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6 December 2009
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Introduction

The purpose of this report is to serve a founding document for the creation of, or the eventual

working in the Middle East with a non-profit organization focused on water conservation.

Though several other organizations already exist with similar mission statements this report was

initially created as a pilot action plan limited to the countries of Afghanistan, Egypt, Iran, Iraq,

Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Oman, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Syria, and Yemen. The report

has since become more generalized in nature with an overall focus on the applicability and

feasibility of three main water conservation strategies that include: 1) Public awareness, 2) Grey

water and irrigation, and 3) Rain catching. To supplement country specific information and to

better prioritize the area of focus for the non-profit organization an appendix has been added

with country specific information and short assessments prioritizing conservation strategies. The

objective of the report is to determine a non-profit organization’s ability to implement those

conservation strategies while taking into account financing, climate, and, to some extent, local

politics.

The Middle East and North Africa (MENA) is the most water deprived region in the world,

experiencing the highest variation of annual precipitation and a forecasted 60% percent increase

in population over the next sixteen years, reaching 500 million,1 the dynamic of the region make

its future unstable at best. Currently in the MENA the average person has access to 1,200m³ of

water annually, compared to 7,000m³ annually available to people worldwide.2 Furthermore, in a

model setting each person annually needs one cubic meter of water for personal use (drinking), a

hundred cubic meters for other uses, and an additional thousand cubic meters for agricultural

1
(Water Resouce Management in MENA 2008)
2
(Water Resouce Management in MENA 2008)
 Page 3 of 24

production.3 With exponential population growth the demand for water, especially in agriculture,

has exceeded the discharge rate of renewable water sources. Due to the scarcity of water and

limited access to fresh water the average annual withdrawal in the Middle East is 686m³

compared to 972m³ in the United States. It’s important to note that several factors in the MENA

skew the interpretation of data to include faulty data collection, regional disputes over water

rights, municipal regulations, and wasteful use of water.

Limited water supply throughout the region can mostly be attributed to the overwhelming

demand from agricultural irrigation, but can also be a result of local politics that affect the use

and distribution of fresh water. For example, in most countries farmers are required to pay a flat

rate on water rights to irrigate their fields, but the rights do not place restrictions on how much

water can be used nor charge the farmer extra for excessive withdrawal leading to over irrigation

and wasteful practices. On the other side though,

per m³ Cost of Access in MENA
it’s also unfair to the farmer who doesn’t use as Type/Method Cost per m³: Low High
Precipitation free free
much water but is still charged. Economically the
Suface Water $ 0.01 $ 0.10
price of water can determine a person’s access to Groundwater $ 0.10 $ 1.00
Pipelines $ 0.60 >$0.60
water if they simply cannot afford it. In the Tankers and Bags $ 1.00 >$1.00
Re-used Urban Waste-Water $ 1.00 >$1.00
United States, drinking water on average costs Desalinated Water $ 1.00 >$1.00
Figure 1 Data based on FAO 1995: 32, Table 18.Invalid
$0.40 per cubic meter (m³) whereas drinking source specified.

water in the MENA frequently reaches more than $1 per m³. Put into perspective if the average

income in the United States is $50K and the Middle East is $9K, Americans are paying roughly

1% of their income to water and sewage while in the Middle East a person is spending more than

7% of their income.

3
(Allan 1998)
 Page 4 of 24

If any initiative is to take place on alleviating water scarcity in the Middle East it must be

done through Public Awareness. It’s impossible to over emphasize how important awareness in

the United States and the targeted region is. Water conservation systems are no more than tools,

but if those who posses such systems do not know how to operate and manage the tools given or

do not understand the importance of water conservation, then the tools given will ultimately

breakdown because the people have not been empowered.

Public Awareness

The most critical aspect to the success of a non-profit organization is the promotion and

education of the organization’s mission to both the people of the affected region and citizens

outside the area. Public awareness is most effectively carried out through education and the use

of religious context is especially important in the MENA. In the United States public awareness

is vital as the country in many respects is isolated from the rest of the world and simple

humanitarian relief efforts seldom make the news or the public’s attention. It is therefore vital

that in order to receive support from the community they must be made aware of the situation.

