrulico que se transporta y tambin por la temperatura del mismo.
Rendimiento mecnico
El rendimiento mecnico mide las perdidas de energa mecnica que se producen en la
bomba, debidas al rozamiento y a la friccin de los mecanismos internos. Es esenci
al evitar
la friccin y el rozamiento en el interior de la bomba, de tal manera que la energa
que se
comunica al eje se invierta, en el mayor grado posible en aumentar la presin del
liquido y
no en vencer rozamientos y fricciones excesivas entre las partes mecnicas de la b
omba.
En trminos generales puede afirmarse que una bomba de bajo rendimiento mecnico es
una
bomba de desgaste acelerado, principalmente debido al rozamiento que sufren las
partes en
movimiento.
Rendimiento total o global
El rendimiento total o global es el producto de los rendimientos volumtrico y mecn
ico. Se
llama total porque mide la eficiencia general de la bomba en su funcin de bombear
liquido
a presin, con el mnimo aporte de energa al eje. El rendimiento total viene expresad
o por el
consumo de energa necesario para producir la presin hidrulica nominal del sistema.
2.5.- Cavitacin y Carga de Aspiracin Neta Positiva (NPSH)
La cavitacin y la carga de aspiracin neta positiva son trminos que van asociados co
n la
aplicacin de bombas centrfugas.
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Durante el funcionamiento de la bomba se establece una depresin en su lnea de aspi
racin.
Si el nivel del lquido a aspirar se encuentra por debajo de la bomba, la presin at
mosfrica
actuante sobre la superficie hace, por si sola, que el lquido suba La altura alca
nzable por
cada lquido es funcin de su densidad. En el caso del agua, tericamente, y salvo
rozamientos, la altura mxima alcanzable podra ser de 10,33 ms. (fig. 2).
Fig. 2: Mxima altura manomtrica alcanzable en una columna de agua bajo vaco.
Pero todos los lquidos, dependiendo de su temperatura, poseen una presin de vapor;
es
decir una tendencia a cambiar al estado gaseoso. El fenmeno de la cavitacin ocurre
cuando
la presin del fluido en un punto de la lnea de aspiracin dado es inferior a la pres
in del
vapor del liquido. Cuando esto ocurre, el lquido puede hervir (se forman burbujas
de vapor)
y este fenmeno puede provocar una reduccin de la eficiencia, as como un dao estructu
ral
de la bomba. Estas burbujas son arrastradas por el flujo y llegan a zonas dnde la
presin
aumenta; all se juntan bruscamente y el vapor se vuelve a condensar.
En el caso del agua, teniendo en cuenta que al vaporizarse aumenta de volumen 1.
700 veces,
al condensarse disminuye de volumen en la misma proporcin; en los espacios vacos
formados se precipita el agua que fluye a continuacin golpeando contra la superfi
cie de los
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labes, originndose presiones locales que pueden alcanzar hasta los 1.000 kg/cm2. E
l
fenmeno, conocido como "aspiracin en vaco" o "cavitacin" se nota cuando hay uno o
mas de las siguientes seales: ruido, vibracin, cada en la curva de capacidad de car
ga y
eficiencia, con el paso del tiempo, por los daos en el impulsor por picaduras y e
rosin.
La expresin de la carga de aspiracin neta positiva, en la bibliografa suele encontr
arse
normalmente referida con el trmino NPSH (acrnimo de Net Positive Suction Head),
pero en los textos de ediciones hispanoamericanas aparece con frecuencia como CA
NP
(Carga de Aspiracin Neta Positiva) o APNA (Altura Positiva Neta de Aspiracin).
En una instalacin deber tratarse de averiguar cual es la presin que debe quedar en
la
aspiracin de la bomba para que no se produzca cavitacin.
El NPSH se define como:
pV 2 p
ss v
NPSH =+
-
.
2g .
En realidad existen dos valores de NPSH, el primero es el NPSH requerido el cual
es
necesario mantener o exceder de modo que no ocurra cavitacin y se determina
experimentalmente para una bomba dada; el segundo valor del NPSH es el disponibl
e que
corresponde con la presin absoluta disponible a la boca de entrada de la bomba. E
l valor del
NPSH disponible esta dado por:
pp
atm v
CANPD =-
z1 -Shl -
..
Para este calculo se utilizan normalmente presiones absolutas debido a que la pr
esin de
vapor se especifica como una presin absoluta. Con base en la ecuacin anterior se o
bserva
que a medida que aumenta la altura del impulsor de la bomba por arriba de la sup
erficie del
fluido, el NPSH disponible disminuye. Por consiguiente existe algn valor critico
de Z por
arriba del cual la bomba no puede operar sin que ocurra cavitacin.
El NPSHd para una bomba debe ser superior al NPSHr es un orden de 0,5 m como mnim
o.
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Tambin pueden producirse fenmenos de cavitacin por gases disueltos. La solubilidad
del
aire en un lquido es proporcional a la presin absoluta segn la Ley de Henry. Cuando
el
aire est presente en el agua a su mxima solubilidad (como sucede en todos los circ
uitos en
contacto con la atmsfera) cualquier reduccin de la presin ser causa de la liberacin d
e
aire. ste va ocupando espacio a expensas del agua y, por tanto, se produce una re
duccin de
caudal.
La cavitacin por aire es menos fcil de detectar, porque no hace ruido, y afortunad
amente
es menos destructiva que la del vapor.
2.6.- Prdidas de energa en las bombas
Las prdidas de energa en el interior de la bomba son de tres especies:
.. Prdida hidrulica: debido a la friccin que experimenta el lquido al atravesar la
bomba.
.. Prdidas volumtricas: Debidas a las fugas que eventualmente se pueden producir a
l
pasar el lquido a travs de la bomba.
.. Prdida mecnica: debido a los frotamientos mecnicos entre las partes fijas y
mviles de la bomba; por ejemplo entre pernos y cojinetes, entre pistones y cilind
ros,
etc.
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3.-CLASIFICACIN DE LAS BOMBAS
Existen diferentes clasificaciones de bombas que ocasionalmente puede causar cie
rta
confusin. Para los propsitos de este manual se ha seleccionado, como ms adecuada, l
a
proporcionada por el Hydraulic Institute de los EE.UU. (ver figura 3, tomada de Pe
rry
Manual del Ingeniero Qumico 7 ed. (4 ed. en espaol), Vol. II, Cap. 10; Ed. McGraw
Hill, 2001).
Fig. 3: Diagrama de Clasificacin de las Bombas
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Como observacin, indicaremos que en la clasificacin recogida en la figura 3, en el

conjunto de bombas cinticas o dinmicas, se indican las bombas peristlticas, mientra
s que
en la edicin original de Perry Chemical Engineering Handbook 7th ed.; McGraw Hill,
1999 (fig. 10-24), se hace referencia a peripheral pumps (bombas perifricas). En el

presente mtodo de trabajo se definirn ambos tipos de bombas.
En los prrafos que siguen se pretende dar una idea general de las aplicaciones de
los
diferentes tipos de bombas, sin entrar en detalles. Para conocer ms de una bomba
o tipo de
bomba determinado se puede consultar la bibliografa especializada que se cita al
final y se
recomienda que se consulten especialmente los catlogos especficos de stas bombas, o

tipos de bombas, de fabricantes con reconocido prestigio.
Tal como se muestra en la Figura 3, las bombas se clasifican bsicamente en dos cl
ases: de
desplazamiento positivo y cinticas. Cada una de stas se subdivide a su vez en otro
s tipos.
La diferencia entre ambas clases de bombas reside en que las primeras operan sob
re el
principio de desplazamiento positivo, la energa se comunica por desplazamiento de
l fluido
mediante engranajes, pistones, etc., es decir, que bombean una determinada canti
dad de
fluido (sin tener en cuenta las fugas, independientemente de la altura de bombeo
), existiendo
una relacin directa entre el movimiento de los elementos de bombeo y la cantidad
de
lquido movido; mientras que, en las bombas cinticas, la energa es comunicada al flu
ido
por un elemento rotativo que comunica velocidad al lquido y genera una presin,
dependiendo de1 caudal y de la resistencia al movimiento en la lnea de descarga.
En la
Tabla I se comparan las principales caractersticas de estos tipos de bombas.
Las bombas positivas tienen la ventaja de que para poder trabajar no necesitan "
cebarse, es
decir, no es necesario llenar previamente el tubo de succin y el cuerpo de la bom
ba para
que sta pueda iniciar su funcionamiento, tal como acontece en las bombas centrfuga
s.
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Tabla I. Caractersticas principales de las mquinas volumtricas y rotodinmicas
Bombas dinmicas o cinticas
1. Suministran un caudal fluctuante (se abre
una cavidad, el fluido entra, la cavidad se
cierra y desplaza el fluido hacia la salida)
2. No son sensibles a variaciones de
viscosidad
3. Suministran caudales moderados
4. Suministran presiones altas
5. Su margen de caudal es muy estrecho
1. El flujo es ms continuo
2. Son muy sensibles a variaciones de
viscosidad
3. Suministran caudales altos
4. Suministran presiones bajas y moderadas
5. Su margen de caudal es muy amplio
De los distintos tipos existentes de bombas, los ms utilizados son:
.. Bombas alternativas (o reciprocantes).
.. Bombas rotativas.
.. Bombas centrfugas.
Las bombas centrfugas suponen ms del 90% del total de bombas utilizadas en la Indu
stria
Qumica.
A continuacin se presenta una somera descripcin de los distintos tipos de bombas.
3.1.- Bombas Alternativas o Reciprocantes
Existen tres tipos de bombas alternativas o reciprocantes: bombas de pistn, bomba
s de
mbolo y bombas de diafragma. El general, el funcionamiento de las piezas de esas
bombas
es el mismo, ya que se basan en el desplazamiento del volumen de lquido que se pr
oduce
cundo se introduce un elemento slido con igual volumen dentro de la cmara de lquido
,
bien sea un pistn, un mbolo o un diafragma circular. En su forma ms usual, una bomb
a
alternativa consiste en un mbolo o pistn que tiene un movimiento de vaivn dentro de
una
cmara o cilindro. El dispositivo va equipado con vlvulas de admisin y descarga del
lquido que se bombea, cuyo funcionamiento est ntimamente ligado con los movimientos

del mbolo o pistn (ver figuras 4 y 5).
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El funcionamiento de una bomba alternativa depende del llenado y vaciado sucesiv
o de
receptculos con un volumen fijo, para lo cual cierta cantidad de lquido es obligad
a a entrar
al cuerpo de la bomba en donde queda momentneamente encerrada, para despus ser
forzada a salir por la tubera de descarga, (figuras 4 y 5). De lo anterior se ded
uce, en
trminos generales, que el caudal de una bomba alternativa es directamente proporc
ional a
su velocidad de rotacin y casi independiente de la presin de bombeo.
Fig. 4: Seccin esquemtica de una bomba alternativa de pistn
En las bombas de mbolo, el movimiento hacia atrs debe pararse antes de que el extr
emo
del mbolo llegue al empaque. Entonces el movimiento del mbolo se invierte, inicindo
se
la parte de la accin de bombeo conocida como la carrera o golpe de descarga, como
se
ilustra en la figura 5.
Fig. 5: Seccin esquemtica de una bomba alternativa de mbolo
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El juego de vlvulas permite que el lquido sea aspirado en una embolada y lanzado h
acia la
tubera de impulsin en la siguiente. En consecuencia, el caudal ser intermitente a m
enos
que se instalen recipientes amortiguadores de aire o un nmero suficiente de cilin
dros para
uniformar el flujo.
Como el proceso de llenado y vaciado sucesivo de receptculos de volumen fijo requ
iere
friccin por resbalamiento entre las paredes estacionarias del receptculo y las par
tes
mviles, estas bombas no son apropiadas para manejar lquidos que contengan arenas o

materias en suspensin.
Aunque las bombas de mbolo alternativo han sido desplazadas en la mayora de los ca
mpos
de aplicacin por las bombas centrfugas, mucho ms adaptables, todava se emplean
ventajosamente en muchas operaciones industriales especiales.
Estas bombas son relativamente de baja velocidad de rotacin, de tal manera que cu
ando
tienen que ser movidas por motores elctricos deben intercalarse reductores de eng
ranajes o
poleas para reducir la velocidad entre el motor y la bomba.
3.1.1.-Bombas de mbolo
Los elementos de una bomba alternativa, comnmente llamada de mbolo o de presin, se
muestran esquemticamente en la figura 6. En ella puede verse como la manivela o c
igeal
Fig. 6: Esquema de funcionamiento de una bomba alternativa de pistn
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gira con una velocidad uniforme, accionada por un motor y el mbolo o pistn se muev
e
hacia adelante y hacia atrs en el cuerpo del cilindro; en el golpe hacia afuera s
e hace un
vaco parcial detrs del mbolo, lo que permite que con la presin atmosfrica exterior so
bre
la superficie se haga subir el agua adentro del tubo de succin, la cual, pasando
por la
vlvula de succin llena el cilindro; en el golpe hacia adentro, la vlvula de succin s
e cierre
y el agua es presionada para abrir la vlvula de descarga y salir hacia la tubera d
e impulsin.
Entre las bombas de mbolo, o pistn, existen bsicamente dos tipos de bombas alternat
ivas:
las de accin directa, movidas por vapor y las bombas de potencia (o bombas de ene
rga).
Bombas de accin directa (o bombas de vapor)
En este tipo de bomba, una gua o varilla comn conecta el pistn de bombeo de lquido c
on
otro pistn accionado con vapor. Existen diversos tipos de bombas de accin directa,
las
simples o simplex (donde el bombeo se realiza por una sola cmara) y dobles o dupl
ex (con
doble cmara por pistn) que permiten reducir los intervalos entre pulsaciones, ofre
ciendo
un caudal ms amortiguado. (Vase esquema de funcionamiento de la figura 7).
Fig. 7. Bomba alternativa de doble efecto (duplex)
Las bombas de accin directa horizontales simples y duplex, han sido por mucho tie
mpo
muy usadas para diferentes servicios, incluyendo alimentacin de calderas en presi
ones de
bajas a medianas, manejo de lodos, bombeo de aceite y agua, etc. Se caracterizan
por la
facilidad de ajuste de columna, velocidad y capacidad. Al igual que todas las bo
mbas
alternativas, las unidades de accin directa tienen un flujo de descarga pulsante.

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Bomba de Energa (o Bomba de Potencia)
Una bomba de potencia es una mquina alternativa de velocidad constante, par motor

constante y capacidad casi constante, cuyos mbolos o pistones se mueven por medio
de un
cigeal, a travs de una fuente motriz externa, y pueden llegar a una presin de miles
de
atmsferas.
La capacidad de la bomba vara con el nmero de mbolos o pistones. En general, mientr
as
mayor sea el nmero, menor es la variacin en capacidad, a un nmero dado de rpm. La
bomba se disea para una velocidad, presin, capacidad y potencia especficas.
El pistn de lquido puede desarrollar una presin elevada cuando se cierra la vlvula d
e
descarga. Por esta razn es comn el proporcionar una vlvula de alivio para descarga,
con
objeto de proteger la bomba y su tubera. Las bombas de accin directa se detienen c
uando la
fuerza total en el pistn del agua iguala a la del pistn de vapor; las bombas de po
tencia
desarrollan una presin muy elevada antes de detenerse. Esta es varias veces la pr
esin de
descarga normal de las bombas de potencia.
Las bombas de potencia se encuentran particularmente bien adaptadas para servici
os de alta
presin y tienen algunos usos en la alimentacin de calderas, bombeo en lneas de tube
ras,
procesos de obtencin de petrleos y aplicaciones similares.
Las bombas se construyen en versiones tanto verticales como horizontales. Las bo
mbas
horizontales de pistn llegan hasta los 1.500 kW y las de construccin vertical hast
a los
1.100 kW. Pueden tener de tres a nueve mbolos, de accin simple o doble. Los mbolos
son
aplicables a bombas con presiones desde 1.000 hasta 30.000 lbf/in2 (o psi), rang
o que
equivale desde 70 hasta 2.100 kg/cm2.
Las bombas de potencia en los primeros diseos eran generalmente movidas por vapor
. En el
presente, sin embargo, es mas comn el movimiento por motor elctrico o de combustin
interna debido a que este sistema da una instalacin mas econmica y compacta, y req
uiere
menos mantenimiento.
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Bombas de Descarga Variable.
En determinados casos se hace necesaria una bomba cuyo caudal pueda variarse sin
cambiar
su velocidad de rotacin. En dicha bomba (indicada en la figura 8), los pistones o
mbolos
estn articulados a un anillo que se mantiene en contacto con una especie de disco
o platillo,
que puede inclinarse de modo que modifican la longitud de carrera de los mbolos.
Fig. 8. Esquema del mecanismo de una bomba de potencia de carrera variable
3.1.2.-Bombas de diafragma
Este tipo de bombas alternativas estn provistas de un diafragma flexible en vez d
e un
mbolo o pistn, fabricado de metal, caucho o un material flexible, lo que permite e
liminar
la friccin y las fugas en el punto donde el mbolo atraviesa la caja de empaque. Es
ta es una
ventaja importante en el caso de tener que manejar lquidos peligrosos. Un esquema
del
funcionamiento de esta bomba se muestra en la figura 9.
Las bombas de diafragma combina un diafragma accionado por un pistn y generalment
e se
usa solo para capacidades pequeas. Los diafragmas pueden construirse se muchos
materiales Un diafragma de material flexible no metlico puede soportar mejor la a
ccin
corrosiva o erosiva que las partes metlicas de algunas bombas alternativas. Encue
ntran
mltiples aplicaciones para la dosificacin de lquidos. Estas bombas pueden dar presi
ones
de ms de 70 kg/cm2 (1.000 lbf/in2).
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Fig. 9. Esquema del funcionamiento de una bomba de diafragma
Bombas de diafragma, de accionamiento neumtico
Este tipo de bombas no precisan de otra fuente de potencia ms que del aire compri
mido de
la lnea de servicio de la propia planta. Son bombas muy utilizadas en la industri
a; debido a
su baja velocidad y grandes vlvulas, estas bombas se usan para todo tipo de cauda
les de
lquidos, ya sea lquidos claros o conteniendo slidos. En la figura 10 puede verse un
modelo
de esta bomba y su esquema de funcionamiento.
Fig. 10. Bomba de doble diafragma. Esquema de funcionamiento y modelo de bomba
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Estas bombas resultan apropiadas para el bombeo de pulpas gruesas, drenajes, lod
os,
soluciones cidas y alcalinas, as como mezclas de agua con slidos que pueden ocasion
ar
erosin. Son autoaspirantes, aptas para productos qumicos, y aceptan viscosidades
superiores a 5.000 cP.
3.2.- Bombas Rotatorias (o Bombas Rotativas).
En las bombas rotatorias el desplazamiento del lquido tiene lugar debido a la rot
acin de
uno o ms dispositivos que se encuentran en el interior del cuerpo de la bomba. Pa
ra este
tipo de bombas la seleccin de materiales es un aspecto crtico, ya que deben ser re
sistentes a
la corrosin, compatibles cuando se produce el deslizamiento de unas partes sobre
otras y
capaces de presentar una resistencia a la abrasin aceptable.
Normalmente, este tipo de bombas se utiliza para pequeos caudales y lquidos viscos
os.
Existe una gran variedad de modelos.
3.2.1.-Bombas de Engranajes Externos
Una bomba de engranajes produce caudal al transportar el fluido entre los diente
s de dos
engranajes acoplados. Uno de ellos es accionado por el eje de la bomba (motriz),
y este hace
girar al otro (libre). Las cmaras de bombeo de estas bombas esta formadas por los
dientes
de los engranajes, por el cuerpo de la bomba y por las placas laterales (tambin l
lamadas
placas de presin o de desgaste).
Fig. 11. Bomba de engranajes externos
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Las bombas de engranajes no estn equilibradas hidrulicamente debido a que la alta
presin
en el orificio de salida impone una carga no equilibrada sobre los engranajes y
cojinetes. En
condiciones ptimas estas bombas pueden llegar a dar un 93% de rendimiento volumtri
co y
pueden trabajar a presiones de hasta 3600 psi (248,18 bar) (24818 kPa) .
Son sin lugar a dudas las bombas ms ruidosas del mercado. Por ello no se emplean
en
aplicaciones fijas e interiores, donde su nivel sonoro puede perjudicar a los op
erarios que las
trabajan.
3.2.2.-Bombas de Lbulos
Son bombas rotativas de funcionamiento similar a las de engranajes externos, per
o tiene un
desplazamiento mayor debido a que cada uno de los dos engranajes tiene slo tres d
ientes
mucho ms anchos y ms redondeados que los de una bomba de engranajes externos. Esto

