SMITHSONIAN ANNALS OF FLIGHT

AIRCRAFT PROPULSION
C FAYETTE TAYLOR
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A Revi ew of the Evoluti on of Aircraft Pi ston Engines
Volume 1, Number 4 (End of Volume)
NATIONAL AI R AND SPACE MUSEUM 0 / \ SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
SMI THSONI AN I NS TI TU TI ON
NATIONAL AIR AND SPACE MUSEUM
SMITHSONIAN ANNALS OF FLIGHT
VOLUME 1 . NUMBER 4 . (END OF VOLUME)
AIRCRAFT PROPULSION
A Revi ew of the Evoluti on
0 Aircraft Pi ston Engi nes
C. FAYETTE TAYLOR
Professor of Automotive Engineering Emeritus
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION PRESS
CITY OF WASHINGTON 1971
Smithsonian Annals of Flight
Number s 1-4 consti tute volume one of Smithsonian Annals of Flight. Subsequent
numbers wi ll not bear a volume desi gnati on, whi ch has been dr opped. The
f ollowi ng earli er number s of Smithsonian Annals of Flight are avai lable f rom the
Superi ntendent of Documents as i ndi cated below:
1. The Fi rst Nonstop Coast-to-Coast Fli ght and the Hi stori c T-2 Ai r plane,
by Loui s S. Casey, 1964. 90 pages, 43 f i gures, appendi x, bi bli ography.
Pri ce 60ff.
2. The Fi rst Ai rplane Di esel Engi ne: Packard Model DR-980 of 1928, by
Rober t B. Meyer. 1964. 48 pages, 37 f i gures, appendi x, bi bli ography.
Pri ce 60^ .
3. The Li berty Engi ne 1918-1942, by Phi li p S. Di ckey. 1968. 110 pages,
20 f i gures, appendi x, bi bli ography. Pri ce 75jf.
The f ollowi ng numbers are i n press:
5. The Wr i ght Brothers Engi nes and Thei r Desi gn, by Leonard S. Hobbs.
6. Langley's Aero Engi ne of 1903, by Rober t B. Meyer.
7. The Curti ss D-12 Aero Engi ne, by Hugo Byttebi er.
For sale by Superi ntendent of Documents, Government Pri nti ng Office
Washi ngton, D.C. 20402 - Pri ce $1.75
Contents
Page
FOREWORD vn
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS vm
EARLY ATTEMPTS AT PROPULSION 1
EARLY INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINES 8
Wr i ght Brothers' Engi ne 1903 9
Langley Engi nes 1900-1903 15
ENGINES 1903-1909 19
ENGINES 1910-1918 27
PISTON ENGINES AFTER 1918 35
Li qui d-Cooled Engi nes 35
Ai r-Cooled Engi nes 41
Ai r Versus Li qui d Cooli ng 53
UNCONVENTIONAL ENGINES 57
Barrel- or Revolver-Type Engi ne 57
Fai rchi ld-Cami nez Engi ne 57
Sleeve-Valve Engi nes 57
Di esel Ai rcraf t Engi nes 59
Two-Cycle Gasoli ne Engi nes 60
Unconventi onal Cyli nder Arrangements 62
RELATED TECHNICAL DEVELOPMENTS 63
Valves and Valve Cooli ng 63
Fuels and Combusti on 65
Alti tude Perf ormance and Superchargers 67
Vi br ati on Control 73
Propellers 75
Reducti on gears 78
Other Developments 79
Igni ti on Systems 79
Car bur eti on 81
Fuel Injecti on 81
Starti ng 81
Beari ngs and Lubr i cati on 82
Engi ne Instr uments 83
SUMMARY OF PISTON-ENGINE DEVELOPMENT 85
Table 1Engi nes of Hi stori cal Impor tance 88
Table 2Credi ts, by Country, for Engi ne Developments . 90
FOOTNOTES 91
APPENDIX The Rotar y Radi al Engi ne 93
BIBLIOGRAPHY 95
(Expanded and arranged by Dr . Ri char d K. Smi th,
f rom materi al f urni shed by C. Fayette Taylor)
Bi bli ographi es and Indexes 95
Hi story and Technology of Ai rcraf t and Fli ght 96
(Publi cati ons pri mari ly concerned wi th ai rcraf t devel-
opment, but i nci dentally contai ni ng valuable materi al
on ai rcraf t propulsi on, or wi th theory and technologi cal
practi ce)
Ai rcraf t Powerplants 101
(Descri pti ons and techni cal data: under Engi nes, dates
ref er to date of publi cati on)
Ai rcraf t Power Bef ore 1900 101
Engi nes 1900-1913 101
Engi nes 1914-1919 103
Engi nes 1920-1924 104
Engi nes 1925-1929 106
Engi nes 1930-1934 108
Engi nes 1935-1939 109
Pi ston Engi nes 1940 and Af ter 110
Steam Engi nes 112
Di esel Engi nes 112
Jet, Rocket, and Tur bi ne Engi nes 113