Education is pivotal in implementing lasting change, as without a concerted effort in

education any implementation of conservation strategies will only be temporary. Education on

water conservation topics such as types of soil compositions, irrigation methods and

maintenance, the water cycle, rain catching, and wastewater recycling empower individuals to

implement conservation techniques themselves. A pilot program initiated by the United States

Geological Survey (USGS) created the Multilateral Working Group on Water Resources

(MWGWR). Based in Israel, the MWGWR has developed a vital textbook titled WaterCare. The
 Page 5 of 24

textbook, available in English, Hebrew, or Arabic online, provides basic information about

where water comes from and how it is regenerated, reasons for water scarcity in the MENA

region, and proper methods of consumption. For the purpose of this report WaterCare will serve

as a primary tool to be used by our no-profit organization as a model for the future development

of lesson plans and educating people on water conservation.4

With the dominance of Islam in the MENA region, being able to express the importance of

water conservation techniques through religion is vital in the public awareness process and

persuading people to take it to heart. Several non-profit organizations in the region have already

benefited from the use of religion to promote awareness. Techniques have included the use of

Quranic and Hadith verses in connection to water conservation on posters, leaflets, booklets, and

stickers. Another simple technique has been to choose a name for the non-profit organization that

can be associated with Islam. One example of this comes from an water conservation

organization based in Palestine named Zam Zam after a famous water spring in Mecca, “where

Hagar and Ishmael quenched their thirst after wandering in the desert.”5 Other more influential

techniques include holding educational seminars for Imams and Mullahs to teach and allow

spiritual leaders to preach and educate the community at gathering, most notably the Kutbah

(Friday prayer). Examples of these seminars can be found in Afghanistan, Jordan, Palestine, and

Egypt, and have proven to be extremely cost effective.6

In the United States it is critical to ensure that the public is knowledgeable about water issues

facing the Middle East. To confront this problem in advance, a model survey has been drafted

and will serve the primary role of assessing community awareness of water related issues and the

4
(WaterCare 2004)
5
(Gilli n.d.)
6
(Gilli n.d.)
 Page 6 of 24

level of financial support that could plausibly be received. Critical limitations exist in that the

creation of such an organization is still hypothetical, so it would be inaccurate to take a general

or localized survey of America citizens support before the geographic location of the

‘headquarters’ has been established. Based on responses fundraising seminars and marketing

strategies can be carried out to target communities with the most support and educate

communities that have little knowledge on the subject.

Water Conservation in the Middle East Survey

Please enter your zip code:___________
1 (Negligible)
10 (Significant)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 In terms of percentage. How often do you consciously limit your
water use?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 How important is water conservation to you?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 How important is international humanitarian issues to you?
□Yes □No
□Yes □No
□Yes □No
□Yes □No
□Yes □No
□Yes □No
□Yes □No
□Yes □No
<$50
$50-$100
How much money do you annually donate to non-profit organizations?
$100-$150
>$150

□Yes □No Would you be interested in supporting a non-profit organization that focuses on
water conservation in the Middle East? If Yes, what ways would you like to help
or what ideas do you have for our organization?
 Page 7 of 24

Grey Water and Irrigation

When it comes to irrigation in the Middle East no other nation has set the bar higher than

Israel and its harnessing of drip irrigation. Managed and enhanced by sensors and computers,

irrigation has become so efficient that the average water withdrawal is 189m³/p/yr contrasted

with the average of other countries in the region at 648m³/p/yr. There are of course several

factors that need to be equated into these findings, such as climate variability since Israel enjoys

a relatively milder climate, and the amount of produce that Israel imports. Nevertheless, the

climate and geography of the Middle East puts an enormous strain on agricultural production and

all MENA nations are faced with overcoming these clear limitations.