hace que esta bomba sea ms adecuada para utilizarla con fluidos ms sensibles al ci
zalle, lo
mismo que para fluidos con gases o partculas suspendidas. Este tipo de bomba tien
e una
capacidad de presin relativamente baja y tiende a dar un caudal ms pulstil.
Fig. 12. Bomba de Lbulos. Esquema de funcionamiento
Ofrecen un mayor desplazamiento, pero su coste es mayor y sus prestaciones de pr
esin y
velocidad son inferiores a las de las bombas de engranajes.
3.2.3.-Bombas de Husillos
Tambin llamadas de tornillos; son bombas de engranajes de caudal axial. Hay tres
tipos de
bombas de husillos, segn tengan uno, dos o tres husillos.
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En la bomba de un solo husillo un rotor en forma de espiral gira excntricamente e
n el
interior de un estator. La interferencia entre ambos permite el bombeo de todo t
ipo de fluidos
de las ms diversas viscosidades.
Fig. 13. Principio de funcionamiento y corte seccional de una bomba de husillo e
xcntrico
(simple husillo)
Estas bombas funcionan libres de pulsaciones o turbulencias sin vlvulas y mecanis
mos de
alto desgaste. Los caudales alcanzados por estas bombas van desde prcticamente lo
s 0 l/h
hasta ms de 250 m3/h. La seccin de entrada y salida del estator es siempre igual e
n rea
resultando esto en un bombeo parejo y constante que es proporcional al nmero de r
pm, lo
que las hace eficientes como dosificadoras.
La bomba de doble husillo consiste en dos rotores paralelos que se entrelazan al
girar en una
carcasa mecanizada con tolerancias muy ajustadas. Los huecos internos de la bomb
a estn
diseados de tal manera que el lquido que ingresa es dividido hacia las dos partes
ms
distantes de los husillos en donde los mismos comienzan con su accin de bombeo /
traslado.
La porcin del lquido que ingresa a la bomba por la izquierda es trasladada axialme
nte de
izquierda hasta el centro de la bomba. La porcin del lquido que ingresa a la bomba
por la
derecha es trasladada axialmente de derecha hasta el centro de la bomba. En el c
entro, las
dos partes se unen de nuevo y son transportadas hacia la boca de descarga.
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Fig. 14. Esquema seccional y disposicin de tornillos en una bomba de doble husill
o
La bomba de triple husillo consiste en un rotor central, que es el motriz, y dos
rotores locos
que se entrelazan con el primero. Tambin aqu los rotores giran en el interior de u
na carcasa
mecanizada con tolerancias muy ajustadas.
Fig. 15. Esquema seccional de un bomba de triple husillo
El caudal a travs de una bomba de husillos es axial, y va en el sentido del rotor
motriz. El
fluido que rodea los rotores en la zona de aspiracin es atrapado a medida que stos
giran;
este fluido es empujado uniformemente, con el giro de los rotores, a lo largo de
l eje, y se ve
forzado a salir por el otro extremo.
Es muy importante tener en cuenta que el fluido en este tipo de bombas no gira,
sino que se
mueve linealmente, y el rotor funciona como un tornillo sin fin que continuament
e se mueve
hacia adelante. Por este motivo no hay pulsaciones incluso trabajando a altas ve
locidades.
Esta peculiaridad las hace recomendables para trabajar con fluidos sensibles a l
as
pulsaciones o a la cizalladura (algunos fluidos oleohidrulicos sintticos y/o con a
lto ndice
de viscosidad pueden presentar problemas de cizalladura).
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La ausencia de pulsaciones, y el hecho de que no haya contacto de metal con meta
l, hace que
estas bombas sean muy silenciosas y sus principales se encuentran en sistemas hi
drulicos
donde el nivel sonoro tiene que controlarse y mantenerse al mnimo posible, como p
or
ejemplo en los submarinos. Otras aplicaciones son como bombas de gran caudal y b
aja
presin en circuitos de prellenado de grandes prensas.
3.2.4.-Bombas de Engranajes Internos.
Estn compuestas por dos engranajes, externo e interno. Tienen un menor desgaste p
or la
reducida relacin de velocidad existente y se usan normalmente para bombear de lqui
dos de
naturaleza lubricante; por tanto la bomba de engranajes internos se lubrica con
el propio
lquido bombeado, mientras que las de engranajes externos necesitan ser lubricadas
con
aceite. Son utilizadas en caudales pequeos, y pueden ser de dos tipos: semiluna y
gerotor.
Bombas de Semiluna.
En estas bombas entre los dos engranajes hay una pieza de separacin en forma de m
edia
luna, situada entre los orificios de entrada y salida, donde la holgura es mxima.
La
estanqueidad se consigue entre el extremo de los dientes y la semiluna; posterio
rmente en el
orificio de salida, los dientes se entrelazan, reducen el volumen y fuerzan el f
luido a salir.
Estas bombas se emplean actualmente para modelos de dos etapas para presiones su
periores
a 280 bar.
Fig. 16. Esquema seccional de un bomba de semiluna
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Bombas Gerotor
Consiste en un par de engranajes que estn siempre en contacto. El rotor interno a
rrastra al
externo que a su vez tiene un diente ms, girando en la misma direccin.
Fig. 17. Bomba gerotor
El fluido entra a la cmara donde los dientes se separan y es expulsado cuando se
entrelazan
de nuevo.
3.2.5.-Bombas de paletas
Este tipo de bombas se clasifica en:
.. Deslizantes
.. Giratorias
.. Flexibles
.. Oscilantes
En cuanto a la distribucin de presin en la mquina, pueden ser equilibradas o no
equilibradas (tambin se refieren como compensadas o no compensadas), segn la geome
tra
de la misma. Estas bombas ofrecen en general mejores prestaciones que las bombas
de
engranajes a un coste relativamente bajo.
En la figura 18 se muestra una mquina de paletas rgidas deslizantes. El rotor va d
ispuesto
en forma excntrica respecto a la superficie interior del estator que es cilndrica,
debido a lo
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cual, las paletas, durante la rotacin del rotor, realizan movimientos alternativo
s o de vaivn
respecto al rotor. Bajo la accin de la fuerza centrfuga, las paletas se aprietan c
on sus
extremos libres a la superficie interior del estator y deslizan por ste, al tiemp
o que los
extremos interiores de dichas paletas se desplazan sobre el eje de giro. Las cmar
as de
bombeo se generan entre las paletas, el rotor y el anillo.
Fig. 18. Bomba de paletas deslizantes
Fig. 19. Esquemas de bombas de paletas: a) paletas deslizantes, b) paletas girat
orias,
c) paletas oscilantes (o basculantes) y d) paletas flexibles
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Durante la rotacin, a medida que aumenta el espacio comprendido entre las paletas
, el rotor
y el anillo, se crea un vaco que hace que entre el fluido por el orificio de aspi
racin. Cuando
se reduce el espacio, se ve forzado a salir. La estanqueidad se consigue entre e
l conjunto
paletas-rotor y las placas laterales, as como al ajustar el vrtice de las paletas
y el anillo.
En la figura 19 se muestran esquemas de los otros tipos de mquinas de paletas.
Los problemas constructivos de estas mquinas estn relacionados con la estanqueidad
del
espacio entre las paletas y la carcasa exterior, y por los discos laterales. Tam
bin estn
sometidas a grandes esfuerzos radiales.
Bombas de Paletas No Compensadas
Aqu el alojamiento es circular y dispone de un solo orificio de aspiracin y otro d
e presin.
Tienen las cmaras opuestas y generan cargas laterales sobre el eje motriz. Pueden
ser de
caudal fijo o variable, normalmente usadas a presiones inferiores a 175 bar.
Bombas de Paletas Compensadas
Slo existen para caudales fijos, se diferencian en que su anillo es elptico, lo qu
e permite
utilizar dos conjuntos de orificios de aspiracin y de impulsin. En estas bombas se
anulan
los esfuerzos laterales, puesto que las dos cmaras estn separadas 180 grados lo qu
e hace
que las fuerzas laterales se equilibren.
Entrada
Salida
Entrada
Salida
Paleta
Paleta
Rotor
Eje
Fig. 20. Esquema de funcionamiento de una bomba de paletas compensadas
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Bombas de Paletas Fijas
No se utilizan en sistemas hidrulicos por su pequea cilindrada y por ser ruidosas.
Tienen el
rotor elptico, anillo circular y paletas fijas internamente.
3.2.6.-Bombas de Pistones
Son unidades rotativas, que disponen de conjuntos pistn-cilindro. Parte del mecan
ismo gira
alrededor de un eje motor que crea un movimiento oscilante del pistn, haciendo qu
e este
aspira el fluido hacia el interior del cilindro en la carrera de expansin y expul
sarlo en la
carrera de compresin.
La clasificacin general de este tipo de mquinas se muestra en el siguiente esquema
:
Un slo pistn (slo generadoras)
Maquinas de pistones Pistones en lnea (slo generadoras)
Pistones radiales
Varios pistones
De eje recto
Axiales
Con eje inclinado
Bombas de Pistones en Lnea o Pistones Oscilantes
Las bombas de pistones en lnea (figura 21) tienen un funcionamiento y una disposi
cin
geomtrica similar a los pistones del motor de combustin de un coche, con la difere
ncia
funcional de que en stos no hay explosin del combustible, nicamente, el incremento
de
presin. Al igual que un motor de explosin, los pistones se mueven en un sentido po
r el
esfuerzo transmitido por un cigeal, una excentricidad del eje o un plato. La difer
encia
entre estas comparaciones es que lo que en el motor de explosin es el eje de sali
da, en la
bomba es el eje primario por el que recibe la energa; y los pistones del motor so
n los que en
la bomba generaran la presin y el caudal.
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Fig. 21. Esquema de una bomba de pistones en lnea
Estas bombas tienen como ventajas: ofrecen un sistema de estanqueidad mucho mejo
r entre
la entrada y la salida, adems que en estas bombas la lubricacin de las partes mvile
s puede
hacerse con un fluido distinto al bombeado.
Son muy robustas y adecuadas para presiones y caudales altos. Su rendimiento vol
umtrico
es alto. Una caracterstica importante de las bombas de un solo pistn y las de pist
ones en
lnea es su no reversibilidad, es decir, no pueden trabajar como motores.
Bombas de Pistones Radiales
En la figura 22 se muestran esquemas de bombas de pistones radiales, y su princi
pio de
funcionamiento. En estas bombas los pistones estn ubicados radialmente en un bloq
ue
cilndrico que gira con una cierta excentricidad respecto a otra carcasa cilndrica.
A medida
que el bloque gira, el pistn sigue la superficie interna del anillo. La estanquei
dad se obtiene
gracias a la fuerza centrfuga y a la presin del aceite. Presentan un buen rendimie
nto
volumtrico. La aspiracin y la impulsin se realizan a travs de lumbreras. Pueden
modificar su cilindrada a travs de la modificacin de la excentricidad del bloque c
ilndrico.
Pueden ser reversibles y trabajar como motores. Los esfuerzos radiales son menor
es que en
las mquinas de engranajes, pues las superficies de los pistones son pequeas.
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Fig. 22. Bombas rotativas de pistones radiales
Bombas De Pistones Axiales
Fig. 23. Bombas de pistones axiales
Los pistones en estas bombas oscilan axialmente, es decir paralelos al eje as que
el
movimiento rotativo del eje motriz se convierte en un movimiento axial oscilante
de los
pistones. Suelen utilizar varios pistones y vlvulas de retencin.
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Bombas de Pistones Axiales en Lnea
Tiene como diseo ms sencillo el de barrilete de cilindros que gira accionado por e
je
motriz. Los pistones en los orificios del barrilete se conectan al plato inclina
do y de una
anillo de retroceso.
A medida que el barrilete gira, los pies de los pistones siguen apoyados al plat
o, haciendo
que se muevan linealmente respecto al eje. Los orificios en la placa de distribu
cin permiten
que los pistones pasen por el orificio de entrada cuando empiezan a salir de sus
alojamientos
y por la salida cuando entran al alojamiento de nuevo. En la figura 24 se muestr
a el
esquemas de una mquina de pistones axiales con eje recto.
Fig. 24. Esquema de una bomba de pistones axiales de eje recto
Bombas De Pistones Axiales Con Placa Oscilante
La diferencia entre esta bomba y la axial en lnea es que los pistones son estticos
y lo que
gira es la placa inclinada. Gira la placa y produce el desplazamiento de los pis
tones, lo que
permite que los pistones aspiren y expulsen el fluido (ver figura 23).
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Bombas de Pistones Axiales en ngulo
Estn compuestas por un eje motriz, el barrilete de cilindros y una placa de vlvula
s,
encarada esta ltima con los orificios de los cilindros del barrilete. El eje motr
iz est en
ngulo con relacin al eje del barrilete. La placa de vlvulas tiene orificios dispues
tos de
forma que la aspiracin est abierta a los orificios de los cilindros en la zona de
revolucin.
Su orificio de salida est encarado a los orificios de los pistones en la zona en
la que los
pistones se acercan a la placa de vlvulas, haciendo que en el giro de la bomba lo
s pistones
succionen fluido hacia el interior de los cilindros, y lo expulsen por la cmara d
e salida.
Fig. 25. Esquema de una bombas de pistones axiales de eje inclinado
En la figura 25 se muestra el esquema de una mquina de pistones axiales con eje i
nclinado.
En stas, un bloque cilndrico accionado externamente, en el cual se hallan los huec
os
cilndricos, forma un ngulo respecto al eje de giro, lo que posibilita variar la ci
lindrada. La
conexin entre el bloque mvil y las partes fijas se realiza mediante superficies es
fricas.
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Disponen de cmaras de aspiracin e impulsin, por lo que pueden trabajar como motor.
Las mquinas de pistones son las ms compactas del mercado y, en el caso de las de p
istones
radiales y axiales con eje inclinado, se trata de mquinas con cilindrada variable
. Dicha
variacin se consigue variando la excentricidad y el ngulo de inclinacin del eje (),
respectivamente. Las ventajas en cuanto a ser ms compactas y con mayores rendimie
ntos
(menos fugas volumtricas) hacen que tambin sean las ms caras, tanto respecto a su c
oste
inicial como en cuanto a su mantenimiento (reposicin de cilindros daados, etc.).
3.3.- Bombas Montafluidos (Elevadores Neumticos)
Adems de las bombas de tipo mecnico existen otros dispositivos para desplazar lquid
os
que emplean un segundo fluido. En el esquema de la figura 3 (tomada de Perry, Man
ual del
Ingeniero Qumico 7 ed.), entre los tipos de
bombas de desplazamiento positivo, aparece
indicada la Bomba Montafluidos, que
corresponde al nombre asignado como
traduccin del tipo de bomba Blow Cover
que aparece recogido en el esquema del
Hydraulic Institute de los EE.UU. en su
versin original.
Para este sistema de bombeo se han usado
muchos nombres; entre ellos, como ms
extendido, el de elevador neumtico o
eyector neumtico, ya que utiliza aire o
un gas comprimido como elemento de
impulsin del lquido. El mecanismo
consiste en introducir aire o gas a presin en
el seno del lquido, cerca del fondo del
pozo, consiguindose una mezcla de gas-
Fig. 26. Esquema simplificado de unlquido, menos densa que el lquido slo, elevador
neumtico con aire comprimido
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que facilita la elevacin de la mezcla desde el interior del pozo. No se trata rea
lmente de una
bomba, ya que no se presuriza el lquido a bombear, pero su costo es muy barato ya
que
prcticamente se reduce a disponer de un compresor de aire o gas. En la figura 26
puede
verse un esquema de este dispositivo.
Una aplicacin importante del principio de elevacin de lquidos con gases se encuentr
a en
la extraccin de pozos petrolferos.
Otra aplicacin de este sistema es la bomba monta cidos o depsito impulsor que
consiste en un recipiente que puede llenarse con una carga del lquido que se va a
bombear.
El recipiente dispone de una conexin de carga y otra de salida que se conecta a l
a tubera o
depsito donde se pretende bombear el lquido, adems de una tercera para el aire o ga
s
comprimido, tal como se muestra en la figura 27.
Fig. 25. Esquema de una bomba monta cidos o eyector neumtico
3.4.- Bombas Centrfugas
La bomba centrfuga es, con diferencia, el dispositivo ms utilizado en la industria
qumica.
Su campo de utilizacin abarca desde los ms simples abastecimientos de agua hasta e
l
transporte de hormign o pulpas. Estas bombas se comercializan con una amplia vari
edad de
tamaos, con capacidades comprendidas entre 0,5 m3/h y 2.000 m3/h (2 gal/min y 100
.000
gal/min), y para alturas de descarga (presiones) comprendidas entre unos pocos m
etros y,
aproximadamente, 48 MPa (480 kg/cm2) (7000 lbf/in2). Para una aplicacin dada, el
tamao
y tipo ms adecuados slo pueden determinarse mediante un estudio ingenieril del pro
blema.
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El rendimiento de las de mayor tamao puede llegar al 90%.
Las bombas centrfugas son el tipo ms corriente de bombas dinmicas o cinticas, y se
denominan as porque la presin que crean es ampliamente atribuible a la accin centrfu
ga.
Este tipo de bomba tiene un elemento rotativo, el rodete, que comunica velocidad
al lquido
y genera presin. La carcasa exterior, el eje y el motor completan la unidad de bo
mbeo.
3.4.1.-Clasificacin de Bombas Centrfugas
Existen diferentes esquemas de clasificacin para las bombas centrfuga, entre las c
uales se
tienen las siguientes:
a) Segn el tipo de impulsor:
.. Abierto
.. Cerrado
.. Semiabierto
b) Segn el tipo de succin:
.. Simple succin
.. Doble succin
c) Segn el nmero de impulsores empleados
.. Bombas de una fase
.. Bombas de mltiples fases
d) Segn la forma de la carcasa
.. Circular
.. De voluta
.. De difusor o turbina
e) Segn la trayectoria del lquido en el impulsor
.. Flujo Radial
.. Flujo Mixto
.. Flujo Axial
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En la figura 26 se recoge un esquema de clasificacin de bombas centrfugas, adaptad
o de la
clasificacin del Hydraulic Institute de los EE.UU. con la inclusin de modelos (tomad
a
de Fluide Design Inc (www.fluidedesign.com), enero 2006).
Una bomba centrfuga, en su forma ms simple, consiste en un impulsor o rodete que g
ira en
el interior de una carcasa. El impulsor consta de un cierto nmero de paletas o lab
es, abiertos
o cerrados, montadas sobre un eje que se proyecta al exterior de la carcasa. Los