Related Techni cal Developments 115
Alti tude Perf ormance and Superchargi ng 115
Cooli ng, Cowli ng, and Radi ators 117
Carburetors, Carbureti on, and Fuel Injecti on 118
Instruments and Accessori es 119
(Engi ne i nstruments, f uel-supply and exhaust
systems, i gni ti on systems and spark plugs, starters
and starti ng)
Fuels and Combusti on, Lubri cati on 120
Propellers and Propeller Geari ng 121
Nati onal Advi sory Commi ttee for Aeronauti cs Annual Repor ts . 123
VI
Foreword
Thi s, the f ourth number of Smithsonian Annals of Flight, was the Four th Lester
B. Gar dner Lecture, deli vered at the Massachusetts Insti tute of Technology,
Mar ch 8, 1962, and at the Smi thsoni an Insti tuti on, October 5, 1962. Subse-
quently i t was publi shed i n the General Appendi x to the Annual Report . . . of
the Smithsonian Institution . . . for the Tear Ended June 30, 1962 (1963).
As presented here, the text has been revi sed, enlarged, and updated. Its 72
i llustrati ons, many of them new, i nclude a number of engi nes, ai rcraf t, and the
materi als i n the collecti ons of the Nati onal Ai r and Space Museum.
Wi th i t, for the f i rst ti me, appears the bi bli ography whi ch accompani ed the
ori gi nal manuscri pt and whi ch, for lack of space, could not then (1963) be pri nted.
Thi s has si nce been edi ted and expanded to approxi mately double i ts ori gi nal
length by Dr . Ri char d K. Smi th whi le he was servi ng on the Museum staff. Its
nearly 600 entri es, most of them contemporary accounts, cover the whole r ange of
engi ne development and related acti vi ti es f rom the early begi nni ngs. Thi s bi bli og-
r aphy should be a usef ul and welcome tool, both for the ai rplane enthusi ast and
f or the hi stori an of avi ati on technology.
The acti ve connecti on of the author, C. Fayette Taylor, wi th ai rcraf t power
started wi th hi s appoi ntment i n 1917 as of f i cer-i n-charge of the (ai rcraf t) Power
Plant Labor ator y of the Uni ted States Navy, Washi ngton, D.C. Her e the engi nes
of World War I, both f orei gn and domesti c, were tested and i mproved. Fr om
1919 to 1923 he was engi neer-i n-charge of the Power Plant Labor ator y of the
Ar my Ai r Servi ce at McCook Fi eld, Dayton, Ohi o. Pi oneer work on engi nes and
fuels was done dur i ng thi s peri od. Fr om 1923 to 1926 he was engi neer-i n-charge
of desi gn, and for a short whi le chi ef engi neer at Wr i ght Aeronauti cal Cor por a-
ti on, Paterson, New Jersey, concentrati ng on the development of ai r-cooled
radi al engi nes. Si nce 1926 he has been Prof essor of Automoti ve Engi neeri ng at
the Massachusetts Insti tute of Technology, reti ri ng f rom acti ve duty there i n 1965.
He is sti ll an acti ve consultant i n the f ield of i nternal-combusti on engi nes.
Prof essor Taylor is author, wi th Charles Chatf i eld and Shatswell Ober ,
of The Airplane and Its Engine (McGr aw Hi ll, 1928, 1932, 1936, 1940, 1948);
wi th E. S. Taylor, of The Internal Combustion Engine (Inter nati onal Textbook Co.,
1938, 1948, 1961); and of The Internal Combustion Engine in Theory and Practice
(M. I. T. Press, Cambr i dge, Mass., 2 vols., 1960, 1968). He has also publi shed
numer ous papers and arti cles i n prof essi onal journals.
S. PAUL JOHNSTON, Director
Jul y 1, 1969 National Air and Space Museum
VII
Acknowledgments
Thi s publi cati on is based chi ef ly on the author' s close personal connecti on
wi th the development of ai rcraf t engi nes duri ng the peri od 1917-1950. Im-
por tant edi tori al assi stance by members of the staff of the Nati onal Ai r and Space
Museum is gratef ully acknowledged. Especi al thanks are due to Mr . Rober t B.
Meyer, Jr ., Curator, Propulsi on. The bi bli ography has been edi ted and ar r anged
by Dr. Ri char d K. Smi th.