Implementing more efficient irrigation techniques is a challenge not only to the farmers, but

also to the civilian populous as a whole. It is not feasable to expect every country to have the

ability to install high tech irrigation systems similar to Israel and it would be equally ineffective

for a micro non-profit organization to invest in such systems when more influential changes can

be made with the people themselves. Therefore, a critical aspect to this is to educate farmers on
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appropriate irrigation techniques, but there is also a significant impact to be made from domestic

water use in the form of recycling grey water.

There are two kinds of wastewater generated domestically and they are commonly referred to

as ‘grey’ and ‘black’ water. Grey water classifies the waste water that comes from sinks,

dishwashers, laundry machines, and baths/showers. Black water, also known as sewage, is

comprised of wastewater from toilets and garbage disposals that carry a high amount of waste.

Black water cannot be effectively treated domestically, but grey water can be treated to a near

potable level. Recycled grey water may not be good enough for drinking but does hold several

other uses such as irrigation, washing, laundry, and toilet flushing.7

Grey water recycling is not a new concept in the Middle East. Organizations like the Inter

Islamic Network on Water Resources Development and Management (Jordan), CARE

International (Jordan), The Middle East Center for the Transfer of Appropriate Technologies

(Lebanon), and The Palestinian Agricultural Relief Committee (Palestine) have been primarily

working on grey water issues such as sanitation for years.8 Even in the United States there has

been an increased push for installing grey water treatment systems in homes for less than $350.

The effectiveness of grey water treatment

is heavily dependent on what the consumer

does with the water prior to it becoming

wastewater. There are many different pre-

treatment methods, but for the purposes of

this report we use as an example the methods Figure 2 Anaerobic to aerobic pre-treatment www.water-
well.net

7
(WaterFiltering.com 2009)
8
(Centre n.d.)
 Page 9 of 24

of Aerobic Pre-Treatment and Anaerobic to Aerobic Pre-Treatment (Figure 2). Deciding between

the two methods can be a critical part of the recycling process as Aerobic Pre-Treatment may

only be suitable for wastewater from showers, hand washing and laundry, and Anaerobic to

Aerobic Pre-Treatment is more appropriate for wastewater from kitchen sinks and dishwashers

where water has a high food residue. Both Pre-Treatment methods rely on separating out the

larger particles and letting bacteria naturally breakdown the wastewater. In the Aerobic Pre-

Treatment system, larger particles are simply separated out. In the to Aerobic Pre-Treatment

systems, the grey water passes through a staged septic tank that separates and breaks down the

particles before it flows through a slow sand filter. This only works, though, if the consumer

refrains from using bleach and detergents that destroy the bacteria needed.

Once pre-treated the water can either go through a slow sand filter to become nearly potable

water for use in washing or producing edible food, or the water can be used directly for

landscaping purposes. The slow sand filter works off the principle of harvesting bacteria and

microbes within the sand of a cylinder that the water naturally seeps through. In respect to grey

water the byproduct is near potable, but the use of rainwater or freshwater sources can result in

fully potable water.

Ideally grey water recycling systems would serve to alleviate strains on municipal

wastewater management and increase the water available for irrigation while also increasing the

fresh water availability for drinking purposes. Take for example the water situation in

Afghanistan; irrigation consumes 98% of the fresh water withdrawal leaving domestic use at

1.5% or 14m³/p/yr.9 Putting aside the obvious complication of rerouting the plumbing of an

entire community to supply agricultural production, installment of grey water systems, assuming

9
(Gleick 2009)
 Page 10 of 24

that they can recycle 50-80% of a households water, could increase the domestic consumption to

21-25m³/p/yr and alleviate freshwater consumption by local irrigation (see appendix for further

information). This first requires that farmers are educated on the importance of proper water use

for irrigation in order for domestic fresh water availability to increase.