impulsores pueden tener ejes de rotacin horizontales o verticales, para adaptarse
al trabajo
que se vaya a realizar. Habitualmente, los impulsores protegidos o de tipo cerra
do suelen
ser ms eficaces, mientras que los impulsores de tipo abierto o semiabierto se emp
lean para
lquidos viscosos o que contengan materiales slidos en suspensin, as como tambin en
muchas de las bombas de pequea capacidad empleadas para servicios generales. De
acuerdo con el tipo de succin, los impulsores, adems, pueden ser de succin simple o
de
succin doble; en el primer caso el acceso del lquido tiene lugar por un solo lado
del rodete
y en el segundo caso tiene lugar por los dos lados.
La carcasa o cuerpo de la bomba consiste en una cmara dentro de la cual gira el i
mpulsor o
rodete, con una entrada y una salida para el lquido que se bombea. La forma ms sim
ple
est constituida por una carcasa circular, que consiste en una cmara anular dentro
de la
cual est situado el impulsor; pero ste tipo de carcasas presenta altas prdidas de e
nerga y
raras veces se utilizan.
Las carcasas de voluta o en espiral tienen forma de espiral con un rea de seccin
transversal creciente, a medida que va acercndose a la salida. Las volutas convie
rten, de
manera eficaz, la energa cintica que el impulsor comunica al lquido en energa de pre
sin.
El tercer tipo de carcasa se emplea en las bombas tipo turbina o bombas tipo dif
usor. En
estas bombas se interponen difusores o tabiques deflectores entre el impulsor y
la cmara
de la carcasa. En este tipo de bombas, cuando estn bien diseadas, las prdidas produ
cidas
son mnimas y la eficacia de la bomba puede mejorarse para un amplio intervalo de
capacidades. Este tipo de construccin se utiliza con frecuencia en bombas de etap
as
mltiples de alta presin.
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Fig. 26: Clasificacin de bombas centrfugas
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a) b) c)
Fig. 27: Secciones de bombas: a) flujo radial (doble succin), b) flujo mixto y c)
flujo axial
En la bomba de flujo radial, el lquido entra al impulsor por el centro y se impul
sa
radialmente hacia la periferia. En este tipo de bomba la energa transmitida al fl
uido es solo
de accin centrfuga. El rodete consiste en cierto nmero de labes curvados en direccin
contraria al movimiento y colocados entre dos discos metlicos. Esta bomba se pres
ta para
necesidades de cargas elevadas y capacidad moderada. Normalmente, esto se consig
ue
construyendo la carcasa en forma de espiral, con lo que la seccin del flujo en la
periferia del
rodete va aumentando gradualmente.
Para caudales grandes se usa el rodete de doble aspiracin, que es equivalente a d
os rodetes
de simple aspiracin ensamblados dorso con dorso; esta disposicin permite doblar la

capacidad sin aumentar el dimetro del rodete.
La bomba de flujo axial, llamada tambin bomba de hlice, desarrolla la mayor parte
de su
carga por la accin propulsora o impelente de las aspas sobre el lquido. Tiene un i
mpulsor
de entrada simple con el flujo entrando axialmente y descargando casi axialmente
en una
caja gua. Esta bomba no encuadra en la definicin de una verdadera bomba centrfuga,
sin
embargo se aproxima ms al tipo centrfugo que a cualquier otro tipo bsico. Esta bomb
a es
ms conveniente para elevar grandes caudales con pequea altura de elevacin.
En las bombas de flujo mixto o combinado, tambin denominadas bombas de turbina, l
a
carga es desarrollada en parte por la fuerza centrfuga y en parte por el impulso
de los labes
sobre el lquido. Este tipo de bomba tiene un impulsor de entrada simple, con el f
lujo
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entrando axialmente y descargando en direcciones axial y radial, usualmente en e
l interior de
una carcasa de tipo voluta. Esta bomba es ms apropiada para usarla con cargas mod
eradas y
grandes caudales.
El montaje es generalmente horizontal, ya que as se facilita el acceso para el
entretenimiento. Sin embargo, debido a la limitacin del espacio, algunas unidades
de gran
tamao se montan verticalmente.
Para que la bomba centrfuga est en disposicin de funcionar satisfactoriamente, tant
o la
tubera de aspiracin como la bomba misma, han de estar llenas de agua. Si la bomba
se
encuentra a un nivel inferior a la del agua del pozo de aspiracin, siempre se cum
plir esta
condicin, pero en los dems casos hay que expulsar el aire de la tubera de aspiracin
y de
la bomba y reemplazarlo por agua; esta operacin se denomina cebado. El mero giro
del
rodete, an a alta velocidad, resulta completamente insuficiente para efectuar el
cebado y
slo se conseguir recalentar los cojinetes.
Los dos mtodos principales de cebado exigen una vlvula de retencin en la proximidad
de
la base del tubo de aspiracin, o en las unidades mayores, la ayuda de una bomba d
e vaco.
Las ventajas primordiales de una bomba centrfuga son su sencillez, el bajo costo
inicial, el
flujo uniforme (sin pulsos), el pequeo espacio necesario para su instalacin, los b
ajos costos
de mantenimiento, el funcionamiento silencioso y su capacidad de adaptacin para s
u
empleo con una unidad motriz de motor elctrico o de turbina.
3.4.2.-Funcionamiento de una bomba centrfuga.
El funcionamiento de una bomba centrfuga puede observarse, de manera esquemtica, e
n la
figura 28. A partir de una fuente externa, se le comunica potencia al eje A, que
hace girar el
impulsor B, situado en el interior de la carcasa estacionaria C. Los labes del im
pulsor, al
girar, producen una disminucin de la presin en la entrada u ojo del impulsor. Esto
hace
que el lquido circule hacia el impulsor desde la tubera de succin (1). Este lquido s
e ve
obligado a salir, en la direccin de los labes, a velocidades tangenciales crecient
es. La carga
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de velocidad que adquiere el lquido, al abandonar los extremos de los labes, se co
nvierte
en carga de presin al viajar a travs de la cmara espiral y, por ltimo, el lquido lleg
a a la
zona de descarga (2).
A
BB
C
Fig. 28. Esquema de una bomba centrfuga simple
Los dos mtodos principales de cebado exigen una vlvula de retencin en la proximidad
de
la base del tubo de aspiracin, o en las unidades mayores, la ayuda de una bomba d
e vaco.
Para un conocimiento ms en detalle acerca del funcionamiento, elementos caracterst
icos,
tipologa, seleccin y clculo de bombas centrfugas, consultar el Anexo II: Dimensionado

de Bombas Centrfugas del Manual de Bombas y Vlvulas de KSB (un importante
fabricante alemn de bombas, con representacin a nivel mundial) que es una gua clara
y
suficientemente concisa sobre el tema aunque, por supuesto, orientada a los prod
uctos de
dicho fabricante.
3.4.3.-Caractersticas de una bomba centrfugas.
El caudal que suministra una bomba centrfuga depende de la resistencia que ofrezc
a la
tubera de trasiego. A mayor prdida de carga corresponde un menor caudal. En la fig
ura 29
se muestra una tpica curva caracterstica de una bomba centrfuga donde se refleja la

mxima altura manomtrica a que puede ser impulsado un determinado caudal de lquido.
Es importante sealar que para una determinada velocidad constante del rodete, la
bomba
funcionar a lo largo de esta curva y no en otros. Por ejemplo, para un caudal de
45,5 m3/h
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(200 gal/min), la bomba generar una carga de 26,5 m (87 ft) y si se hace aumentar
la carga
hasta 30,48 m (100 ft), el caudal de descarga se reducir a 27,25 m3/h (120 gal/mi
n).
Fig. 29. Curva caracterstica de una bomba centrfuga que trabaja a velocidad consta
nte
No es posible reducir la capacidad a 27,25 m3/h (120 gal/min) con una carga de 2
6,5 m (87
ft) a menos que se trabaje con mayor velocidad del rodete, algo que puede conseg
uirse si la
bomba dispone de impulsor con velocidad variable, como puede verse en a figura 3
0.
Fig. 30. Curva caracterstica de una bomba centrfuga a varias velocidades de rotacin

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Cambiando el tamao del rodete tambin se puede aumentar o disminuir el caudal de
bombeo para una determinada prdida de carga; de hecho, es normal que los fabrican
tes de
bombas centrfugas ofrezcan diferentes tamaos de rodete para una voluta determinada
1.
Para permitir la seleccin rpida de una bomba centrfuga, los fabricantes suelen ofre
cer
grficos con los detalles ms caractersticos de funcionamiento para todo un abanico d
e
bombas de diferentes tamaos, basados en los tamaos de los conductos de impulsin y d
e
descarga y del tipo de impulsor (ver figura 31).
Fig. 31. Curva de funcionamiento para varias bombas de rodete abierto
1 Para ms detalles ver el Anexo II.
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3.4.4.-Sellado de bombas centrfugas.
Las bombas centrfugas disponen de ejes rotatorios que conectan el motor con el im
pulsor o
rodete. El paso del eje por la carcasa requiere practicar un orificio por donde
pueden
producirse fugas de lquido. Para minimizar o evitar estos problemas, que en deter
minados
casos (lquidos inflamables, txicos, corrosivos, etc.) es de extrema importancia, s
e dispone
de un sistema de sellado, que puede consistir desde simples cajas de empaquetadu
ras a sellos
mecnicos con aporte de un lquido secundario compatible para limpiar el sello.
Para un conocimiento ms detallado de los sistemas de sellado de bombas centrfugas
se
recomienda las lecturas tcnicas de Perry (Manual del Ingeniero Qumico 7 ed. (4 ed. en

espaol), Vol. II, Cap. 10; Ed. McGraw Hill, 2001), as como la Norma API 682 (Ameri
can
Petroleum Institute : Sistemas de Sellado de Ejes para Bombas Centrfugas y Rotativ
as)
donde se especifican materiales, requerimientos y ensayos de calidad para sellos
mecnicos
y sistemas a ser usados en refineras y plantas petroqumicas.
3.4.5.-Bombas Centrifugas Magneticas
Este tipo de bombas, son centrfugas en cuanto al sistema de propulsin de los lquido
s, y
magnticas en cuanto al sistema de conexin entre motor y rodete. Con el sistema de
traccin magntica no se necesitan pasos de ejes ni cierres o empaquetaduras, para e
stablecer
la conexin motor/rodete, ya que de ello se encargan imanes permanentes actuando a
travs
de la pared hermtica del cuerpo de la bomba. Esto permite una estanqueidad total
que evita
derrames y hace a estas bombas idneas para el trasiego de lquidos agresivos, pelig
rosos y
voltiles, pero dnde las impurezas no sean abrasivas o magnticas.
Este tipo de bombas puede manejar caudales de hasta 100 m3/h con alturas de 80 m
.c.l.
3.5.- Bombas Perifricas o Regenerativas
Las bombas perifricas (Peripheral pumps) son tambin conocidas como bombas
regenerativas o bombas de turbina. Se denominan as, por la forma del impulsor que
presenta
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muchos pequeos alabes fresados a ambos lados de la periferia, y tambin se mecaniza
n
canales similares en las superficies coincidentes con la carcasa, empleando una
combinacin
de impulso mecnico y fuerza centrfuga para producir altas cargas (5400 ft o 1645 m
) con
bajos caudales (150 gpm o 34 m3/h). Al entrar, el fluido se dirige a los pasos r
adiales del
impulsor y sigue una trayectoria en espiral en torno a la periferia, pasando alt
ernativamente
del impulsor a la carcasa y recibiendo impulsos sucesivos conforme avanza.
Estas bombas son muy tiles cuando se trata de bombear pequeos caudales de lquidos d
e
baja viscosidad a presiones ms altas que las que normalmente aportan las bombas
centrfugas. Presentan mayores eficiencias que las bombas centrfugas y requieren un
menor
MPS. Tambin pueden manejar lquidos con un contenido en gases hasta un 20%.
Fig. 32. Esquema y partes de una bomba perifrica o regenerativa de turbina
3.6.- Bombas Peristlticas
Este es un tipo de bombas de desplazamiento no positivo cuyo principio de funcio
namiento
est basado en el sistema de la digestin, llamado sistema peristltico, consistente e
n la
contraccin y siguiente liberacin de un msculo alrededor de un tubo que as mueve el
contenido. En el caso de la bomba un tubo elastomrico es pisado continuamente a l
o largo
de toda su longitud por rodillos adecuadamente situados, entre una pasada y otra
del rodillo
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impulsor, el tubo recupera su dimetro primitivo provocando un vaco idneo para aspir
ar el
producto a vehicular.
Esta bomba presenta ciertas particularidades, como la ausencia de contacto del p
roducto a
bombear con el elemento impulsor, la posibilidad de reversibilidad del flujo sin
variacin de
caudal, capacidad para operar en seco y la ausencia de vlvulas y cierres. Esto ha
ce que sea
ideal para el manejo de lquidos corrosivos o abrasivos. Se utilizan para aplicaci
ones en que
se requieran grandes dosificaciones de hasta 4,5 m3/h, o presiones de trabajo ha
sta 15 bar
(220 PSI) y pueden bombear productos con cuerpos slidos en suspensin hasta el 40%
del
dimetro interno.
Fig. 33. Esquema del funcionamiento de una bomba peristltica
3.7.- Bombas especiales. Bombas de inyeccin.
Las bombas de inyeccin, o tipo jet, son una clase de dispositivos para manejo de
lquidos
que utilizan la cantidad de movimiento de un fluido para desplazar a otro fluido
.
Los dos tipos de bombas de inyeccin de inters para los ingenieros qumicos son los
eyectores y los inyectores. El eyector tambin denominado sifn o eductor, se disea p
ara su
aplicacin en operaciones en las que la carga con la que se realiza el bombeo es b
aja y menor
que la carga del fluido utilizado para bombear; mientras que el inyector es un t
ipo especial
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de bomba de inyeccin que funciona por medio de vapor y se utiliza para la aliment
acin de
calderas y otros servicios similares, en donde el flujo que se bombea se descarg
a a una
cmara que se encuentra a la misma presin que el vapor utilizado para hacer funcion
ar el
inyector.
Fig. 34. Esquema del funcionamiento de un ejector simple
En la Figura 34 se muestra un eyector de diseo simple. El fluido de bombeo entra
por la
tobera situada a la izquierda y pasa a la tobera venturi situada en el centro, p
ara salir por el
orificio de descarga, situado a la derecha. Al entrar a la tobera venturi, el fl
uido desarrolla
una succin que hace que se capte parte del fluido de la cmara de succin en la corri
ente y
que salga, junto con el fluido impulsor, a travs del orificio de descarga.
En el caso de una bomba eyectora, o eyector, la eficacia es de un bajo porcentaj
e, siendo la
carga desarrollada, excepto en algunos casos especiales, tambin baja. El disposit
ivo tiene la
desventaja de que diluye el fluido bombeado, al mezclarlo con el fluido de bombe
o. Sin
embargo, en los inyectores de vapor para alimentacin de calderas y equipos simila
res,
donde se recupera el calor del vapor, la eficacia se acerca al 100 por 100.
El sifn o eyector simple se utiliza con frecuencia, a pesar de su baja eficacia,
para transferir
lquidos de un depsito a otro, para elevar cidos, lcalis o lquidos que contengan slidos
de
naturaleza abrasiva y para vaciar sumideros.
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3.8.- Bombas de tornillo sinfn.
Este tipo de bombas suele ser ms conocido como tornillo de Arqumedes. Bsicamente es
un tornillo girando en una canaleta con su eje a pendientes de hasta 45. La sumer
gencia del
lquido en la entrada controla la salida de la bomba, por lo que la unidad puede m
overse con
un motor de velocidad constante para flujos variables. Las limitaciones estructu
rales, sin
embargo, controlan la altura mxima a casi 7,5 m. Para bombeos ms altos, las bombas
de
tornillo pueden utilizarse en etapas.
Las bombas de tornillo de Arqumedes, implementadas en Holanda desde hace varios s
iglos,
se usan para bombeo en este pas porque pueden pasar slidos bastante grandes.
Fig. 35. Bombas de tornillo sinfn (tronillo de Arqumedes)
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4.-SELECCIN DE BOMBAS
Al escoger bombas para cualquier servicio, es necesario tener conocimiento del f
luido que se
va a manejar, las presiones de succin y descarga, la prdida de carga de la instala
cin, y, en
la mayor parte de los casos, la temperatura, la viscosidad, la presin de vapor y
la densidad
relativa del lquido. En la industria qumica, la tarea de seleccionar una bomba, a
menudo
viene a complicarse, debido a la presencia de slidos en suspensin en el seno del lq
uido y a
los posibles fenmenos de corrosin del propio lquido, lo que exige el empleo de mate
riales
especiales de construccin.
Intervalo de operacin. Debido a la gran variedad de tipos de bombas existentes y
a la
cantidad de factores que pueden determinar la seleccin de cualquiera, lo primero
que debe
hacerse es eliminar todas aquellas que no ofrezcan posibilidades razonables de a
plicacin.
Puesto a que el intervalo de operacin resulta siempre una consideracin importante,
la
Figura 36 puede ser de gran ayuda2.
Materiales de construccin de las bombas. En la industria qumica, la seleccin de los

materiales de construccin de bombas est en consonancia con las consideraciones
realizadas para los factores de corrosin, erosin, seguridad del personal y contami
nacin
del lquido. La experiencia de los fabricantes es muy valiosa en la seleccin de mat
eriales.
En el apartado correspondiente a materiales puede obtenerse mas informacin al res
pecto.
Presencia de slidos. Cuando se requiere una bomba para manejar lquidos que contien
en
slidos en suspensin, deben de considerarse una serie de requisitos muy particulare
s.
Adems de un buen comportamiento hidrulico y del empleo adecuado de los materiales
de
construccin seleccionados, tambin resulta bsico considerar las dimensiones de los p
asos
internos de la bomba. As, deber evitarse la formacin de zonas y puntos muertos dond
e
2 En el mejor de los casos, los lmites que se muestran para cada tipo de bomba so
n aproximados, ya que
pueden presentarse aplicaciones poco usuales, en las cuales la seleccin adecuada
estar en contradiccin con
la predicha en la grfica. Sin embargo, en la mayor parte de los casos, la Figura
36 resultar til para limitar la
evaluacin a dos o tres tipos de bombas.
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puedan acumularse los slidos; los huecos o cavidades internas muy pequeas son
indeseables, debido a los posibles fenmenos de abrasin; y deber tenerse en cuenta l
a
necesidad de conexiones para la limpieza del equipo tanto en uso continuo como e
n uso
intermitente.
Las instalaciones que requieren manejo de slidos en suspensin, con un mnimo de rotu
ra o
degradacin de los mismos, como es el caso de las bombas de alimentacin a filtros p
rensas,
exigen una atencin especial, tanto si se utilizan de bombas de desplazamiento pos
itivo
como en los casos en los que se requieran bombas centrfugas.
Fig. 36. Rangos normales de operacin de bombas de proceso
Para lneas continuas: utilizar ordenadas de la izquierda, escala de cargas.
Para lneas de trazos: utilizar ordenadas de la derecha, escala de presiones.
Para convertir gal/min en m3/h, multiplicar por 0,2271.
Para convertir ft en metros, multiplicar por 0,3048.
Para convertir lbf/in2 en kPa, multiplicar por 6,895.
Actualmente, la adaptabilidad a un mantenimiento sencillo es una de las caracters
ticas de
importancia creciente en el mbito econmico de estas instalaciones. No es prctico ni

econmico utilizar bombas que requieran un mantenimiento anual de dos o tres veces
el
monto de la inversin original.
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La principal gua para seleccionar una bomba es, obviamente, la experiencia; pero
no
siempre se dispone de referencias donde apoyarse. Como ayuda a la seleccin de bom
bas,
puede utilizarse el diagrama de flujo del Anexo I y tener en cuenta las siguient
es
recomendaciones:
1
Analizar la instalacin y la funcin de la bomba. Las propiedades y caractersticas de
l
fluido a bombear deben de haber quedado totalmente establecidas.
2
Si se requiere una dosificacin controlada se recurrir a bombas medidoras de
desplazamiento positivo.
3
En la Figura 36 se muestran las capacidades aproximadas de los distintos tipos d
e
bombas. Si los requerimientos caen en el rea de las bombas centrfugas se
considerar la viscosidad del lquido. Por encima de 500 cP se escoger una bomba
de desplazamiento positivo, al igual que cuando el lquido contenga gases en
proporcin > 5%.
4
Cuando se manejan lodos (slurries) con concentraciones del 3 al 5% en volumen de