C. FAYETTE TAYLOR
VIII
AIRCRAFT PROPULSION
A Revi ew of the Evoluti on
Of Ai rcraf t Pi ston Engi nes
ctflfK
Figure 1.Reproduction of Launoyand Bienvenue helicopter (NASM 1930-15), using bent-
bow propulsion, 1784. (Photo A-18232)
Figure 2.Penaud's Planaphore (NASM 1930-17), using rubber-band propulsion, 1871.
(Photo A-19627)
Early Attempts at Propulsi on
MAN'S MUSCLES, USUALLY ATTACHED TO FLAPPING WINGS, were the earli est
and most obvi ous source of power suggested for f li ght. In spi te of i nnumer-
able attempts, there is no record of heavi er-than-ai r sustai ned f li ght havi ng
been made wi th thi s ki nd of power unti l 1961, when Derek Pi ggot, i n
Hampshi r e, England, was reported to have f lown 70 yards i n a monoplane
that was powered by a pedal-dri ven propeller.
1
On the other hand, many
early balloons were equi pped wi th oars or paddles, and at least two di ri gi ble
balloons, that of Charles E. Ri tchel at Hartf ord, Connecti cut, i n 1878
and that of deLome i n Pari s, 1863, were equi pped wi th propellers dri ven
by pedals and a manned wi ndlass, respecti vely. As late as 1907, Cromwell
Di xon of Seattle, Washi ngton, demonstrated a di ri gi ble-ai rshi p powered
by a pedal-dri ven propeller.
The f i rst successful free f li ghts by a man-made heavi er-than-ai r con-
tri vance seem to have been by model heli copters whose counter-rotati ng
propellers, usually made of bi rd f eathers, were dri ven by a wooden or
whalebone bow (fig. 1). Charles H. Gi bbs-Smi th, i n hi s excellent hi stori cal
account The Aeroplane, credi ts the Chi nese wi th thi s i nventi on, as early as
the 4th or 5th century, A.D. A French pai nti ng of such a devi ce is dated
1460. Models of thi s type were f lown by Launoy and Bi envenu i n France
i n 1784, and by Si r George Cayley, "Father of Aeri al Navi gati on, " i n
1792. Alphonse Penaud (1851-1880) i mproved on Cayley's desi gn by usi ng
twi sted r ubber bands, both for model heli copters and for a near-conven-
ti onal model monoplane (fig. 2). Thi s system of propulsi on remai ns to thi s
day the most i mpor tant source of power for small ai rplane and heli copter
models, and even today probably powers many more "ai r planes" than
any other type of powerplant. It is of hi stori cal i nterest to note that i n the
f i rst detai led account of thei r pi oneer f li ghts the Wri ght Brothers attr i bute
thei r early i nterest i n f lyi ng to toy heli copters powered by r ubber bands.
The f irst successf ul f li ght by a model ai rplane powered by means other
than r ubber bands is sai d to be that of Feli x DuTemple i n France, 1857
NOTE: All f ootnotes are to be f ound on pages 91-92.
1
1858, usi ng a clockwork motor. Steam power was later used by thi s same
i nventor, but there is no authenti c record of successful f li ght. A com-
pressed-ai r-dri ven model by Vi ctor Tati n (France) made ci rcular tethered
f li ghts i n 1879.
Odd sources of power that have been proposed i ncluded tethered
gryphons (bi rds were evi dently consi dered i nadequate), sai ls, and horses
on a treadmi ll (obvi ously at least 1,000 pounds per horsepower). Some of
these sources were even tri ed. The pri ze for i ngenui ty i n the unconventi onal
category mi ght go to Portuguese reports, publi shed about the year 1700,
whi ch descri bed an ai rcraf t sustai ned by magnets acti ng on electri f i ed
amber and propelled by a hand-power bellows blowi ng on i ts sai ls. Si r
George Cayley bui lt and tested a gunpowder engi ne i n 1807, and i n 1850
desi gned a model ai rplane powered by thi s means, but i t was never bui lt.
A model orni thopter wi th wi ngs operated by gunpowder, bui lt by Tr ouve,
is sai d to have ri sen f rom the ground i n 1870.