Irrigation management not only involves educating farmers on basic practices to optimize

produce growth and promote general conservation awareness, but also how to take care of their

irrigation systems. The model for which this paper is based on will provide basic maintenance to

irrigation systems in order to help promote awareness and self-sufficiency. Awareness is key, as

a study conducted in the early 1990’s concluded that after educating and training farmers in

Egypt on basic farm management skills that irrigation efficiency could improve by as much as

30% with a mean improvement of 10-15%.10 According to some conversationalist, poor

management of irrigation systems in the Middle East frequently amounts to at least 60% of the

water withdrawn to be wasted before reaching crops.11 The main reasons for this holds true for

any irrigation system and includes water seeping out of unlined irrigation canals, evaporation

(while applied through high pressure sprinkler systems, in canals, or in the soil), and improper

irrigation scheduling (most efficient irrigation is typically done during the coolest part of the day

to prevent evaporation).12 Therefore education and training should consist of leak detection,

installment of lining materials, low pressure irrigation systems, and proper irrigation scheduling

depending on the crop.

In helping to maintain irrigation systems this non-profit organization should be prepared to

spend by the hectare (ha) and according to the size of the irrigation system. For large scale

10
(Xie, Kuffner and Le Moigne 1993)
11
(Rached, Rathgeber and Brooks 1996, 59)
12
(Muir 2008)
 Page 11 of 24

irrigation systems providing produce on a regional level new irrigation systems have been quoted

at $10-20K/ha while repairing existing systems is forecasted at $1.5-2K/ha. For small scale

irrigation systems providing produce on a local level the implementing of a new system is at $.5-

1.5K/ha while the cost of repairing existing systems is little to none.13

Rain Catching and Runoff

The Middle East claims the highest varying degree of precipitation in the world making any

rainfall vital to the well-being of the region. Such little rainfall may be the reason why it makes

up such a small percentage of the freshwater utilized, but to the same extent rain catching in

itself is not commonly practiced in the region. In the most arid regions, a 15ft² area can catch

enough rain water for a small family to use for drinking over the course of an entire year.

Catchment of rain water can be approached in two different ways, either with a catchment

system (i.e. gutter or a tarp) or through rechanneling runoff into a pool or a similar collection

area. For the purpose of this report, both methods are rudimentary in practice but in order for the

water to be properly treated it needs to be reasonably clean without a lot of dirt or soil

contamination from runoff.

In the process of developing this report it became clear that the utilization of a catchment

system would provide its own challenges. In the United States catching rainwater has been

simplified by the fact that most buildings have evenly sloped roofs and gutter systems that can

effectively channel rainwater into a filtration system capable of making the water potable. In the

13
(Rached, Rathgeber and Brooks 1996, 61)
 Page 12 of 24

Middle East, buildings have flat roofs, often uncompleted, and incorporate no real gutter system.

As a result a catchment and gutter system needed to be devised.

The Project

The plan called for a square

catchment area measuring 15ft² to be

constructed with a tarp that would catch

the rain and funnel the water into a pipe.

Figure 3 Conceptual plan of the rain catcher with a cross section of
the slow sand filter and cistern.
The square design of the catchment

would enable it to be constructed on top of buildings in the region wit

withh a low profile. Once water

had entered the pipe it would first enter a five gallon container that would separate the dust and

particles caught in the runoff. The water would then flow into a slow sand filter to be

biologically filtered. Once it had passed through the filter it would then be stored in cisterns until

used.

Construction of the project was incredibly promising. The catchment area was constructed in

a half day with plywood, screws, and a tarp for around $1

$15.
5. The filter consisted of a 32gallon
32

trash can retrofitted with an entry and exit for a 1/2” pipe. Once the pipe for the filtered water

had been installed in the base of the filter it was layered first with 5” of gravel, then 10” of

coarse sand, and finally 15” of fine sand (play sand). Complete
ete construction of the filter with the

25ft of ½” piping took less than half a day and cost around $20 making the entire system

extremely affordable.

Once constructed the system performed as intended and the slow sand filter discharged

filtered water at around

round 3 liters an hour. There were several limitations in the project, one being
 Page 13 of 24

that no purchase of a hundred-gallon

gallon cistern

was made, which would have been the most

expensive item possibly adding $100 to the

entire project. Second, there were several

design
sign flaws such as the tarp being a poor

material where if it is windy or snow fall

may compromise the tensile strength. As a

result of the windy conditions the tarp

would either tear or dislodge the piping in a

way to that the system did not work

properly. Future designs will incorporate Figure 4 Completed rain catcher with slow sand filter.

either sloped plastic or metal platforms that can resist wind and snow buildup while channeling

water. There is also an inherent limitation to the slow sand filte

filterr in that it takes a week for

microbes to harvest before it can effectively filter water, so there was no way of determining

whether the water was potable or not.