slidos, las bombas centrfugas no operarn a ms de 1.800 rpm. Puede requerirse una
bomba especial de lodos.
4.1.- Seleccin de Materiales
La seleccin de materiales de construccin es uno aspectos ms importantes a tener en
cuenta a la hora de especificar una bomba. Las diferentes partes de la bomba (ca
rcasa, rotor,
vlvulas, juntas, sellos, ejes, diafragmas, etc.) deben tener la resistencia qumica
y mecnica
adecuada para aguantar en las condiciones de funcionamiento.
Los productos que manipulan las bombas pueden ser desde soluciones acuosas y orgn
icos
ligeros a jarabes y melazas de gran viscosidad, desde lquidos puros a los que tie
nen gran
proporcin de slidos, desde productos inertes a cidos agresivos. Dada la extensa var
iedad
de caractersticas de estos medios, en la industria se emplean todos los tipos de
bombas, con
METODO DE TRABAJO
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ciertas preferencias en aplicaciones concretas, como el caso de las mquinas especf
icamente
proyectadas para una utilidad determinada.
La condicin principal que deben cumplir las bombas es que no sean sensibles al at
aque
corrosivo o abrasivo por parte del producto que se manipula. Al final de un peri
odo de
utilizacin, la bomba puede verse obligada a cierto tiempo de inactividad, o inclu
so pasar a
manipular un producto diferente. Es importante que la bomba se proyecte y se con
struya de
forma que el desmontaje y la limpieza sean operaciones fciles, dado que quizs deba
n
realizarse a diario o a intervalos regulares (segn el proceso) aparte de la facil
idad de
repararlas y montarlas de nuevo.
Basadas en la experiencia se han establecido ciertas condiciones para los materi
ales. Por
regla general, en los procesos de los diferentes sectores industriales (petroqumi
co,
alimentario, papelero, nuclear, desaladoras, etc.), se dispone de especificacion
es sobre
seleccin de materiales. En cualquier caso, los fabricantes de bombas disponen de
referencias sobre materiales para cada aplicacin concreta, por lo que resulta esp
ecialmente
importante solicitarles informacin sobre unidades que ya hayan aplicado con anter
ioridad y
con xito en aplicaciones similares. Tambin es conveniente conocer las posibilidades
de
aplicacin que puedan tener los materiales de nueva aparicin en el mercado.
Para un mejor conocimiento acerca del comportamiento y seleccin de materiales par
a
bombas, consltese el Anexo III donde se recoge una seleccin de tres informes al re
specto:
.. National Physical Laboratory (NPL): Guides to Good Practice in Corrosion Contr
ol:
Pumps and Valves; U.S. DTI Pub., 2000.
.. Nickel Development Institute (NiDI): Materials for saline water, desalination
and
oilfield brine pumps; U.S. Reference Book Series N 11 004, 2nd ed., 1995.
.. McCaulou, D.R.; Jewett, D.G and Huling, S.G. Non Aqueous Phase Liquid
Compatibility with Materials Used in Well Construction, Sampling and
Remediation. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA): Ground Water Issue;
EPA/540/S-95/503, July 1995.
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BIBLIOGRAFIA

KENNETH J. and Mc NAUGHTON, Bombas, Seleccin, Uso y Mantenimiento, Ed.
McGraw Hill.- Mxico, 1988.

KSB, Centrifugal pump design, (Manual de diseo de bombas centrfugas), Edicin 1994

MCCAULOU, D.R.; JEWETT, D.G AND HULING, S.G. Non Aqueous Phase Liquid
Compatibility with Materials Used in Well Construction, Sampling and Remediation.
U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA): Ground Water Issue; EPA/540/S-95/503, July
1995.

MUNSON B.R., YOUNG D.F., OKISHI T.H. Fundamentos de mecnica de fluidos. 1.
edicin, Limusa-Wiley, Mxico 1999.

NATIONAL PHYSICAL LABORATORY (NPL): Guides to Good Practice in Corrosion
Control: Pumps and Valves; U.S. DTI Pub., 2000.

NICKEL DEVELOPMENT INSTITUTE (NiDI): Materials for saline water, desalination
and oilfield brine pumps; U.S. Reference Book Series N 11 004, 2nd ed., 1995.

OATE, Esteban. Energa hidrulica, Ed. Paraninfo, Madrid 1992.

PERRY, R.H AND GREEN D.W. Manual del Ingeniero Qumico 7 ed. (4 ed. en
espaol), Vol. II, Cap. 10; Ed. McGraw Hill, Madrid, 2001.

POTTER, M.C. y WIGGERT, D.C.: Mecnica de Fluidos. Ed. Prentice Hall. Mxico,
1998.

ROCA RAVEL, F., "Oleohidrulica Bsica". Ed. Alfaomega. Barcelona 1999.

SERRANO, A., "Oleohidrulica", McGraw-Hill, Barcelona 2002.

ZUBICARAY VIEJO, MANUEL, Bombas / Pumps: Teora, Diseo y Aplicaciones /
Theory, Design and Applications; Ed. LIMUSA S.A. de C.V., Mxico 2005.
Normas:

API (American Petroleum Institute) . Norma 610: Bombas Centrfugas para Servicio en

Refineras.

API (American Petroleum Institute) . Norma 682: Sistemas de sellado de ejes para
Bombas Centrfugas y Rotativas
METODO DE TRABAJO
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AWWA (American Waterworks Assciation) Norma E 101: Bombas de Turbina Verticales
para Extraccin de Pozos Subterrneos.

NFPA (National Fire Protection Agency). Norma 20: Bombas Centrfugas Anti-
Incendios.

UL (Underwriters Laboratories) Laboratorios Oficiales de las Compaas Aseguradoras
:
UL51, UL343, UL448, UL1081, UL1247.
Internet:

http://www.fluidedesign.com/

http://www.engineersedge.com/pumps/

http://www.pumps.org (Hydraulic Institute)

http://www.pumpschool.com/index.htm

http://www.pumpworld.com/

http://www.tecnicaoleohidraulica.com/h_02_bombas.htm

http://descom.jmc.utfsm.cl/sgeywitz/ PIPING/Dimensionado%20de%20bombas.htm
METODO DE TRABAJO
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Anexo I
Diagrama de flujo para la seleccin de bombas
CALCULAR LAS
CARACTERISTICAS (H/Q)
DEL SISTEMA Y EL NPSH
DISPONIBLE
CONSULTAR
PROPIEDADES
DEL LQUIDO
DECIDIR LA
FUNCION DE LA
BOMBA
SE NECESITADOSIFICACIN
EXACTA?
SI
NO
H/Q ENTRA EN EL
CAMPO DE BOMBAS
CENTRFUGAS?
H/Q ENTRA EN EL
CONSULTAR
NO
CAMPO DE BOMBAS
FIGURA 5
DE TURBINA?
BOMBA DE
NO
DESPLAZAMIENTO
POSITIVO
SI
VISCOSIDAD
< 200 cP
NO
SI
AUTOCEBADO?
SI

SI
PUEDE AADIRSEUNA CMARA DE
CEBADO?
SI
VISCOSIDAD
< 500 cP
NO
SI
AUTOCEBADO?
SI
NO
BOMBA DE
DESPLAZAMIENTO
POSITIVO
NO
HAY SLIDOS ENSUSPENSIN?
SI
NO
NO
SI
CONTENIDO EN GASES
EN LA ASPIRACIN
< 5% EN VOLUMEN
BOMBA DE
TURBINA
CONSIDERAR BOMBAS
DE TURBINA, SI H/Q ES
SATISFACTORIO
AUTOCEBANTE
NO
CONTENIDO EN GASES
EN LA ASPIRACIN
< 5% EN VOLUMEN
NO
SI
BOMBAS
CENTRIFUGAS DE
DISEO ESPECIAL
VISCOSIDAD
< 5 cP
NO
SI
LIQUIDO CON
CONTENIDO EN SOLIDOS
< 3% EN VOLUMEN
UTILIZAR COEFICIENTES
DE CORRECCIN
FIGURA 5
NO
SI
CONSULTAR
FIGURA 5
SE PUEDEN
BOMBA DE
NO
USAR BOMBAS
DESPLAZAMIENTO
CENTRFUGAS?
POSITIVO
SI
BOMBA
CENTRFUGA
CONSIDERAR BOMBAS
DE TURBINA, SI H/Q ES
SATISFACTORIO
SE PUEDEN
USAR BOMBAS
CENTRFUGAS?
NO
SI
H < 100 mcl ; Q < 2.000 m3/h ?

H < 200 mcl ; Q < 4000 m3/h ?
BOMBA
SI NO
CENTRIFUGA
ESTANDAR
SELECCIONAR
BOMBA VERTICAL
U HORIZONTAL
ES CRTICO EL
NPSH DISPONIBLE?
SI
NO
LA BOMBA ES PARA FANGOS?
SI
NO
UTILIZAR
PREFERENTEMENTE
3.000 rpm
UTILIZAR
VELOCIDADES
< 1.500 rpm
ELEGIR MATERIAL
CUALQUIER BOMBA
SELECCIONAR
EN CATALOGO
O NORMAS
PREPARAR
ESPECIFICACIONES
SOLICITAR OFERTAS A
SUMINISTRADORES
VALORACION MECNICA Y ECONMICA
ESCOGER LA BOMBA MS ECONMICA
Diagrama de flujo para la seleccin de bombas
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Anexo II
Dimensionado de Bombas Centrfugas
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Anexo III
Seleccin de materiales
Guides to Good Practice
in Corrosion Control
Pumps
and Valves
The National Physical Laboratory is operated on behalf of the DTI by NPL Managem
ent Limited, a wholly owned subsidiary of Serco Group plc
Pumps
and Valves
Contents page
1.0 Introduction
2.0 General considerations
3.0 Types of corrosion 1
3.1 General corrosion 1
3.2 Localised corrosion 4
3.3 Galvanic corrosion 4
3.4 Flow effects 4
3.5 Environmental cracking 5
3.6 De-alloying 6
3.7 Wear 6
4.0 Materials of construction
5.0 Protection of external surfaces
6.0 Corrosion factors in design
7.0 Corrosion factors in use
8.0 Materials checklist
9.0 Sources of advice
10 Further information
11.0 References
This is an update of a DTI publication first issued in 1982. The new version
has been prepared by Dr. R. Francis of Weir Materials and Foundries
under contract from NPL for the Department of Trade and Industry.
Pumps and Valves
1.0 Introduction
This guide describes potential corrosion problems in pumps
and valves, and outlines measures that can be taken to
minimise these problems. It is not intended that this guide
be used to select the most appropriate pump or valve type
for a specific application, but it does give indications of the
applications for the major types being considered. The guide
also indicates the different kinds of corrosion which may be
encountered and the means of avoidance which can
be considered, both for new equipment and items which
have failed in service.
There is a large number of pump and valve types, as well
as a wide range of fluids to be handled, so that advice on
design and materials selection in this guide is given in
general terms.
2.0 General considerations
Pumps and valves are designed or chosen primarily for their
mechanical performance i.e. containment of pressure, fluid
sealing and, in the case of pumps, pumping capacity. For
reasons of economy manufacturers offer their products in a
limited range of materials. Each of these materials is suitable
for a range of common fluids, and has the advantage of being
available with relatively short delivery times. However, for
corrosive and/or erosive fluids the user may require special
designs (e.g. of seals) and/or special materials, which
increase cost and delivery times. The balance of cost versus
the likelihood of failure due to corrosion must be taken into
account along with the criticality of the component, i.e. what
are the consequences of a failure. For example, a firewater
pump is a high criticality item and materials should be chosen
so that there is no safety risk.
When requesting non-standard items it is important to realise
that most of the wetted components in a valve or pump are
cast and hence an alloy with good foundry characteristics
must be selected. A compatible wrought alloy must be
selected for items such as shafts and stems. Even when an
alloy is available as a casting, it may not have all the
properties that are required. For example, phosphor bronze
(BS 1400; CT1) is sometimes used for pump impellers, but
rarely for pump or valve bodies because of the difficulty in
producing pressure tight castings in this alloy.
If an alloy change from a standard material involves the
production of wholly new patterns, the additional costs will
be great, and it may be cost effective to consider an alternative
alloy with similar properties which only requires minor
pattern modifications.
When selecting a pump or valve the user must provide the
supplier with details of the composition of the fluid to be
handled (including trace chemicals), the pH, the
temperature, the solids content and the flow rate. Other
factors which are also required for cost effective
materials selection are the desired life and the criticality of
the component i.e. the consequences of an unplanned
shutdown.
Tables 1 and 2 list the common types of pumps and valves
and some of their advantages and disadvantages in relation
to corrosion and allied problems. Nowadays most valve
types can be made fire safe and are available in a range of
common materials. Stem glands will require maintenance
on all types of valves.
3.0 Types of corrosion
3.1 General corrosion
This involves more or less uniform metal dissolution over all
the wetted surfaces. Although this is less serious than
localised corrosion, a number of problems may occur. One
is the reduction of tolerances on items such as wear rings
in pumps, which will result in a loss of pumping efficiency.
Also, the continued release of metal into the fluid may cause
unacceptable levels of contamination.
There are many tables and charts giving data on general
corrosion rates of numerous alloys in a wide range of fluids.
However, care is needed in applying these as much data
have been generated under quiescent or slow flow
conditions, and high velocities can greatly increase
dissolution rates with some materials.
one
Pumps and Valves
Table 1. Guide to pump types
TYPE DESIGN PROBLEMS ADVANTAGES
Centrifugal Horizontal
Vertical: in line
Vertical: submerged
Canned: a glandless pump.
Electrical windings separated
from fluid by a thin can of
corrosion resistant alloy.
Not usually self-priming and can
lose prime if air/vapour is
present. Poor performance on
viscous liquids.
As above plus: Special motor;
bottom bearing (if fitted)
becomes contaminated.
Smaller mounting area
(footprint).
As above plus: Bottom bearing
exposed to liquids. Liquid drain
down whilst stationary leads to
air/liquid interface within the
pump, and also probably on the
pump or pipework external
surface.
No use for liquids containing
solids because of close
tolerances between stator and
rotor; carbon bearings easily
destroyed.
Available in wide range of
materials. Continuous-flow, free
from large pressure pulsation.
Has no seals and isolates liquids
from motor.
Rotary
Gear: two meshing gears
within closed casing.
Lobe: two meshing lobes.
Vane: offset fined impeller.
Screw: helical screw in
elastomeric stator.
Rotary pumps are usually not
suitable for handling liquids
containing solids.
Available in most metallic
materials. Small amounts of
corrosion or wear reduce
efficiency. Generally mild steel
or carbon.
Limited materials available for
stator.
Suitable for all fluids including
viscous fluids. Positive
displacement type pumps
suitable for metering.
Reciprocating Diaphragm: the diaphragm is
forced into reciprocating
motion by mechanical or
hydraulic linkage.
Limited materials available for
diaphragms and check valves.
Pulsed flow, which can be
smoothed by the addition of
dampers. Vulnerability of
check-valve materials to
process fluids. Poor with solids,
but designs exist that allow
slurries to be pumped
Suitable for various speed/
stroke. Can handle viscous
liquids. Capable of high heads.
Fluids isolated from pumping
mechanism.
two
Pumps and Valves
Table 2 Guide to valve types
TYPE FUNCTION DESIGN ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Gate
(wedge)
On/off throttling
possible.
A straight-through valve
incorporating a risingwedge
gate.
Widely used on water duties
but can be used for control of
process fluids. Cheap in
large sizes and generally
made of cast iron.
When used for throttling may
suffer erosion and where
solids are carried at high
velocities, seat and wedge
may be hardfaced, (e.g. with
Stellite 6 or tungsten
carbide). The groove in the
base is liable to blockages.
Can be "overshut" causing
seizure.
Gate
(parallel)
On/off throttling
possible.
More sophisticated
version of wedge.
Used mainly for steam duties
at high pressure.
As above.
Plug On/off. A straight-through valve
incorporating a rotating
plug.
Lubricated plug for
critical service under
pressure.
Non-lubricated plug
(sleeved plug). PTFE
sleeve for frictionless
operation.
Can be fully PTFE-lined and
hence have very good
chemical resistance.
Lubricant can cause
contamination of products
and limit the temperature of
operation. Not widely used
because of level of
maintenance required.
Pressure/temperature
conditions limited by lining
material. Liable to seizure in
service.
Globe Throttling (needs
suitable materials).
Widely used for
regulating flow
consisting of a rising
plug from the seat.
Wide range of sizes and
pressure/ temperatures.
Not available as a lined valve.
Ball On/off. Straight-through flow. Widely used for corrosive
conditions and range of
pressure/ temperature. Can
be made fire-safe.
Poor for throttling. Not
suitable for fluids containing
solids which damage seats.
Needle Throttling. Fine regulation of flow. Suitable for high pressures. Availab
le only in smaller
sizes.
Butterfly On/off. Can be used
for throttling if suitably
designed.
Very simple design
consisting of a flat disc
rotating into a seat.
Available in a wide range of
materials including many
linings and coatings. Suitable
for large flows of gases,
liquids and slurries. Relatively
cheap, particularly in larger
sizes. Slim Design.
Diaphragm Throttling can be used
for on/ off duties.
Glandless type of valve
incorporating a flexible
diaphragm and
available either as a
weir type or as full bore.
Widely used for corrosive
fluids, but good where
leakage must be avoided.
Limited on pressure and
temperature by diaphragm
materials. Not recommended
for mains insulation.
Check Prevention of
backflow.
Automatically prevents
backflow.
Wide pressure/temperature
range.
Not reliable on critical duties.
Safety Safety and protection. "Pop-open" valve for
gases and vapours
(steam).
Reseats. Only for gases: prevents
excess pressure.
Relief Safety and protection. Proportional life valve
for liquids.
Reseats. Only for liquids: prevents
excess pressure.
Bursting disc Safety and protection. Protection of plant
systems where very
rapid pressure rises
may occur.
Instantaneous unrestricted
relief. Wide range of
materials available.
Not-reclosing and
expendable. Subject to
corrosion and creep if hot,
causing premature failure.
three
Pumps and Valves
3.2 Localised corrosion
There are two main forms of localised corrosion: pitting and
crevice corrosion.
3.2.1 Pitting
This is very localised and pits are often extremely narrow
but deep. Penetration rates can be several mm/y in severe
cases. Pitting occurs when the protective film on the
material breaks down at a small point. Repassivation does
not occur and more metal dissolution takes place. The
environment in the pit is of low pH and generally very high
in chlorides leading to rapid dissolution rates at the base
of the pit. Total metal loss is small but penetration can
occur in a short time.
3.2.2 Crevice corrosion
This occurs where a tight crevice occurs between two
components e.g. a threaded joint or a flanged coupling. The
environment in the crevice quickly becomes deaerated and
metal dissolution inside the crevice increases. There are
two forms of crevice corrosion; one involves a differential
aeration cell between the crevice and the bulk metal, whilst
the other involves a metal ion concentration cell. The former
affects metals such as stainless steels and aluminium
alloys, while the latter affects copper alloys. With a
differential aeration cell the corrosion occurs inside the
crevice, while the corrosion occurs just outside the crevice
with a metal ion concentration cell.
Once initiated this type of attack is similar to pitting and very
high propagation rates can occur under certain conditions.
3.3 Galvanic corrosion
This occurs when two or more dissimilar metals are in
electrical contact and are immersed in a conducting, corrosion
liquid. Corrosion is more likely the further apart the metals
are in the electrochemical series (i.e. the greater the difference
between their open circuit electrochemical potentials in the
fluid in question).
Normally corrosion occurs with potential differences of
200 mV or more, but rapid corrosion can occur in couples
with only 50 to 100 mV difference, if other conditions are
unfavourable. A classic example is preferential corrosion of
weld beads, and it is imperative that the weld material should
have an equivalent or more electropositive potential than
that of the parent metal in the specified fluid.
Galvanic corrosion is strongly influenced by the relative areas
of the two metals, and dissimilar metals are often connected
successfully when the more electronegative material has a
large area compared to the electropositive material. A good
example is the use of 316 stainless steel impellers in
sea water pumps with austenitic cast iron bodies.
The severity of attack is also governed by the temperature
and the cathodic efficiency of the electropositive metal in
the couple. The latter factor governs the critical area ratio
required to avoid problems.
It is important when selecting materials for valves and pumps
to look at all the components in the system to avoid costly
failures due to galvanic corrosion. This should include
not only the valve or pump, but also the piping, to which
it is connected.
3.4 Flow effects
3.4.1 Erosion
This occurs in fluids with high solids contents where material
is mechanically abraded away. Erosion is a function of the
solids content, the cube of the velocity and the angle of impact.
Resistance to erosion increases as the strength and hardness
of the material increases. Alloys which work harden in service
have been used successfully to resist erosion. In severe cases
ceramic coatings/inserts are necessary. Figure 1 shows
severe erosion of a cast iron impeller.
Figure 1. Erosion of grey cast iron impeller after two months
handling coal dust
four
Pumps and Valves
3.4.2 Erosion corrosion
This process is also known as impingement attack. It occurs
when turbulent fluids or entrained solids damage the protective
film. The metal then corrodes and the film reforms. Successive
repetitions of this process lead to rapid corrosion. The
corrosion usually occurs locally and takes the form of smooth,
waterswept pits, often undercut. Typical sites of attack are
at the tips of impeller vanes, after sharp bends and after partly
throttled valves, i.e. areas of high turbulence.
3.4.3 Cavitation
This occurs when a sudden decrease in pressure leads to
the formation of vapour cavities. These migrate along the
pressure gradient and collapse at regions of higher
pressure. The mechanical forces at the surface lead to
local loss of metal, which can be severe. Cavitation
occurs in pumps run under non-optimum conditions or
after control valves producing substantial pressure drops.
Attention to detail in design usually avoids this problem
except under abnormal operating conditions.
3.5 Environmental cracking
3.5.1 Stress corrosion cracking (SCC)
This is a very localised form of attack which requires a tensile
stress (either external or internal) and a corrosive liquid.
Different alloys tend to be susceptible to cracking in specific
chemicals and also at specific temperatures. Some common
examples are carbon steels in hot alkaline solutions, austenitic
stainless steels in hot chloride solutions and copper alloys
in ammonia or nitrite containing solutions. Because of
uncertainty in actual operating stresses (including residual
stresses from manufacture and fabrication) it is difficult to
ensure that operating conditions are below the threshold stress
for that alloy system. Alloys, even in one class, vary in their
susceptibility to stress corrosion cracking and it is
usually possible to select a resistant material. Figure 2
shows stress corrosion cracking of an austentic
cast iron.
Figure 2. Stress corrosion cracking in an austenitic cast iron (x70)
3.5.2 Sulphide stress corrosion
cracking (SSCC)
This is a special form of stress corrosion cracking which is
of particular concern in oil and gas production and refinery
environments. It requires stresses as for SCC plus the
presence of hydrogen sulphide in solution. The temperature
of greatest susceptibility to SSCC varies from alloy type to
alloy type. In addition to H2S partial pressure and temperature,
the corrosiveness of process brines is also governed by
chloride concentration and pH. The suitability of materials
for sour environments is regulated mostly by NACE document
MR0175, which lists alloys and their limits of use. Qualification
of other alloys or use outside NACE limits requires appropriate
testing such as is described in EFC publications Nos 16 and
17. [For full details see references.]
3.5.3 Hydrogen embrittlement
This occurs under stress as for SCC and when there is also
a source of hydrogen ions, the most common of which is
cathodic protection. Pumps and valves are rarely protected
internally by cathodic protection, but are often subject to it
externally when used subsea. Copper alloys and austenitic
stainless steels are largely immune to hydrogen embrittlement,
whilst other stainless steels, some nickel base alloys and
titanium are susceptible. However, even with susceptible
alloys, the threshold stress for cracking is often well above
the 0.2% proof stress.
five
Pumps and Valves
4.0 Materials of construction
Figure 3. Corrosion
Fatigue of a pump
shaft (a) General
appearance (x 0.5)
(b) Microsection (x 70)
Some common materials used in pump and valve
construction are listed in Table 3 with an indication of their
use. This is only in very general terms and more detail would
be required for specific alloy selection. The nominal
compositions of these common alloys are shown in
Table 4.
Valve and pump bodies are usually produced as castings
and so it is important that the selected material has good
foundry characteristics. Some of the well known wrought
alloys are difficult to cast and alternatives with better
castability could be more cost effective.
Cast alloys sometimes have different corrosion properties
to their wrought counterparts. Corrosion data tables do not
indicate this and it is important to check this prior to final
selection.
Another difference between cast and wrought alloys is their
mechanical properties. Cast forms often have a lower proof
stress than the wrought ones and hence this should be
incorporated in the design.
Galvanic corrosion should be avoided at all costs
(see Section 3.3).
3.5.4 Corrosion fatigue
Corrosion fatigue occurs when there is a regular cyclic stress
and a corrosive environment. Failure generally occurs at weak
areas or those where stresses are concentrated. Hence, it
can affect pump shafts and impellers but does not usually
affect valves. The presence of a corrosive medium generally
reduces the fatigue limit for most materials, sometimes
dramatically. Figure 3 shows a typical corrosion fatigue
failure of a pump shaft.
(a)
(b)
3.6 De-alloying
The most well known form of de-alloying is probably
dezincification, which affects some brasses. In this type of
attack, zinc is preferentially removed leaving a porous,
spongy copper remainder with the dimensions of the original
component, but obviously much weaker.
A similar type of attack, called dealuminification, can occur
with aluminium bronzes. In both cases attack only occurs in
certain fluids, but usually involves chlorides.
3.7 Wear
Wear results from rubbing between rotating and fixed
components. In pumps and valves this cannot be avoided
and so materials with high hardness are frequently used
where this is deemed to be a potential problem.
Fretting is similar to wear but occurs between close fitting
components which experience slight oscillatory slip. The
surfaces are often badly pitted with finely divided oxide detritus.
The prevention of fretting requires consideration at the
design stage, by removing the movement or by selection of
a suitably resistant material.
Galling is caused by rubbing action between certain materials
or combinations of materials and leads to welding and tearing
of metal surfaces. The higher the load the greater the risk
of galling. 300 series austenitic stainless steels are well
known to be susceptible to galling e.g. bolts.
six
Pumps and Valves
Table 3. Materials of construction for pumps and valves
PUMP OR VALVE BODY USAGE
Cast Irons/Steel
Grey cast iron
Malleable iron
Nodular (SG) iron
Cast steel/forged steel
Austenitic (Ni-resist) iron
Water, steam, alkaline conditions, dry solvents, organic substances, strong sulp
huric acid.
Grey cast iron and carbon steel are unsuitable for use in sea water without prot
ection
(such as cathodic protection or coating).
Sea water, brackish water, waste water.
Stainless Steels
Martensitic
Generally good corrosion resistance to waters, alkalis, some acids and dry solve
nts.
Oil and gas process fluids.
Unsuitable for use in sea water.
Austenitic Type 304 unsuitable for use in sea water.
Type 316 may be used in sea water but can suffer crevice corrosion unless subjec
t
to galvanic protection.
Alloy 20 used for sulphuric and phosphoric acid duties.
Duplex
Super Austenitic
Super Duplex
More corrosion resistant than type 316 especially to chloride SCC.
Excellent corrosion resistance to a wide range of fluids including sea water, pr
oduced
waters, brines, caustic and mineral acids.
Copper Alloys
Brass Water, steam, unsuitable for use in sea water.
Bronzes Generally good corrosion resistance in waters including sea waters.
Unsuitable for strong alkalis.
Gunmetal Brackish water, sea water.
Phosphor Bronze
Aluminium Bronze
Nickel Aluminium Bronze NAB has good corrosion resistance in sea water. Should n
ot be used where water is sour
i.e. contains hydrogen sulphide.
Aluminium
Aluminium and Alloys
Not usually used in chemical plant.
Nickel Alloys Generally good resistance to a wide range of acids and alkalis.
Alloy 400 Resistant to sea water and brine but can suffer crevice corrosion.
Alloy 625 Excellent sea water crevice corrosion resistance.
Alloy 825 Resistant to organic alkalis and salts, H2S and some acids.
Alloy B-2 Principally used for HCl under reducing conditions (all strengths).
Alloy C-276 Good resistance to a wide range of waters and chemicals.
Titanium and Alloys
Tantalum
Suitable for a wide range of acids, alkalis and sea water.
Poor under reducing conditions.
Non Metallics
Glass Reinforced Plastic (GRP) Suitable for water, sea water.
Polyvinylchloride (PVC) Used for acids and alkalis.
Polypropylene
PVDF, FEB, PTFE Acids, alkalis, solvents and other organic substances.
Ceramics
Sintered Solids
Coatings
Used for valve seats and pump wear ring. Resistant to a wide range of fluids. Ca
re should
be taken to ensure that materials containing binders are acceptable for the give
n duty.
Linings and Coatings
Glass/Enamel All conditions except pure water, hydrofuoric acid and hot alkalis.

Ebonite, natural rubber, Non-oxidising acids and alkalis.
Polypropylene
PVDF, FEP, PTFE Most organic substances, acids and alkalis.
Note Holes in linings and coatings can result in severe corrosion. It is vital t
hat the surface be
correctly prepared before coating and tested after coating.
seven
Pumps and Valves
Table 4. Typical chemical compositions of some common cast materials for pumps a
nd valves
FERROUS AND NICKEL BASE ALLOYS WEIGHT PER CENT
Material Grade C Si Mn P S Cr Ni Mo Others
Ni Resist Cast Iron Flake graphite <3.0 <2.8 <1.5 <0.2 -2 15 -Cu 6.5
Ni Resist Cast Iron Spheroidal graphite <3.0 <2.2 <1.5 <0.05 -2 20 -Mg <0.06
Martensitic St Steel 13Cr 4Ni <0.10 <1.0 <1.0 <0.04 <0.03 12.5 4 <0.06
Martensitic St Steel 17Cr 4Ni PH <0.70 <1.0 <0.7 <0.04 <0.03 16.5 4 -Cu 3
Austenitic St Steel (304) 18Cr 8Ni <0.06 <1.5 <2.0 <0.04 <0.04 18 10 -
Austenitic St Steel (316) 18Cr 8Ni 2.5Mo <0.06 <1.5 <2.0 <0.04 <0.04 18 10 2.2
Austenitic St Steel 20Cr Alloy 20 <0.07 <1.5 <1.5 <0.04 <0.04 20 28 2.5 Cu 3
Super Austenitic St Steel 20 Cr 6Mo <0.03 <1.0 <1.2 <0.04 <0.01 20 18 6 N 0.2 Cu
0.7
Duplex St Steel 22Cr <0.03 <1.0 <1.5 <0.03 <0.02 22 6 3 N 0.15
Duplex St Steel 25Cr <0.03 <1.0 <1.5 <0.03 <0.025 25 7 2.5 N 0.2
Super Duplex St Steel 25Cr <0.03 <1.0 <1.0 <0.03 <0.025 25 8 3.5 N 0.25 Cu 0.7 W
0.7
Nickel Copper Alloy Alloy 400 <0.3 <0.5 <2.0 ---65 Cu REM Fe<2.5
NiCrMoNb Alloy Alloy 625 <0.15 <0.50 <0.50 <0.15 <0.15 21 REM 9 Al 0.2 Nb 3.5 Ti
0.2 Fe 3
NiCrMoFe Alloy Alloy 825 <0.05 <0.15 <1.0 --21.5 42 3 Fe 28 Cu 2 Ti 1
Nickel Molybdenum Alloy Alloy B-2 <0.02 <0.10 <1.0 --<1.0 REM 28 Co<2.5 Fe<2.0
NiMoCrFeW Alloy Alloy C-276 <0.02 <0.05 <1.0 --15.5 REM 16 Co<2.5 Fe 5 W 3.5
NON-FERROUS ALLOYS WEIGHT PER CENT
Material Grade Cu Sn Zn Pb P Ni Others
Leaded Gunmetal 85Cu 5Sn 5PB 5Zn REM 5 5 5 --
Leaded Gunmetal 87Cu 7Sn 3Pb 3Zn REM 7 2 3 --
Phosphor Bronze Cu 10Sn P REM 10 -<0.15 0.75 -
Aluminium Bronze Cu 10Al 3 Fe REM --<0.03 -<1.0 Al 9.5 Fe 2.5
Nickel Aluminium Bronze Cu 10Al 5 Fe 5Ni REM --<0.03 -5 Al 9.5 Fe 5
5.0 Protection of external surfaces
External surfaces, including flanges, handwheels, supports,
etc., must be protected against the ambient atmosphere. This
may be anything from a heated indoors dry atmosphere,
through normal industrial or marine, to highly corrosive
atmospheres associated with some industries or even
submerged in a corrosive fluid such as sea water.
External surfaces of pumps and valves are often as vulnerable
as structural steelwork and should therefore be protected
by an appropriate scheme. The Code of Practice BS 5493
is a good guide, but as it was issued in 1977 (albeit with
amendments in 1984 and 1993) there are now good quality
products on the market which have been introduced more
recently and which are well worth consideration.
eight
Pumps and Valves
Surface preparation is a most important part of a painting
system, and if a long life is desired for any location outdoors
or in a damp, wet, indoor atmosphere, grit blast preparation
should be mandatory.
Paint products are formulated for specific applications;
primers to key on to prepared surfaces, undercoats to give
build and body and a finish coat for appearance and to repel
water. A full proper paint system for best protection should
usually include all three.
Whenever possible, the external shape should be designed
to avoid surfaces and pockets where dust and water can
collect. Where this is not possible then it may be necessary
to consider increasing the thickness of the paint system to
prevent failure in local areas.
For items such as pipes or columns and other simple, easy
access shapes then a fusion bonded product is a good form
of coating to use e.g. fusion bond epoxy.
6.0 Corrosion factors in design
When choosing the pump size, its size and the pressure
required to move the fluid, consideration must also be
given to the chemical and physical nature of the fluid.
For example, if the pump is designed to move fluids that are
carrying solids, then the operating velocity range is important.
If the velocity is too low, settling may occur, leading to
crevice corrosion. If the velocity is too high erosion may
occur leading to high localised metal loss. In addition the
rates of diffusion controlled reactions increase with velocity.
Consideration needs to be given to materials, coatings
and pump designs which minimise erosive metal loss. The
same principles also apply to valves operating in the
same environments.
The distribution of pressure and flow within the components
should be such that erosion and cavitation do not occur.
Gaskets should not protrude into the flow, where they can
cause separation and turbulence.
Small items in pumps and valves also need close attention.
For example, threaded drain plugs in contact with the fluid
must be galvanically compatible with the body, if not of the
same material, and must also be resistant to crevice corrosion.
One factor which strongly affects corrosion and is not always
properly appreciated is temperature. Process temperatures
tend to be quoted at pump and valve inlets. However, the
temperature at each location in the device should be
considered, particularly in pumps which can have regions
which are local sources of heat. For example, in centrifugal
pumps pitting and/or crevice corrosion may occur at
mechanical seal faces or on shafts under seal sleeves, due
to local temperature increases, while the rest of the pump
is free of corrosion.
7.0 Corrosion factors in use
Even after the user has selected a pump or valve suitable
for their purpose that avoids the corrosion problems outlined
above, there are actions that can be taken to avoid problems
arising in service.
A common source of corrosion in service is the entry, during
shut down, of air and/or moisture into a normally sealed
system. This can result in corrosion conditions being produced
in areas which retain small volumes of the process fluid. This
can be avoided either by ensuring that all such areas have
suitable drains or by flushing with an innocuous fluid such
as tap water. For carbon and low alloy steels this would also
need the addition of a suitable corrosion inhibitor.
Changes in the composition of the working fluid can cause
corrosion of components which, until then, have performed
satisfactorily. These changes can often be very small, e.g.
the presence of a small quantity of ferric or cupric ions can
turn a reducing fluid to an oxidising one. Other fluid changes
which commonly occur can lead to sudden increases in
corrosion as temperature increases and pH changes. Users
must anticipate such changes in the fluid as far as possible
at the initial design stage, as rectification after a corrosion
failure can often be very expensive, not only because a new
component is required, but also because of the lost production
while the item is repaired/replaced.
Non-metallic components, such as those used for seals,
diaphragms, linings, etc, may be subject to attack resulting
in swelling, brittleness, softening, etc, with time. Manufacturers
usually have extensive experience with a range of materials
and it is important that these issues are discussed at an early
stage so that any special requirements are addressed and
the most suitable design and materials are selected.
Gland packings on pumps and valves are essential to
satisfactory operation. A wide variety of packings are used
and, as above, it is important to discuss particular applications
with the manufacturer so that designs and materials compatible
with the process fluid are chosen.
nine
Pumps and Valves
Note that the use of graphite containing seals/packing may
give rise to galvanic corrosion in some instances.
8.0 Materials checklist
In order to select suitable materials of construction for a specific
pump or valve, the following information is required:
1.
Fluid: nature and composition,
concentration, pH, aeration,
impurities, chemical additions,
suspended solids, variations
with time.
2.
Temperature: minimum, maximum and normal; any
possible thermal shocks.
3. Pressure:
range, including vacuum.
4.
Flow: volume with time, velocity including
any local turbulence.
5. Operation:
continuous, intermittent, standby.
6.
Contamination: effect on fluid of any corrosion
products which may be produced.
7.
Requirements: reliability required, minimum life,
ease and cost of maintenance.
9.0 Sources of advice
Advice on design and choice for a given use can be obtained
from the corrosion advisory centres and consultancy services
listed in the Corrosion Handbook.
The same organisations can investigate failures and make
recommendations for avoiding them in future. Reputable
equipment manufacturers can also offer advise, based on
their experiences.
10.0 Further information
General information is available from the following
organisations:
National Corrosion Service
National Physical Laboratory
Teddington
Middlesex TW11 0LW
Tel: 020 8943 6142
Fax: 020 8943 7107
Institute of Corrosion
4 Leck House
Lake Street
Leighton Buzzard
Bedfordshire LU7 8TQ
Tel: 01525 851771
Fax: 01525 376690
Materials Information Service
Institute of Materials
1 Carlton House Terrace
London SW1Y 5DB
Tel: 020 7451 7350
Tel: 020 7451 7354
Fax: 020 7839 5513
Information on materials is available from the following
organisations:
1. Copper and copper alloys.
CDA
Verulam Industrial Estate
224 London Road
St Albans
Herts AL1 1AQ
Tel: 01727 731200
Fax: 01727 731216
2. Nickel and nickel containing alloys.
NiDI
The Holloway
Alvechurch
Birmingham B48 7QB
Tel: 01527 584 777
Fax: 01527 585 562
ten
Pumps and Valves
3. Titanium and titanium alloys.
c/o Timet UK Ltd
Kynoch Works
Witton Road
Witton
Birmingham B6 7UR
Tel: 0121 356 1155
Fax: 0121 356 5413
11.0 References
For sources of general information on corrosion and data on
the compatibilities of metal and fluids, see Guide No 1 in this
series.
References on sulphide stress corrosion cracking
(section 3.5.2)
MR0175 Sulphide Stress Corrosion Cracking Resistant
Metallic Materials for Oilfield Equipment,
(revised annually), published by NACE.
EFC 16 Guidelines on Materials Requirements for
Carbon and Low Alloy Steels for H2S -
Containing Environments in Oil and Gas
Production, published by IOM 1995.
EFC 17 Corrosion Resistant Alloys for Oil and Gas
Production: Guidance on General Requirements
and Test Methods for H2S Service. Published by
MPI, 1998.
For sources of advice, see The Corrosion Handbook,
published by MPI, 1998.
For information on bimetallic corrosion, see British Standard
Institution publication PD6484.
For information on the protection of external surfaces, see BS
5493. Code of Practice for Protective Coating of Iron and Steel
Structures Against Corrosion. Last revised 1993. Published
by BSI. For information on methods of packaging to prevent
damage to coatings during transport, see Guide No 3 in
this series.
The following books and papers on pumps and valves are
available:
Pumps for progress. 4th Technical Conference of the British
Pump Manufacturers Association, 9-10 April 1975, Durham.
Cavitation. I S Pearsall, Chart. Mechanical Engineer, 1974, Vol 2,
No 9, pp 79-85.
Practical consideration in the design of oil field water
injection systems. C C Patton, mater. Performance, 1977, Vol
16, No 11, pp 9-12.
Selecting the right pump. R F Neerken, Chem. Eng.
Desk book, 3 April 1978, pp 87-98.
Pump requirements for the chemical process industries.
J R Birk and J H Peakcock, Chem. Eng., 18 February 1974,
pp 116-124.
Pumps for corrosive media. M L Booth, Chart. Mech.
Eng., January 1977, pp 72-74.
Pumps and the plant design engineer, BHRA Course,
1974, Cranfield Bedfordshire.
Which pump? R A Clarke and G Geddes, Engineering, November
1972, pp 1089-92.
Handbook of industrial pipework engineering.
E Holmes, McGraw-Hill.
Material Selection: How to achieve the most cost effective
choice for your pump. R Francis and M Bennett. (Available
from Weir Material & Foundries, Grimshaw Lane, Newton Heath,
Manchester M40 2BA.)
Take many factors into consideration when selecting pump
materials: Parts 1 & 2, by F W Buse.
Chemical Engineering Progress 88,5 (1992) 84
Chemical Engineering Progress 88,9 (1992) 50
Material selection for offshore seawater pumps by W G Higgs,
P E Redman and J C Brin.
11th Annual Energy Sources Technology Conference,
New Orleans, USA. 1988 published by ASME.
Considerations for proper sizing and material selection to opti
mise centrifugal slurry pumps by G Davidson.
4th International Pump Symposium.
Houston, USA 1987, published by Texas A & M
University.
Considerations in the selection of centrifugal pump
materials by T A Layne.
Spring National Meeting, Anaheim, USA, 1982.
Published by AIChE.
Materials selection for pumps in flue gas desulphurisation
plants by H Tischener.
KSB Tech. Ber. (25e) March 1989, page 33.
Saline Water Pumps: selecting the right materials by
A Tuthill.
Chem. Eng. 95, 12 (1988) 88.
Selecting materials for recirculating valves used in
secondary recovery service, by M Shumacher and
J Gossett.
Oil Gas J. 81, 9 (1983) 98.
How to select a non-metallic pump, by E Margues and
K Comerford.
Process and Control Engineering, 47, 8 (1994).
Selecting a positive-displacement pump in 10 steps,
by J Mayer.
World Pumps, 343, April (1975) 30.
Effect of operating conditions on the wear of wet parts
in slurry pumps, by Z Hu and J Cheng.
9th International Conference on the wear of materials, San
Francisco, USA, April 1993.
Pump and valve manufacturers literature.
eleven
Crown Copyright 2000. Reproduced by permission of the Controller of HMSO
The National Corrosion Service
The National Corrosion Service (NCS) is operated by NPL on behalf of the DTI to
provide a gateway to corrosion expertise for UK users. By acting as a focal poin
t for
corrosion enquiries, the NCS can make the UKs entire base of experts available to