Filtration Systems

While the filtration of water methods was created to those that could be practiced
racticed by the most

remote villages without electricity or gas, the two methods selected from this are solar

distillation and, as previously mentioned, slow sand filtration. Both are slow in their filtration

process, but if harnessed correctly can provide another source of daily drinking water for a

remarkably cheap price.

 Page 14 of 24

Solar filtration is especially ideal in the Middle East due to the heat and intense sunshine

received. Two primary ways to utilize solar filtration are either through a solar box (see Figure 5)

or a solar still (see Figure 6). A solar box is nearly identical

to a solar cooker with the interior of box painted black, the

top side enclosed by glass and the use of tinfoil or mirrors

to direct sunlight into the box. Filtration occurs in the box Figure 5 Solar Box. Courtesy of:
www.sunspot.org

when the water, placed in an open-faced container, reaches

150ºF allowing UV rays to pasteurize the water.

Experiments with solar boxes have concluded that up to 17

gallons can be produced on sunny days using cookers no

more expensive than $4.14 A solar still on the other hand Figure 6 Solar Still. Courtesy of:
www.thefoodguys.com

has the same dimensions as a dining room table, usually 3ft wide by 6ft long and works off the

principle of evaporating water and capturing the condensation. Solar stills of the mentioned

dimension can filter 3 gallons a day in the summer, but cost $200-$300.15 However, the benefits

of a solar still compared to a solar box are that because the siphoned water has been evaporated it

has been treated on a molecular level, leaving behind any harmful chemicals whereas the solar

box is only effective at killing some bacteria. Another benefit to the solar still is its ability to

treat brackish water (water that posses’ a degree of salinity less than sea water, but can be used to

irrigate certain crops) for drinking purposes.

Slow sand filtration is, in many ways, the method of choice for rural processing of

potable water, but like the solar box it cannot treat chemically tainted water. Some designs have

incorporated a layer of charcoal to help with the filtration of chemicals, but if not monitored

14
(Rolla 1998)
15
(Rolla 1998)
 Page 15 of 24

closely the charcoal can become a breeding ground for harmful bacteria. Slow sand filtration

uses gravitational force to let the water naturally seep through the various layers of sand in the

filter in order to allow the microbes living in the sand to attack any harmful bacteria in the water.

On site in the Middle East, the sand and gravel

from river beds can be used for the filter with the

benefit of already having microbes in the soil. In

constructing a slow sand filtration system the only

specification is that there is at least 25” depth of

sand that the water has to pass through. Water from Figure 7 Slow Sand Filter. Type used in the rain
catching project. Courtesy of: www.slowsandfilter.org

ground sources should be tested for chemical

contamination prior to filtration, but otherwise, in contrast with solar filtration, slow sand filters

can operate at all hours with a discharge rate of around 19 gallons per 24-hour day and result in a

total cost of around $20. Periodic maintenance is required as the top layer of sand becomes slimy

with microbes and needs to be scraped off every year or two.

Conclusion

This report was initially created to offer a new approach towards water conservation in

the Middle East; however, without a firm foundation or subject matter expert in water

conservation the report inevitably reverted to the standard practices being utilized by other non-

profit organization. Several countries in the MENA posses’ high tech irrigation and waste water

recycling systems for use locally that could be introduced on a much larger scale in the region;

however, for the purposes of an action plan for a tentative non-profit organization it seems more
 Page 16 of 24

appropriate to introduce techniques and systems that are within the means of the targeted people.

Instead of attempting to implement a $10K high tech waste treatment system that would require

trained professionals to fix and maintain, it was more prudent to focus on “Appropriate

Technology” that the locals themselves could operate.

Therefore, the report has identified key conservation systems and public awareness

options that can be used when incorporated into the development of a non-profit organization.