solve problems or can, using in-house expertise or teams, carry out consultancy.

The NCS also helps raise awareness of corrosion problems and methods of control.

For more information on NCS services and products please contact us at:
E-mail: ncs@npl.co.uk Tel: 020 8943 6142 Fax: 020 8943 7107
National Physical Laboratory, Queens Road,
Teddington, Middlesex TW11 0LW
NPL s Web Page can be found at:
www.npl.co.uk or Email: enquiry@npl.co.uk
Tel: 020 8943 6880 Fax: 020 8943 6458
2295/aaron/IK/0004
Crown Copyright 2000. Reproduced by permission of the Controller of HMSO
The National Corrosion Service
The National Corrosion Service (NCS) is operated by NPL on behalf of the DTI to
provide a gateway to corrosion expertise for UK users. By acting as a focal poin
t for
corrosion enquiries, the NCS can make the UKs entire base of experts available to

solve problems or can, using in-house expertise or teams, carry out consultancy.

The NCS also helps raise awareness of corrosion problems and methods of control.

For more information on NCS services and products please contact us at:
E-mail: ncs@npl.co.uk Tel: 020 8943 6142 Fax: 020 8943 7107
National Physical Laboratory, Queens Road,
Teddington, Middlesex TW11 0LW
NPL s Web Page can be found at:
www.npl.co.uk or Email: enquiry@npl.co.uk
Tel: 020 8943 6880 Fax: 020 8943 6458
2295/aaron/IK/0004
United States Office of Office of Solid Waste EPA/540/S-95/503
Environmental Protection Research and and Emergency July 1995
Agency Development Response
Ground Water Issue
Nonaqueous Phase Liquids Compatibility
with Materials Used in Well Construction,
Sampling, and Remediation
Douglas R. McCaulou(1), David G. Jewett(2), and Scott G. Huling(3)
Background
The EPA Regional Ground Water Forum is a group of EPA
professionals representing Regional Superfund and
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act Offices (RCRA),
committed to the identification and resolution of ground-water
issues impacting the remediation of Superfund and RCRA
sites. The Forum is supported by and advises the Superfund
Technical Support Project. The compatibility of remediation,
well construction, and sampling materials with nonaqueous
phase liquids (NAPLs) is an issue that is a concern of
Superfund decision-makers.
This issue paper provides a comprehensive literature review
regarding the compatibility of NAPLs with a wide variety of
materials used at hazardous waste sites. A condensed
reference table of compatibility data for 207 chemicals and 28
commonly used well construction and sampling equipment
materials is provided. Field experiences illustrating
incompatibility problems of common wastes are also included.
This will assist monitoring and recovery system design
personnel with the decision making process concerning the
most effective materials to be used in heavily contaminated
subsurface environments.
For further information contact Scott G. Huling (405-4368610).
Introduction
NAPLs typically have been divided into two general
categories, dense and light. Dense nonaqueous phase
liquids (DNAPLs) have a specific gravity greater than water,
and light nonaqueous phase liquids (LNAPLs) have a specific
gravity less than water [Huling and Weaver, 1991]. Both of
these liquids are of major environmental concern because
they are commonly found in the subsurface at Superfund sites
as well as other hazardous waste sites.
A national Superfund DNAPL site assessment study
concluded that approximately 60% of the National Priorities
List sites are expected to have a medium to high potential of
having DNAPL present [Hubbard et al., 1993]. It is also
known that LNAPLs affect ground-water quality at thousands
of sites across the country [Newell et al., 1995]. DNAPLs
[Mercer and Cohen, 1990; Huling and Weaver, 1991; Cohen
and Mercer, 1993] and LNAPLs [Newell et al., 1995] present
significant technical challenges to remediation efforts and
their transport and fate are often complex.
DNAPLs commonly found at Superfund sites include
halogenated solvents (e.g., tetrachloroethylene (PCE),
trichloroethylene (TCE), dichloroethane (DCA) and carbon
tetrachloride); polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs); pesticides;
chlorinated benzenes and phenols; and polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAHs). Common LNAPLs include fuels and
oils. Constituents of NAPLs include volatile aromatics
(benzene, toluene, styrene and xylenes); halogenated
volatiles (vinyl chloride and chloroethane); and volatile
ketones and furans. Due to the diverse characteristics of
these chemicals in conjunction with the broad range of
(1) Hydrologist, Hydro Geo Chem, Inc., Tucson, AZ
(2) Asst. Prof., Geology Dept., Indiana Univ.-Purdue Univ.
Indianapolis, Indianapolis, IN
(3) Environmental Engineer, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Robert S. Kerr Environmental Research Laboratory, Ada, OK
Superfund Technology Support Center for
Technology Innovation OfficeGround Water Office of Solid Waste and Emergency
Response, US EPA, Washington, DC
Robert S. Kerr Environmental
Walter W. Kovalick, Jr., Ph.D.
Research Laboratory
Director
Ada, Oklahoma
materials available, it is apparent that the incompatibility issue contaminants
present as NAPLs or in high dissolved
is complex and broad in scope. concentrations, may have a minimal effect on wate
r quality
Contaminants may be introduced into the subsurface as a
LNAPL or DNAPL, but may partition into the soil pore water
and ground water; volatilize into the gaseous phase; and
partition onto soil and aquifer material. The two phases of
contamination that will be the focus of this issue paper are the
nonaqueous phase and the soluble phase. NAPLs may be
held relatively immobile by capillary forces as small
discontinuous blobs or isolated droplets, generally referred to
as residual saturation. As the NAPL saturation increases, the
NAPL phase becomes continuous and the mobility of the
NAPL increases. NAPLs at residual saturation may affect
equipment and materials similar to continuous phase NAPLs.
Lastly, the soluble constituents of mixed NAPLs differentially
dissolve into the ground water as a function of their mole
fraction and solubility. Although these dissolved compounds
are no longer NAPLs, near-solubility concentrations of some
organic compounds may adversely affect the structural
integrity of some materials.
All ground-water sampling, well construction, and remediation
materials are subject to degradation or corrosion in the
natural environment. For example, metal components may
corrode when:
pH < 7.0,
dissolved oxygen > 2 ppm,
H 2S > 1 ppm,
total dissolved solids > 1000 ppm,
OC 2 > 50 ppm, or
chloride > 5000 ppm [Aller et al., 1989].
Materials exposed to NAPLs may also be degraded or
corroded, which may lead to structural failure. This
vulnerability applies to materials exposed to these chemicals
in both the subsurface and above ground. A design
consideration during any NAPL recovery program should
include a material compatibility review to minimize failures
[Huling and Weaver, 1991]. Additionally, at sites where the
presence of NAPLs is suspected, a materials compatibility
review should be conducted. Since the time requirements for
subsurface remediation systems (product recovery, groundwater
remediation) at most RCRA and CERCLA sites are
usually long-term, it is economically and technically important
that these systems be constructed of materials with known
chemical resistance qualities to provide reliable service over
many years.
Compatibility
There are two types of effects that NAPLs have on materials
used in well construction, sampling, and remediation. First,
the structural integrity of a material may be compromised by
corrosion or solvation. Secondly, dissolved ground-water
contaminants from NAPLs can sorb to or leach from
monitoring materials which affect ground-water quality
measurements. Another way of viewing these two effects is
from a concentration perspective. Sorption to monitoring
surfaces may have the greatest effect on water quality
measurements when contaminants are present at low
dissolved concentrations. Conversely, sorption of
measurements, while the effects on the structural integrity of
the materials may be at a maximum. Compatibility in the
Chemical Compatibility Table of this issue paper is defined as
a materials ability to withstand corrosion or degradation
under specific experimental conditions. This refers to the
effects that NAPLs and high concentrations of dissolved
organic compounds have on the structural integrity of
materials. While the focus of this issue paper is the structural
integrity issue, a short discussion on incompatibility issues
from a water quality measurement point of view is included for
clarification.
Water Quality Measurement Incompatibility
Incompatibility caused by contaminants sorbing to or leaching
from monitoring well materials and sampling devices yielding
misleading information on the quality of ground water has
been demonstrated repeatedly [Llopis, 1992; Gillham and
OHannesin, 1990; Barcelona et al., 1988; Jones and Miller,
1988; Sykes et al., 1986]. This type of incompatibility is
greatest with low dissolved concentrations of heavy metals
and organic compounds. Presently, the high degree of
accuracy (parts per billion) required of some chemical
analyses dictates that all potential sources of error of a
ground-water sampling program be identified and minimized
[Llopis, 1992]. Correspondingly, a properly installed groundwater
monitoring well should be constructed so that well
materials do not influence the ground-water sample for at
least 30 years [Morrison, 1986].
The composition of contaminated ground water and sediment
(pH, Eh, conductivity, temperature, specific organic
compound species, and co-solvent effects) in contact with
well construction and sampling materials influences sorption
and leaching processes. In addition, the complex and varied
nature of site-specific ground-water contamination in
conjunction with numerous material types makes it
challenging to predict the sorption and leaching potential of
various sampling materials. However, recent studies show a
general agreement on which well casing materials are the
best to use to reduce measurement anomalies.
Rigid polyvinylchloride (PVC), polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE),
and fiberglass reinforced epoxy (FRE) had relatively low
sorption rates when exposed to trichloroethane,
tetrachloroethane, trichloroethylene, tetrachloroethylene,
hexachloroethane, and bromoform compared to flexible
polymers [Reynolds et al., 1990]. Stainless steel, rigid PVC,
and fluoropolymer well casings generally adsorb minor
amounts of trace-level organic compounds once equilibrated
with the subsurface environment and none of the casings
leached organic compounds when solvent cements were not
used to connect the casings [Gillham and OHannesin, 1990;
Parker et al., 1990: Parker and Ranney, 1994]. Some ironbased
casing materials may influence abiotic degradation of
halogenated aliphatics [Reynolds et al., 1990; Gillham and
OHannesin, 1994].
Studies indicate that stainless steel can leach dissolved
metals under anoxic conditions [Hewitt, 1989; 1992; 1993;
Parker et al., 1990].
2
Structural Integrity Incompatibility
Structural integrity of materials can be affected by both purephase
NAPLs and dissolved organic compounds in ground
water. In the following discussion, corrosion of metals and
the types of polymer degradation are presented with a review
of concentration-related effects of dissolved organic
compounds with monitoring materials. The Chemical
Compatibility Table in this issue paper was prepared to
evaluate the effects of pure-phase or 100% concentrations of
compounds, except where noted.
Corrosion: Chemical corrosion results from chemical
reactions with metals and soil or water [U.S. Dept. of Interior,
1981]. The corroded metal usually goes into solution and is
carried away from the point of attack [Moehrl, 1961]. Galvanic
corrosion occurs when two or more dissimilar metals are in
contact and an electrolyte is present [Schweitzer, 1991].
Accordingly, corrosion in this issue paper applies to the
breakdown of a metal surface attacked by chemicals,
resulting in a measurable reduction of metal thickness over
time.
Degradation: Plastics do not exhibit a corrosion rate, but
undergo degradation by various mechanisms. Types of
plastic degradation in a ground-water environment are
oxidative, mechanical, microbial, and chemical attack.
Oxidative degradation of polymers is catalyzed by heavy
metals, such as copper, in a redox reaction in which peroxide
groups are decomposed, accelerating the degradation
reaction [Al-Malaika, 1987]. However, many polymeric
formulations include antioxidants which inhibit oxidation
reactions. Bond cleavage may result in mechanical
degradation when stress is imposed on polymer chains
through grinding, milling, or stretching [Dole, 1983; Agarwal
and Porter, 1988]. Mechanical degradation is a term that
describes changes in a material when applied stresses from
manufacturing, machining, handling, and installation
techniques cause chips, fractures, and other deformations.
It has been observed that enzymes attack noncrystalline
regions preferentially; therefore, the resistance of susceptible
polymers to microbial degradation is related directly to the
degree of crystallinity of the polymer [Bradley et al., 1973].
Chemical resistance of a polymer is its ability to withstand
attack by chemicals over a period of time without excessive
changes in dimensions, weight, or mechanical properties
[Seymour, 1989]. Plastic materials are primarily degraded by
solvation, which is the penetration of the plastic by an organic
solvent that causes softening, swelling, and ultimate failure
[Schweitzer, 1991]. At a given chemical concentration,
diffusion of a chemical into the polymer will proceed until
equilibrium conditions are attained. Due to the inter-polymer
diffusion of these chemicals, polymers may dissolve, swell
due to absorption and diffusion, or they may stress crack by
selectively absorbing solvents [Seymour, 1989]. The
Chemical Compatibility Table in this issue paper does not
differentiate between types of degradation.
Concentration-Related Effects: Ambiguity exists on the
subject of structural compatibility. This is partially attributed to
studies being conducted at different aqueous concentrations,
from NAPLs to below solubility concentrations. For example,
a lack of agreement exists concerning the use of PVC well
casing in the presence of gasoline [U.S.EPA, 1986]. EPA has
concluded that PVC is not an acceptable material for
monitoring well construction because the PVC casing may
swell and deteriorate in the presence of the aromatic
hydrocarbon fraction of gasoline. This finding is consistent
with the Chemical Compatibility Table in this report where
pure-phase aromatic compounds (e.g., benzene, toluene, and
xylenes), which are a few of the numerous components of
gasoline, will degrade Type I PVC. However, Schmidt [1987]
published an opposing report concerning PVC and gasoline
compatibility that included both laboratory immersion tests
and field observations. Schmidts conclusion was that
Schedule 40, rigid, Type I PVC casing and screen could be
used with confidence when monitoring for the occurrence of
gasolines on the ground water table. The literature review
conducted for this issue paper found that all chemical
resistance test data recommend Type I PVC for use in
gasoline, diesel, and jet fuels. The conflicting
recommendations of these reports may be related to the
different concentrations of aromatic compounds tested.
Recent work with methylene chloride, an excellent solvent of
PVC, softened PVC at activities as low as 0.1 (10% of the
solubility limit)[Parker and Ranney, 1994]. Activity of a
compound was estimated by dividing the aqueous
concentration by its solubility. Experiments with TCE, which
is not as good a solvent of PVC as methylene chloride,
suggest that softening of PVC did not occur at activities below
0.6. A mixed-organic-solvent study indicated that when
dealing with an aqueous mixture of organic solvents there is
some type of cumulative or interactive effect resulting in
softening of PVC at activities above 0.3 [Parker and Ranney,
1994]. Acetone, miscible in water and a good solvent of PVC,
caused rapid softening at 50% concentrations (0.5 g/ml)
[Parker and Ranney, 1994].
Another example illustrating the lack of agreement involves
structural degradation effects under high concentrations.
Barcelona et al., [1988], suggested that significant losses of
strength and durability of rigid PVC may be expected under
conditions where organic contaminants are present in high
concentrations. However, Taylor and Parker [1990] reported
that PVC, PTFE, and stainless steel (304, 316) casing
material did not change surface structure (using scanning
electron microscopy) when exposed to dichlorobenzenes,
toluene, and PCE at activities of 0.25 after 6 months. This
discrepancy may be partly due to the different compatibility
testing protocols; strength and durability versus visual effects.
Annular Sealants and Barrier Wall Materials
Compatibility of annular sealant materials, cements, and
grouts with NAPLs has not been comprehensively studied.
However, the permeability of clay and other materials in
landfill liners and barrier walls has been measured to study
the deterioration effect of various leachates and select soluble
organic liquids.
Abdul et al., [1990], found that organic solvents (benzene,
toluene, p-xylene, nitrobenzene, TCE, PCE, ethyl acetate, 2butanone,
and phenol) at 0.1 to 0.5 activities in water
solutions did not significantly increase the permeability of
bentonite or kaolin clays that were first stabilized with
0.005 N CaSO4. The hydraulic conductivity of bentonite in all
of the 0.1 solutions was lower than with water, while kaolin
was slightly more permeable with these solutions. However,
it was determined that neat (100%) solutions increased the
3
measured hydraulic conductivity of the clay materials by up to
two orders of magnitude. Phenol, ethyl acetate, and p-xylene
neat solutions increased the permeability of bentonite.
Benzene, phenol, and toluene neat solutions increased the
permeability of kaolin. In general, hydrophobic solvents
caused clays to shrink, producing distinct large vertical
cracks. The hydrophillic solvents typically caused the clays to
aggregate and fracture, forming a network of cracks [Abdul et
al., 1990].
In another study, cement-asphalt (Aspemix), bentonite-sand,
and organophilic clay-cement mixtures were found to have
increased hydraulic conductivities above 1x10-7 cm/s when
contacted with pure methylene chloride [Sai and Anderson,
1992]. In the same study, attapulgite clay-cement (Impermix)
mixture maintained hydraulic conductivities below 1x10-7 cm/s
in the presence of pure methylene chloride.
DNAPL composed of dichloromethane, xylene, halogenated
semi-volatiles and a mixture of other solvents (density 1.1
g/cm3 ) was used to evaluate the effects of DNAPL on the
integrity of cement and a 3% bentonite-cement grout [Cassil
and Barton, 1994]. In column studies where cement was
added to tubes containing varying amounts of DNAPL, the
DNAPL amended columns were discolored, pitted, and had
channels where the DNAPL had moved along the interface of
the tube wall and the grout. This was not observed in the
control where water was initially present. In a column study
where a 3% bentonite-cement grout was added to the same
DNAPL in a column, the permeability was significantly greater
than in the control where an equal volume of water was
added. The grout was mottled, irregular, and had the
presence of voids, cavities, and channels. The control
column which initially contained water did not exhibit these
characteristics. Therefore, both the cement and cementbentonite
mixture were more permeable when set in a DNAPL
environment.
In light of these few studies, NAPLs may act to promote
vertical migration of contaminants along a well casing or
breach containment systems designed to separate
contaminated zones from cleaner zones. However, this issue
has not been fully investigated. The compatibility of NAPLs
with annular sealants, well packing, and barrier wall materials
should be determined on a site-specific basis by testing the
proposed materials and chemicals that are likely to be in
contact with those materials.
Annular sealants, well packing, and barrier wall materials are
not included in the Chemical Compatibility Table because of
the limited information available.
Field Experience and Practical Considerations
Relatively little field experience is reported in the literature
regarding remediation, well construction, and sampling
materials compatibility with contaminants. This may be due to
several reasons. The environmental field is relatively young
and many materials may not have had sufficient contact time
for significant failures to be observed. Lack of reporting may
also be due to the inherent hidden effects of subsurface
chemical incompatibility with materials. For example,
extraction and monitoring well structural failures are seldom
observed from the surface. Wells that do appear to be
malfunctioning are usually sealed or grouted without knowing
the real cause of the problem. Additionally, silting-in of a well
is routinely diagnoised as a screen size design problem, but
may acutally be the result of screen deterioration from
chemical incompatibilty.
Field experience with various types of wastes and materials
commonly found at hazardous waste sites provides useful
information. While the information is qualitative, it illustrates a
few guidelines regarding chemical compatibility.
Creosote Wastes: Creosote manufacturers generally
recommend against the use of PVC and recommend the use
of steel materials when creosote is pumped under pressure.
In the field, the PVC will become "gummy", (i.e., altered
physical integrity) and will definitely fail under pressure [Sale,
1993]. However, PVC has been used with creosote fairly
reliably as a product thickness well, or gravity drainline, where
it is not under pressure. Polyethylene was used successfully
as creosote drainline material ( i.e., DNAPL recovery). These
drainlines have been jet-routed to remove solids which have
accumulated in the pipe and continue to operate successfully.
Most of the components used in pumps are made of steel.
However, there are some butyl rubber or plastic washers and
seals which will fail in the presence of creosote [Sale, 1993].
Therefore, it is recommended to examine the various
pumping parts that come in contact with creosote and
ascertain that they are not butyl rubber or plastic.
Specifications for pump parts can be provided by pump
manufacturers. Typically, incompatible washers, seals, and
bushings may be replaced with more chemically resistant Kel-
F or Viton-A.
Coal Tars: There are several distinct types of coal tars from
manufactured gas plant processes, hereinafter all types are
inclusive to the term coal tar. There are similarities between
coal tar and creosote; they are both a by-product from the
production of coke from coal and when coal tar is distilled, the
200o to 400o C fractions are creosote [McGinnis et al., 1988].
Many of the same PAHs in creosote are also found in coal tar
[Ripp et al., 1993]. Taylor [1993] and Unites [1993] report that
PVC material used in heavily contaminated coal tar sediments
under non-pressurized conditions appears to function
properly. However, PVC wells placed in coal tar sediments
did appear swollen after prolonged exposure and the
screened interval may have been compromised [Villaume,
1993]. Others have observed that screened intervals
become clogged with coal tar, presumably due to the viscous
nature of coal tar [Murarka, 1993]. Based on the chemical
similarities between creosote and coal tar, it is reasonable to
assume that PVC is suitable for product thickness wells, or
gravity drainlines, under non-pressurized conditions, but it
may fail under pressurized conditions.
Mixed NAPL (Solvents) Wastes: Hazardous waste sites
usually involve the co-disposal of various chemicals which
collectively float or sink as a NAPL. For example, a mixed
DNAPL composed primarily of bis, 2-chloro-ethyl ether (38%),
DCA (2.5%), styrene, TCE, and an oil carrier was found at a
Superfund site in Texas. At this site, a dedicated PVC bailer
in a PVC cased well underwent partial solvation due to the
incompatibility between the dedicated PVC material and the
NAPL. The remaining PVC bailer and well casing were
4
sufficiently degraded so that both materials became fused
together as a single unit. This resulted in a permanent
cementation of the bailer to the casing requiring
abandonment of the well and construction of a new well with
compatible materials [Newell, 1993]. This field observation is
consistent with information in the Chemical Compatibility
Table. For example, PVC is reported as unacceptable
material to use with ethers (general), dichloroethane, styrene,
and trichloroethylene.
At the same site, a paddle-wheel flowmeter was used to
evaluate flow of a water-DNAPL mixture. The flowmeter had
a rubber seal component that lasted approximately 48 hours
before failure. A Viton covered rubber (inflatable) packer
and a pump with Viton seals were unaffected after 30 days
by the same DNAPL. The Chemical Compatibility Table does
not include butyl rubber. However, butyl rubber is known to
be vulnerable to degradation in the presence of some organic
solvents. In this particular case, there is a conflict in the
literature regarding the compatibility of Viton with ethers
(general) and trichloroethylene. Therefore, the potential for
failure exists in this situation.
Material incompatibility with chemical wastes generally
requires the use of a more resistant, and usually more costly
material. One approach to minimize cost is to use PVC
casing that is not in contact with the incompatible chemical,
with a resistant (stainless steel) screen which is in more
immediate contact with the chemical. This must be evaluated
and designed on a site specific basis [Newell, 1993].
Additionally, the use of PVC material on the periphery of the
source area where NAPL is not present may also minimize
construction costs.
While very little information regarding fiberglass reinforced
epoxy (FRE) exists and is not included in the Chemical
Compatibility Table, field information from a DNAPL
Superfund site in Texas was obtained with respect to FRE
compatibility with chlorinated solvents. An interception well
field with five extraction wells was installed to collect DNAPL
and prevent it from discharging to a stream. The DNAPL
primarily consisted of 1,1,2-trichloroethane, vinyl chloride, and
1,2-DCA with a smaller amount of methylene chloride.
Previous experience at this site indicated that PVC material
was clearly incompatible due to its almost instantaneous
deformation upon installation [Meyer, 1993]. The potentially
responsible party selected FRE casing and screens due to its
predicted superior performance. Approximately one month
after installation of the FRE wells, the pumps in two wells with
DNAPL failed due to clogging with pieces of fiberglass.
Subsequently, complete deterioration of the screen and/or the
casing occurred as evidenced by the silting up of the pumps.
The pumps were cleaned and the wells were retrofitted with
smaller diameter stainless steel insert wells which presently
are functioning appropriately [Meyer, 1993].
Surfactants: There is a significant amount of surfactant
research presently being conducted for its potential use in the
field. Since there is very little information on the compatibility
of surfactants with remediation materials, specific
compatibility testing should be conducted. One case study
involves the use of an alkaline polymer surfactant (APS) in a
pilot treatability study at a creosote waste site in Laramie,
Wyoming. The APS completely destroyed PVC material
under non-pressure conditions presenting significant
incompatibility problems [Sale, 1993]. Ultimately, steel piping
was necessary to minimize incompatibility failures.
General DNAPL Consideration: Due to the known
heterogeneous nature of stratigraphy at any site, it is likely for
DNAPLs to be present at numerous vertical locations.
Therefore, compatibility evaluations need to be made for each
contaminated zone along the complete length of a well
casing. It is possible that subsequent degradation or
corrosion of well casing material or annular sealants may
create a vertical pathway where DNAPLs can migrate through
previously uncontaminated hydrostratigraphic units.
Therefore, it is reasonable to assume that a compromised
well, through improper construction or deterioration, may
facilitate the transport of DNAPLs.
Remediation, Well Construction, and Sampling
Material
Well casing and screening, plumbing appurtenances, bailers,
sampling tubes, sample bottles, pumps, water-level
indicators, interface probes and a variety of water chemistry
probes all may be exposed to corrosive and degrading
compounds in heavily contaminated subsurface
environments. The information available from equipment
manufacturers for each of these products currently on the
market either does not exist or is too voluminous to assimilate
into a single compatibility table. These products do have a
common ground, namely the materials from which they are
constructed. Therefore, the materials provide the basis for
the Chemical Compatibility Table. Many manufacturers use
similar chemical resistance data for their materials to specify
acceptable applications for their products.
Quite often, equipment manufacturers recommend that
compatibility experiments be constructed by the user prior to
use. This practice has the added benefit of providing specific
information regarding the specific composition and
concentration of the chemicals involved. One problem with
this approach is the uncertainty associated with the duration
of the experiment. For example, compatibility testing is
typically conducted for a short duration. Since the selection of
proper materials is partially dependent on long-term
performance, data from the short-term tests do not
necessarily represent long-term performance.
Manufacturers of polymer resins, metals, and metal alloys
provide chemical resistance test data for a variety of
chemicals. These data have been incorporated into the
Chemical Compatibility Table. Since there is no
comprehensive compatibility guide available for subsurface
contaminants with specific ground-water sampling and well
construction products, it is necessary to determine what
materials (e.g., wetted parts) will be exposed to which
contaminant.
The following materials (and their acronyms) were included in
the compilation of the Chemical Compatibility Table:
acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), acetal / Delrin,
chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC), fluorinated ethylene
propylene(FEP), nylon 6 and 66, high density polypropylene
(HDPE), polytetrafluoroethylene / Teflon (PTFE), polyvinyl
chloride (PVC), polyvinylidiene fluoride / Kynar (PVDF),
ethylenepropylenediene (EPDM), perfluoroelastomer(Kel-F ),
neoprene, Nitrile Buna-N, polyurethane, silicone, Tygon,
5
Viton-A, ceramic, silica, 304 and 316 stainless steel, carbon
steel, aluminum, brass, copper, and nickel-alloy steel
(Hastelloy-C). Rigid PVC is listed in two columns, mediumimpact
Type I, and high-impact Type II [Harper, 1975].
In the table, well construction and sampling materials listed
are referenced by these materials and not the many available
configurations (e.g., schedule 40 vs. schedule 80 PVC pipe).
Bailers, well casing, and drain materials generally are
constructed from PVC Types I and II, CPVC, nylon, HDPE,
PTFE, FEP, 304 and 316 stainless steel, carbon steel,
Hastelloy-C, or aluminum. Fittings and tubing are made of
brass, copper, stainless steel, aluminum, nylon, Tygon,
PTFE, or silicone. Pump diaphragms, gaskets, and o-rings
are made of PTFE, EPDM, Kel-F, Neoprene, Nitrile Buna-N,
polyurethane, silicone, or Viton-A. Other wetted pump parts
are made of various metals and plastics. Silica was included
to represent sand packing material. Ceramics represent
lysimeter material. There was very little compatibility
information published on fiberglass reinforced epoxy (FRE);
therefore, FRE was not included in the Chemical Compatibility
Table.
Compilation of Contaminants
The Chemical Compatibility Table contains 207 organic
compounds which are primarily NAPLs or contaminants
associated with EPAs list of 129 priority pollutants [Viessman
and Hammer, 1985]. Metals from the EPAs priority pollutant
list were not included in the Chemical Compatibility Table.
The compatibility table does not differentiate between isomers
of a single compound (e.g., 2-nitrophenol and 4nitrophenol)
or variations of trade name chemicals (e.g., the 7
different Aroclors). In addition to the EPAs priority pollutant
list, the table includes several common mixtures (e.g.,
gasoline, white liquor) and other organic compounds that may
be problematic if present in pure phase. Although the data
presented were compiled primarily for NAPLs, there are
numerous exceptions. For example, there are several entries
for compounds which are miscible with water (e.g., acetone,
ethyl alcohol, methyl alcohol). Some entries are reported as
percent (%) mixtures of organic compounds which represent
the aqueous phase concentration in water (i.e., Aldrin,
Chlorodane, DDT). Additionally, there are several inorganic
chemicals (e.g., carbonic acid, H2O2).
There are 47 environmentally important chemicals listed at
the end of the Chemical Compatibility Table for which no data
were found. Thirteen (13) of these compounds are polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) which are commonly found in
creosote and coal tar type wastes [McGinnis et al., 1988; Ripp
et al., 1993]. Creosote and coal tar are mixtures of hundreds
of compounds which these PAHs represent only a fraction. At
room temperature (and below), these compounds are solids
in pure form. As such, no compatibility data for these
compounds were available.
References and data tables listing the resistance properties of
common well construction and sampling equipment materials
to hundreds of additional chemicals (i.e., calcium hydroxide,
nickel nitrate, butylbromide, etc.) can be found among the
published literature [Cole-Parmer Instrument Co. Catalog,
1995-1996; Schweitzer, 1991; Craig, 1989; De Renzo,
1985; Harper, 1975; Rabald, 1968]. These additional
chemicals, however, have not been included in the Chemical
Compatibility Table because of their limited occurrence as
environmental contaminants.
Several references were used to compile the Chemical
Compatibility Table. The two major references were the
1995-1996 Cole-Parmer Instrument Co. Catalog, Chemical
Resistance Charts, and the Corrosion Resistance Tables
presented in Schweitzer, 1991. Other references were used
for cross-checking data and for less common chemicals
[Craig, 1989; De Renzo, 1985; Harper, 1975; Rabald, 1968].
Chemical Compatibility Table
The Chemical Compatibility Table has been compiled to
assist remediation design personnel with selecting the most
appropriate remediation, well construction, and sampling
materials for specific waste conditions. This table should only
be used as a guide since it is extremely difficult to universally
represent actual conditions in the testing procedure. It may
be necessary to perform additional, site-specific testing under
actual operating conditions to obtain compatibility information
regarding the suitability of a particular material. This is
especially true considering the number of possible
combinations of chemical and physical conditions which occur
at any given hazardous waste site.
At a minimum, the references used in compiling the Chemical
Compatibility Table generally reported findings from 48-hour
immersion tests with 100% or neat solutions, unless
otherwise noted.
Remediation, well construction, and sampling materials have
been divided into four categories: plastics, elastopolymers,
earth-materials, and metals. The compatibility classification
for the corrosion of metals is:
Excellent (E) = less than 2 mils per year
Satisfactory (S) = less than 20 mils per year
Good (G) = less than 50 mils per year
Unsatisfactory (U) = greater than 50 mils per year
(note: 1 mil equals one one-thousandth of an inch)
The corrosion rate data may be used with material thickness
data to estimate the lifetime of the materials. There are
several other variables and parameters which will influence
actual corrosion rates and, therefore, this approach should
only be considered a rough estimate.
Two classification schemes were used to represent
degradation data for the plastics, elastopolymers, and earthmaterials
categories:
applicable to applicable to
at least 22oC at least 15oC
A = Excellent - No Effect
B = Good - Minor Effect R = Resistant
C = Fair - Moderate Effect
U = Poor - Severe Effect U = Unsatisfactory
The A, B, and C classifications are roughly equivalent to the R
resistant classification. In order to provide a reliable
compatibility table, data for each chemical were cross
6
checked between references whenever possible. The
notation X = Conflicting Data refers to the situation when a
chemical and a corresponding material had two or more
references that did not agree on the compatibility
classification, and at least one of the references reported the
compatibility as unsatisfactory. For example, a conflict was
noted when the compatibility of a chemical with a given
material was reported as U and A, B or C; or if the
compatibility was reported as U and R. The notation -
refers to no data available when none of the references had
compatibility data for a chemical and material.
Example
Remediation, well construction, and sampling materials
comprise the columns of the Chemical Compatibility Table,
while the chemicals are listed alphabetically by row. The
compatibility classification may be read from the chemical
(row) and material (column) intersection. For example, if