Awareness strategies have been identified either with reference to MWGWR WaterCare

textbook or with educating through religious leaders, grey water recycling and irrigation

management systems have been identified to help alleviate the strain on fresh water withdrawal

from irrigation, and rain water catching and filtering processes have been developed to

dramatically increase a household’s access to fresh water. The basic systems researched also

ensured that water conservation is economically feasible and that many projects would not

require more than $100.

Water conservation in the Middle East will remain a vital subject for the next century

with the unknown question of how regional governments are going to react to a growing demand

for more water while the climate becomes less favorable. Optimists may argue that the Middle

East has avoided conflict due to supplementing their grim supply by using “virtual water,” or

water that is embodied in food imports such as wheat, fruits, and meats which can amount to a

significant portion of water consumption. Skeptics would argue that water consumption gained

by “virtual water” is negligible; having no direct effect on the overall issue of withdrawing water

faster than it can naturally be renewed. Many Middle East and North Africa countries still only

charge farmers an annual flat rate on water and do not charge extra for over withdrawal, putting

little pressure on farmers to try and conserve the water used.

 Page 17 of 24

Several limitations were reached in this report most of which dealt directly with the local

government if any large-scale changes are to be made. One case of this is in rerouting the

plumbing of an entire community to benefit irrigation that would require the involvement of the

local government. Therefore, a non-profit organization founded on introducing water

conservation strategies and techniques could function and affect change on a small scale by

working on its own, but with the support of the local government its abilities would increase

exponentially and could more effectively alleviate the strain on fresh water resources.
 Page 18 of 24

Appendix A: Country Specific Information

This appendix was created to serve as a general reference to determine of areas and

regions that need to be focused on according to several different variables. For example, grey

water and rain catching systems can be implemented in countries where urban and rural access

to fresh water is low, and/or domestic use is critically low, and/or where average precipitation

is conducive to effective rain catching (100mm annually, with the use of a 15ft² catchment area

can yield 561 gallons, enough for two people to drink 3 liters a day).16 Determination of placing

an emphasis on improved irrigation techniques is made on the bases of how reliant the country

is on water withdrawal for irrigation use, and/or the strain on total renewable water, and/or

the annual rate of population growth. Precipitation maps of the Precipitation Change 1951-

2002 (%/yr) and the AVG Annual Precip 1951-2002 (mm) have been included for general

reference on where rain catching is most vital within a country.

All information should be used as general guideline, since the methods of reporting

data vary significantly between countries. Therefore, any determination made by the recorded

data should be verified prior to action on the authors following assessments.

16
(Water 2009)
Appendix A: Country Specific Information Page 19 of 24
Appendix A: Country Specific Information Page 20 of 24
Appendix A: Country Specific Information Page 21 of 24
Appendix A: Country Specific Information Page 22 of 24

Notes:

1) Assessments made by the authors’ interpretation of the data available and researched conservation techniques.

2) Data for Agricultural Use, Domestic Use, and Total Use was obtained from Gleick, Peter. The World's Water. Washington: Islandpress, 2009.

3) Date for Total Renewable Water and Average Precipitation was obtained from AQUASTAT online database. Organization, Food and

Agriculture. 2008. http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat (accessed December 5, 2009).

4) Data for Annual Rate of Population Growth was obtained from the Human Development Report (HDR). United Nations Development

Programme. 2009. http://hdr.undp.org/ (accessed December 5, 2009).

5) Data charts for Precipitation Change 1951-2002 (%/yr) and AVG Annual Precip 1951-2002 (mm) were obtained from Climate Wizard. Santa

Clara University. 2007. http://www.climatewizard.org/ (accessed December 5, 2009).

 Page 23 of 24

Bibliography
Allan, Tony. "Watersheds and Problemsheds: Explaining the Absence of Armed Conflict Over

Water in the Middle East." Middle East Review of International Affairs 2, no. 1 (March

1998).

AQUASTAT online database. Food and Agriculture Organization. 2008.

http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat (accessed December 5, 2009).

Climate Wizard. Santa Clara University. 2007. http://www.climatewizard.org/ (accessed

December 5, 2009).

Gilli, Francesca. Islam Water Conservation and Public Awareness Campaigns. Venice:

University of Ca’ Foscar.

Gleick, Peter. The World's Water. Washington: Islandpress, 2009.

Human Development Report (HDR). United Nations Development Programme. 2009.

http://hdr.undp.org/ (accessed December 5, 2009).

Muir, Patricia. Irrigation Issues. November 25, 2008.

http://people.oregonstate.edu/~muirp/irrigati.htm (accessed December 5, 2009).

Rached, Eglal, Eva Rathgeber, and David B. Brooks. Water Managment in Africa and the

Middle East. Ottawa: International Development Researh Center, 1996.

Rolla, Trudy C. "Sun and water: an overview of solar water treatment devices." Journal of

Enviroment Health 60, no. 10 (1998): 30.

 Page 24 of 24

Urban Poverty and Environment Program. International Development Research Center.

http://www.idrc.ca/cfp/ (accessed December 05, 2009).

Water Resouce Management in ME+A. The World Bank Group, 2008.

Water, Lenntech. Rainfall calculator. 2009. http://www.lenntech.com/calculators/rain/rainfall-

precipitation.htm (accessed December 5, 2009).

WaterCare. WaterCare - Multilateral Working Group on Water Resources, 2004.

WaterFiltering.com. Water Filtering - Water Filter Products. 2009.

http://www.waterfiltering.com/ (accessed December 05, 2009).

Xie, M., U. Kuffner, and G. Le Moigne. Using Water Efficiently. World Bank Technical Paper,

Washington D.C.: World Bank, 1993.

Appendix A: Country Specific Information Page 19 of 24
Appendix A: Country Specific Information Page 20 of 24
Appendix A: Country Specific Information Page 21 of 24
Appendix A: Country Specific Information Page 22 of 24

Notes:

1) Assessments made by the authors’ interpretation of the data available and researched conservation techniques.

2) Data for Agricultural Use, Domestic Use, and Total Use was obtained from Gleick, Peter. The World's Water. Washington: Islandpress, 2009.

3) Date for Total Renewable Water and Average Precipitation was obtained from AQUASTAT online database. Organization, Food and

Agriculture. 2008. http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat (accessed December 5, 2009).

4) Data for Annual Rate of Population Growth was obtained from the Human Development Report (HDR). United Nations Development

Programme. 2009. http://hdr.undp.org/ (accessed December 5, 2009).

5) Data charts for Precipitation Change 1951-2002 (%/yr) and AVG Annual Precip 1951-2002 (mm) were obtained from Climate Wizard. Santa

Clara University. 2007. http://www.climatewizard.org/ (accessed December 5, 2009).

 Page 23 of 24

Bibliography
Allan, Tony. "Watersheds and Problemsheds: Explaining the Absence of Armed Conflict Over

Water in the Middle East." Middle East Review of International Affairs 2, no. 1 (March

1998).

AQUASTAT online database. Food and Agriculture Organization. 2008.

http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat (accessed December 5, 2009).

Climate Wizard. Santa Clara University. 2007. http://www.climatewizard.org/ (accessed

December 5, 2009).

Gilli, Francesca. Islam Water Conservation and Public Awareness Campaigns. Venice:

University of Ca’ Foscar.

Gleick, Peter. The World's Water. Washington: Islandpress, 2009.

Human Development Report (HDR). United Nations Development Programme. 2009.

http://hdr.undp.org/ (accessed December 5, 2009).

Muir, Patricia. Irrigation Issues. November 25, 2008.

http://people.oregonstate.edu/~muirp/irrigati.htm (accessed December 5, 2009).

Rached, Eglal, Eva Rathgeber, and David B. Brooks. Water Managment in Africa and the

Middle East. Ottawa: International Development Researh Center, 1996.

Rolla, Trudy C. "Sun and water: an overview of solar water treatment devices." Journal of

Enviroment Health 60, no. 10 (1998): 30.

 Page 24 of 24

Urban Poverty and Environment Program. International Development Research Center.

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