trichloroethylene (TCE) was the chemical of concern and
compatible well construction and sampling materials needed
to be identified, then TCE could be located by row and
compatible materials could be determined.
Materials in the metals group are compatible with pure-phase
TCE, but many plastics and elastopolymers are not. If a
recovery well was being designed, then 304 or 316 stainless
steel would be a compatible choice. PVC, however, is
incompatible with pure-phase TCE and is not suggested for a
recovery system.
In designing a sampling system, compatibility of materials for
pumps and sampling lines can be evaluated. Specifically, all
components of the system should be evaluated, including well
casing and screen, sampling lines, bailers, pumps and their
component parts, above ground piping, etc. For example,
wetted parts of a pump such as seals and bushings
constructed of Kel-F and Teflon are compatible with TCE,
but products containing neoprene and silicone are not
recommended. It should be noted that no compatibility data
were reported for TCE and Tygon and that conflicting data
were reported for TCE and Viton-A.
In general, most metal and plastic materials may be adequate
for use in low dissolved concentrations of NAPLs, from a
structural integrity point of view. However, some
elastopolymers may not provide adequate service because
these materials seem to be the most susceptible to
degradation. The Chemical Compatibility Table provides a
comprehensive list of published information for pure-phase
compounds. Data on various concentrations of compounds in
water are not included in the table.
Summary
NAPLs are common contaminants at hazardous waste sites
and are present in the subsurface in continuous and residual
phases. Their soluble constituents dissolve into the
surrounding ground water. High aqueous concentrations of
organic compounds and NAPLs can be detrimental to longterm
subsurface monitoring and recovery systems by
degrading well construction, sampling, and remediation
materials.
This issue paper provides a guide on the compatibility of
NAPLs and other environmentally important contaminants
with materials used in well construction, subsurface sampling,
and other various remediation activities. A Chemical
Compatibility Table is presented which identifies the
compatibility of 207 contaminants with materials such as
metals (stainless steel, nickel steel, aluminum, etc.), plastics
(PVC, PTFE, polypropylene, etc.), earth materials (ceramic,
silica) and elastopolymers (Tygon, silicone, Viton-A, etc.).
This information can assist scientists and engineers with the
decision-making process when designing monitoring and
recovery systems for heavily contaminated subsurface
environments.
The Chemical Compatibility Table was compiled from
numerous sources which employed various testing protocols.
The conditions and duration under which the information was
generated are not universal. As such, the compatibility
information should only be used as a guideline. Site-specific
compatibility tests would provide more reliable information.
The field experiences reported in this issue paper serve to
illustrate the compatibility problems of a few of the common
wastes and materials found at hazardous waste sites. These
experiences also emphasize the need to report material
failures to minimize similar occurrences in future remediation
work.
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For All Non- Metals
R = Resistant
A = Excellent - No effect
B = Good - Minor effect
C = Fair - Moderate effect
U = UnsatisfactoryX = Conflicting Data
-= No Data Available
CHEMICAL COMPATIBILITY TABLE
For Metals
E < 2 mils Penetration/Year
G < 20 mils Penetration/Year
S < 50 mils Penetration/Year
U > 50 mils Penetration/Year
( 1 mil = .001 inch )
A = Excellent - No effect*
B = Good - Minor effect*
C = Fair - Moderate effect*
* No corrision rate reported
ABSAcetal (Delrin)
CPVCPlastics
FEPNylon 6, 66HDPEPolypropylenePTFE (Teflon)
PVC Type IPVC Type IIPVDF (Kynar)
Elastopolymers
EPDMKel-FNeopreneNitrile Buna-NPolyurethaneSiliconeTygonViton-ACeramicSilicaMeta
ls304 Stainless316 StainlessCarbon SteelHastelloy-CAluminumBrassCopper
Acetaldehyde U A U R U U A A U U X A A C U U A U U -R E E G E G U U
Acetamide -A -R R R A A U -C A A B A U B U B --G G --G --
Acetate Solvent U -U R R R B A U U A A A C U -A U U --E E G E E S G
Acetic Acid 10% X X C R U R B A U -C A A C C -C U R A R E E U E G U G
Acetic Acid, Glacial U U U R U R A A U U B U A X X U B U U A R E E U E E U U
Acetone U A U R R R A A U U U A A U U U B U U A R E E G E E G E
Acetonitrile U --R R -R R --R R ---------G G G -E G G
Acetophenone U --R R U R R U U R R -U U ---U --G G G G G G G
Acetyl Chloride U -U R U U U A U U R U -U U U --R -R G G G -U U U
Acetylene R -R R R -R R R R R R -R R ---R --E E G G E U U
Acrylonitrile U -X R R R A A X U A X -C U -U -U --G G G G E G G
Adipic Acid R -A R -R B A R R A A A B X -U -X --G G G E G -G
Aldrin (1 oz/gal) ---------------------E E G -E --
Allyl Alcohol U -R R R R R R R R R R -R R ---R --E E G G G G E
Allyl Chloride U -U R -R R R U U R U -U U -----R G E U -U --
Ammonium Acetate --A R A -A A R R R A -A B --A A --G G --G U U
Ammonium Oxalate 10% ---R --R R R --R ---------G G U E E -U
Amyl Acetate U B U R R R X A U U A A A U U U U U U A R E E G E E E G
Amyl Alcohol R A A R A R B A R U A A A A B U U A B A R G G G G G G G
Amyl Chloride U -U R U U U R U U U R -U U ---R --G G U E U G G
Aniline U A X R X R X A U U A X A U U U U C B A R E E G G G U U
Aniline Hydrochloride U -U R U U X A X U A B -U U -U U A -R U U U U U U G
Antifreeze B U A -U -U -A --A -C A -C B A ---A --A --
Aroclor 1248 ---R A U U A ---B A U X -B -A --G G G E E E E
Asphalt -B X R A R B A A -A U A U X -U -A --G G G -E E E
Benzaldehyde X A U R A U X A U U A A A U U U U U U A R G G U G G G G
Benzene U A U R A U X A U U A U B U U U U C A A R G G G G E G G
Benzo Sulfonic Acid 10% R -R R U R R R R R R U -R U U --R -R G G U G U G -
Benzyl Alcohol U A X R B U A A U U A B A X X U -U A A R E E G G G G E
Benzoic Acid R B A R X B R A R R A U A B U U B A A A R G G U E G G G
Benzol U A U R X U U A U U A U A U U U U C A A R G G G G E G G
Benzonitrile ---R R A -A ----A ---A ----U U -C ---
Benzyl Chloride U A U R R -C R R -R U -U U -U -A --G G U -U U U
Bromobenzene ---R --U R --R U -U U ---R ---------
Butadiene U A A R R U U A R U A X A B X U U -B --G G G G G G G
Butane B A C R R U U A R R A U A A A R U C A --G G E G G G G
Butyl Alcohol U A A R B B R A R U A A A A X -B B A -R E E G G E G G
n-Butyl Amine -X U R R U U A U U X -U U R -B U U ---G G G G --
Butyl Ether -U U R A --A R -A U A U B -U A U ---E E -E --
Butyl Phenol U -U R --U R U U R --U ----U --G E -G G --
Butyl Phthalate --U R R -R R R -R B A D U -A -C --G G -G U G G
ABSAcetal (Delrin)
CPVCFEPNylon 6, 66HDPEPolypropylenePlastics
PTFE (Teflon)
EPDMKel-FNeopreneNitrile Buna-NPolyurethaneSiliconeTygonElastopolymers
Viton-ACeramicSilica304 Stainless316 StainlessCarbon SteelHastelloy-CMetals
AluminumBrassCopper
Butylacetate U A X R A R X A U U B B A X U -U U U -R G G G G E G G
Butyric Acid U A U R U U R R U U A B A U U -U U B -R G G U E G G G
Carbon Tetrachloride U B U R X U U R U U R U A U U U U B A A R E E G E U G E
Carbonic Acid R B A R R R A A R R A B A X X R A -A A -G G G E E G G
Chloroacetic Acid U U U R U U C A R R A B A U U U U A U --U U U E U U U
Chlorobenzene U X U R R U U B U U A U A U U -U A A A R G G G E G G G
Chlorobromomethane ----C -A A U --B -U U -U -A A ------B -
Chlordane (1/4 lb/gal) U ------R ---U -C B -U -A --G G G ----
Chloroethane U A U R R R X A U U A X A U U -U -B --G G G ---G
Chloroform U A U R R U X A U U A U B U U U U B A A R E E U G G G G
Chloronaphthalene U -------R ----U U -------G -E U --
Chlorophenol 5% (aq.) -R U R U --R U U R ----------G G S E ---
Citric Acid U B B R R A A A R -A A A A A -A -A A R E E U E E -E
Cresol U U U R U U U R X U R U A U U U U U X -R E G G G G --
Cresylic Acid 50% U U U R U R X R R R R X -U U U U -A --G G G G G --
Crude Oil R R R R R U R U U U U U -U R R --R --E E G E E G G
Cyclohexane R A U R R R U A X -R U A U B R U U A --G G G G G G G
Cyclohexanone U A U R R U U A U U R B U U U -U U U A -G G U G G G G
DDT 5% --U -----U U -----------E E G -E --
Detergents (general) B A A R R R A A R R A A A B A -A A A A -E G G E G G E
Diacetone Alcohol -A U R R R R A R -A A B U U -U B U --G G G E E E E
Dibutyl Phthalate U -U R R U R R U U U R -U U U --U --G G G G G G G
Dichlorobenzene U -U R X U C A U U A U -U U -U -C ---G -E G --
Dichloroethane U A U R R R X A U U A U A U U --U C A R G G G G G G -
Dichloroethylene U --R R -R R U U R U -U U ---R --G G -G G --
Dichlorofluoromethane ---R ---R U U ------------------
Diesel Fuel -A A R R R A A R -A U A B A -U -A --E E G G E E -
Diethanolamine ---R R -R R U U U --R -------E E E E E -G
Diethyl Amine U B U R R U A X U -X B A A C -B C A --G G U -G --
Diethyl Ether U R U R R U R A U U R U C U U -U -U --G G G G G G G
Diethyl Phthalate -------R --------------------
Diethylene Glycol B A A R R R A A X -A A -A A -B C A --E E E G G -G
Dimethyl Aniline U U U R R -X A U U A B A U U -U U U --B B -B A --
Dimethyl Ether ---R ---R -----U R ------G G -G -G G
Dimethyl Formamide U X U R R R A X U U U X A X U -C U X ---G U -E --
Dimethyl Phthalate U --R R -R R U U R --U U ---R --E E E -E --
Dimethyl Sulfoxide -R U R R R R R U -U -----------------
Dinitrotoluene -------R ---U -U U -U -X --G G -----
Dioctyl Phthalate U -U R R U U R U U R R -U U U --R --G G G -E --
Dioxane U R -R R U R R U -U U -U U ---U --G G G G G G G
Diphenyl ---R R -U A U --U -B U R U -A --G G G G G G G
Diphenyl Oxide -U ----U A U -B U -U A -C U A --B A -B B -A
Esters (general) --U R R --R U U R -----------G -----
Ethane -A A -U -U A A -A U -B A -U A A --A A ----A
Ethanolamine -U U R R -X A U -X B U B B -B -U A -E E G G G --
Ethers (general) U A U -R U U A U U R C B U X -U C X -R E E G G G G G
Ethyl Acetate U A U R R R A A U U X B A U U U B U U A R G G G G -G G
Ethyl Alcohol B A B R R R A A R R R A B A C U B C A A R G G G E E G G
Ethyl Benzene -R -R -U U R U U R U -U U ---R --S G U E G --
Ethyl Benzoate U -U --U B A U -U --U U -U U A ---------
Ethyl Chloride U R U R R U U R U U R R -U R U --B -R E E G G --G
Ethyl Ether U A U R R U U A U U R U A U X U U -U -R G G G G G G G
ABSAcetal (Delrin)
PTFE (Teflon)
AluminumBrassCopper
Ethyl Sulfate -------A ----A -A ---A --U U ----B
Ethylene Bromide U -U R R U U A U U A X B X U -U U A --E E -E ---
Ethylene Chloride U A U R R R X A U U A X A U U -U -B --G G G ---G
Ethylene Chlorohydrin U U U R U U X A U U A B -X U U C U A --G G G G G G G
Ethylene Diamine U X U R U -R A U U B A U X A -A -B --G G G U G U U
Ethylene Dibromide ---R --R R --R -----------G -G -G -
Ethylene Glycol A B A R R R A A R R A A A A A R A B R A -G G G E E G G
Ethylene Oxide U U X R R R U A U U A X C U U U U -U -R G G G E E U -
Formaldehyde 100% B A A -U -C A A -A A A C C -B B U --C A -A A -A
Formaldehyde 37% A A A R R R A A R R A A A B X U --R -R E E U G G E G
Formic Acid 5% -U R R U R R R R -R R -R U ---R --G E -E U S E
Fuel oils U A -R R R A B R R B U A B X R U A A --G G G G G G G
Gasoline (high-aromatic) U B A ---A B A -A U A A A -U A A A -A A -A U --
Gasoline (leaded) U A U R R U X A R -A U A B A R U C A A -G G G E G G G
Gasoline (unleaded) U A X R R U X A R -A U A B A R U C A --G G G E G G G
Glycolic Acid B A A R -R A A R R B A B A A -A A A --G G U G G --
Heptane X A A R R R C A R R A U A B A U U B A --G G G E G G G
Hexachloroethane -------R -------------G G -G G S G
Hexamine ---R ---R -------------E E -E E G -
Hexane U A B R R U B A R R A U A B A R U U A --E E G E G G -
Hexyl Alcohol -A --A --A A --C -A A -B A C --A A -A A --
Hydraulic Oil (petro.) -B --A -U A A -A U -A A -B A A --A A -A A A A
Hydraulic Oil (synthetic) ----A -U A A -A A -A U -B A A --A A -A A A A
Hydrazine -B U --U C C --A A -B B -B -A --A A ----A
Hydrogen Peroxide (dilute) R R U R R R R R R -R R -U R ---R --G G U E E U U
Hydroquinone X A A R U -A A R R R U -A X ---B --G G G G G G -
Hydroxyacetic Acid 70% -A A ----A U -A A -A A ---A ---------
Iodoform ---R --R C --C A -A U --C R -R E E U U G -G
Isobutyl Alcohol B A --A -A A A --A -A B -A A A ---------
Isooctane ----A B A A A -A U A B A -U A A --A A --A A -
Isopropyl Acetate U U U R R R B A U U X B -U U -U -U --E G E G G --
Isopropyl Alcohol R A C R U R A A R R R A -B B U A A A A -G G G G G G G
Isopropyl Ether -U R R R -X A R R X U A U B R U A U --E G ---G G
Isotane ----U -U -A -A --U A ----A -----U --
Jet Fuel JP-4, JP-5 -A R R R -A A R R A U A U A U U A A --G G G E G E -
Kerosene X A R R R R R A R R A U A A A U U U A A -G G G G G G G
Lacquer thinners A U --A -U A U --U -U U -U U U ---G --G --
Lacquers A U --A -U A U -U U -U U -U A U --E E -----
Lactic Acid U B A R R -B A R R B A A A X -A A A A -G G U G G G G
Lead Acetate B B A R R R A A R R A A A A B -A B U A -G G U G U U G
Linoleic Acid A B A R U U B A R R A U -U B -B A B --G G U G G U U
Maleic Acid R A A R X R R A R R A X -U U --C A -R G G U G -G -
Malic Acid R A R R X R A A R R A U -X A -B A A --E E U G G -U
Melamine -A A -A -A A U --A -U C -C U A ---U -----
Methane -A -R R -A A R R A X -B A -U -A --E E G E E E G
Methyl Acetate U X U R R R X A U U B X A X U -U A U --G G S E G --
Methyl Acetone -U --A --A U -U A -U U --A U --A A --A A -
Methyl Acylate -B ----U ---B B -B U -U -U --A ------
Methyl Alcohol U A A R R R A A R R A A A A A U A A U A R G G G E G G G
Methyl Alcohol 10% U A A -B B A A --A A A A A -A A A A --------
Methyl Amide U U ----A A U -C A A -B --U U --A A --A U* -
Methyl Bromide U U U R U R X A U U A U -U B ---A --G G G -U --
Methyl Butyl Ketone -U --U U U ---U A -U U -U -U --A A -----
ABSAcetal (Delrin)
PTFE (Teflon)
AluminumBrassCopper
Methyl Chloride U B U R R U U A U U A U A U U U U U A --E E U G U E G
Methyl Chloroform U -U R --U R U U R U -U U ---R ---------
Methyl Dichloride -U --C -U ---U U --U ---A ---------
Methyl Ethyl Ketone U U U R R U B A U U U A A U U U U U U A -G G G G G G G
Methyl Isopropyl Ketone ----A --A U --C -U U -C -U --A A --A -A
Methyl Methacrylate -U R R --X R R U B U -U U -C -U --G G U -G --
Methyl Pentanone U -U R R R R A U U X B A U U -U -U --G G G G G G G
Methylene Chloride U B U R U U B A U U B X A U U U -U B -R G G G E E G G
Monochloroacetic acid -U --U U -A --B C B A U ---C --A A -A U* B
U*
Monoethanolamine -U -R R -B A U U U B -X B -B -X --E E G G G G G
Motor Oil C B A R R U U A R R B U A B A --A R A -G G G --G G
Napthalene U X U R R U R A U U A U A U U R U C A A -E E G G G G G
Nitrobenzene U X U R R U B A U U A U A U U U U U B -R G G G G E G G
Nitromethane U A U R U -R A R R A B A U U -U B U --G G G -G --
Nitrophenol -------R -------------G G --G -G
Octane ---R -R R R U U R U -R R ---R ---G G -G G G
Octyl Alcohol A A B -A ------B -B B -B -B --A A -C A -A
Oleic Acid X A A R R U B A R R A B B X B R U C B A -E E G G G S G
Oxalic Acid 5% R U R R U R R R R R R R -R U ---R --U G U G G S G
Palmitic Acid 10% A A A R R R B A R R A B -U A R U B A ---G --G G G
Pentachlorophenol -------R ----------R ----E ----
Pentane -B --A -U A A -A U -B A -U A A --C C -A B --
Petroleum B B A R -U B A R -A U -B A -U -A --G G --G G G
Phenol 10% U X A R U R B A U U A B B U U U U C A A -G G G G E G G
Phthalic Acid B C X R R -A A U U A A -A U -B -A --G E S G G G G
Phthalic Anhydride B C U R --U A U -A A -A U --B A --E E G E E G -
Picric Acid X A U R U U A A U U A A -A X -B -A -R G G U G E U U
Propyl Alcohol X A A R U R A A R R A A A A A -A A A A -E E G E G G G
Propylene B ------A B --U -U U -U B A --B A --A -A
Propylene Glycol B B X R R R A A U U A A -C A -A -A A -G G G G G G G
Propylene Oxide ---R -R R R U U U R -U U ---U --E E -----
Pyridine -B U R R R A A U U U X A U U -U U U A -G G G E G G G
Sodium Acetate B B A R R R A A R R A A A B B -U -U A -G G U G E G G
Sodium Benzoate A -A R R R A A R R A A -A B --B A -----G G -E
Sodium Hypochlorite 20% R U R R U R R R R R R R A U U -B C A -U U U U U G G S
Stearic Acid U A B R R R A A R R A X -B B R B B A -R G E S E G S G
Styrene -A U -A U -A U --U -U U -U -B --A A -U* A A B
Tartaric Acid -B A -B -A A A -B B A A A -A B A A -C C -B B U* A
Tetrachloroacetic Acid R -R R R R R R R R R U -R R R --R --E E -G G S U
Tetrachloroethane -A X R R -C A U U A U A U U -U -A -R E E E E G -S
Tetrachloroethylene U A U R R U U A U U R U A U U U U -A --E E G G G G G
Tetrachlorophenol ------R R --R -----------------
Tetraethyl Lead U -R R -U R R R R R U --U ---R --G G G -G G -
Tetrahydrofuran U A U R R U C A U U B U A U U -U -X A -E G E E U --
Toluene U X U R R U C A U U A U B U X U U U C A -E E E E E E E
Toxaphene-Xylene 10-90% --U R --R R U ------------G G S -S --
Trichloroacetic Acid --R R U R A A R -B B A U R -U C C A -U U U G U G G
Trichlorobenzene -------R U ----U U U --R ----E ----
Trichloroethane -A ----C A C -A U A U U -U -A ---------
Trichloroethylene U U U R R U C A U U B U A U U U U -X A -G G G E E G G
Trichlorofluoromethane --------U ----U U -------G --G --
Trichloropropane U A -----A ----A A U --U A --A A -A U* -A
Plastics
Elastopolymers
Metals
ABSAcetal (Delrin)
CPVCFEPNylon 6, 66HDPEPolypropylenePTFE (Teflon)
EPDMKel-FNeopreneNitrile Buna-NPolyurethaneSiliconeTygonViton-ACeramicSilica304
Stainless316 StainlessCarbon SteelHastelloy-CAluminumBrassCopper
Triethanolamine R U R R R U R R U U R
Triethylamine U U A R R -U A R R A
Trimethylpropane U -R R --U R R R R
Turpentine U A A R R U X A X U A
Vinyl Acetate U -U R -U B A U U A
Vinyl Chloride U -U -A --A U -B
White liquor (Pulp mill) X U R R R -R R R R R
White Water (Paper mill) R B --R -R -R --
Xylene U A U R R U B A U U A
R -R U U --R
A A A C --A X
---R R ---
U A U R U U B A
B -X X -U U A
C -U U --U A
R -R R ---R
--A ----A
U A U U U U U X
--G G G G G U E
B -G G -----
---------
A -E E G G G S G
B -E E G E E G -
A -B A -A B -B
--G G S G G --
--A A -----
A -G G G E G G G
This table should only be used as a guide since it is difficult to duplicate ope
rating conditions. To fully guarantee the suitability of
a particular material, chemical resistance tests should be conducted under actua
l operating conditions.
No data was found on the following environmentally important chemicals:
Acenaphthene (1) Chloromethylether Fluoranthene (1)
Acenapthalene (1) Chlorophenylphenylether Fluorene (1)
Acrolein Chrysene (1) Heptachlor (2)
Anthracene (1) DDD (2) Hexachlorobenzene
Benzidine DDE (2) Hexachlorobutadiene
Benzo(a)athracene (1) Dichlorobenzidine Hexachlorocyclohexane
Benzo(b)fluoranthene (1) Dichlorobromomethane Indeno(1,2,3-c,d)pyrene (1)
Benzo(g,h,i)perylene (1) Dichlorophenol Isophorone
Benzo(a)pyrene (1) Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid 2-Methylnapthalene
Bromophenylphenylether Dichloropropane Parachlorometa cresol
Butylbenzylphthalate Dichloropropylene Phenanthrene (1)
Chlorodibromomethane Dieldrin (2) Phenylenepyrene
Chloroethoxymethane Dinitrophenol Pyrene (1)
Chloroethylether Diphenylhydrazine Trichlorophenol
Chloroethylvinylether Endosulfan Trichlorophenoxyacetic acid
Chloroisopropylether Endrin (2)
(1) Component of cresotoe and coal tar. At room temperature and below, these com
pounds are solid in pure form.
(2)
Pesticides

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