Ther e are records of two f li ghts of di ri gi ble ai rshi ps usi ng electri c
motors wi th batteri es, namely, that of Ti ssandi er at Auteui l i n October
1883, and that of Charles Renar d and Ar thur Krebs near Pari s i n August
1884. The latter machi ne was consi dered qui te successf ul.
Rocket power, i nspi red by the Chi nese i nventi on of the balli sti c rocket
i n the 12th century, was suggested by Gerard i n 1784. An Engli sh cartoon
of 1825 shows a proposed rocket, propelled by a steerable steam jet, i n
f li ght to the moon. For man-carryi ng powered f li ght, the f irst use of rockets
was by Fri tz von Opel (Germany) i n 1928. The f i rst jet-engi ned f li ght
was that of the Hei nkel-178 ai rplane i n Germany, 27 August 1939, powered
wi th the HeS-3B gas turbi ne engi ne of 1,100-lb thrust, developed by
Pabst von Ohai n.
Steam power became a popular proposal for aeri al navi gati on i n the
early 19th century, soon af ter i t had been successf ully demonstrated i n
shi ps, locomoti ves, and road vehi cles. A model heli copter by W. H. Phi lli ps
(England) rose f rom the ground under steam power i n 1842. Steam jets
located i n the wi ng ti ps were a remarkable anti ci pati on of a modern appli -
cati on of jet power.
Contrary to most hi stori cal statements, the steam-dri ven ai rplane models
of Henson and Stri ngf ellow were apparently not capable of sustai ned
ri si ng or level f li ght. In the short i ndoor f li ghts of record, take-of f was f rom
a hori zontal wi re somewhat hi gher than the landi ng poi nt. Thus, these
f li ghts were what may be called "powered gli des." The powerplants used
are of i nterest, however, because of thei r advanced desi gn. Gi bbs-Smi th
attri butes the powerplant desi gn to Henson, stati ng that Stri ngf ellow was
r f
I.
- , i
M^MU^IJ
Figure 3.Stringfellow engine and boiler (NASM 1889-1), 1868. (Photo A-20030)
more the ski lled mechani c than the i nventor. The 20-f t.-span model bui lt
by Henson but never f lown was sai d to i nclude a well-desi gned steam plant,
but detai ls are di f f i cult to f i nd. Stri ngf ellow's "f lyi ng" model was a 10-f t-span
monoplane equi pped wi th a double-acti ng steam engi ne of %x2-in. bore
and stroke dri vi ng two mi d wi ng 16-i n. propellers geared to tur n at three
ti mes engi ne speed. Its best powered gli de was for about 120 ft i ndoors. A
Stri ngf ellow engi ne and boi ler of 1868, a multi bulb af f ai r, is now at the
Nati onal Ai r and Space Museum of the Smi thsoni an Insti tuti on (fig. 3)-
A di ri gi ble ai rshi p wi th a 3-hp steam plant wei ghi ng 351 lb was f lown
by Henr i Gi f f ard f rom Pari s to Tr appes i n 1852 (fig. 4). I have not f ound a
Figure 4.Giffard airship, steam-engine powered, 1852. (Photo A-19889)
techni cal descri pti on of thi s si ngle-cyli nder verti cal engi ne. In spi te of
earli er and later desi gns for steam-dri ven di ri gi ble balloons, that of Gi f f ard
seems to be the only one whi ch made successful f li ghts. Alexander F.
Mozhai ski i n Russi a i n 1884 and Clement Ader i n 1890 both bui lt and
tested f ull-scale steam-powered ai rplanes. At most, these machi nes made
short uncontrolled "hops, " although Ader's machi ne seems to have had
the abi li ty to lift itself wi thout external assi stance. No engi ne detai ls seem
to be avai lable. The "Chauve-Souri s, " Clement Ader's "Avi on III" of
1897, on di splay at the Conservatoi re Nati onal des Arts et Meti ers, Pari s,
France, is equi pped wi th two 20-hp steam engi nes.
The best-known f ull-scale attempt at f li ght wi th steam was that of
Si r Hi r am Maxi m i n 1894. Maxi m was an experi enced steam engi neer,
and hi s powerplant was f ar more advanced than the ai rcraf t to whi ch i t
was appli ed. Its two twi n-cyli nder compound engi nes (fig. 5) each drove a
pusher propeller. The powerplant was rated at 363 hp and wei ghed
complete, 1,800 lb, or 5 lb/hp, an extraordi nari ly li ght wei ght for i ts day'
The boi ler, (fig. 6) was of the multi ple water-tube type, very much li ke
!tfSki U
Fi gure 5.Sir Hi r am Maxi m wi t h hi s t wi n-cyl i nder compound steam engi ne, 1894. (Photo A-42378)
Fi gure 6. Maxi m' s steam boi l er, feed-water heater, and burner, 1894. (From Journal of the Society
of the Arts ( 30 November 1894), vol . 43, p. 22.)
modern mari ne steam boi lers. Operati on along rai ls i ndi cated that thi s
engi ne could f urni sh the power necessary to lift even the monstrous con-
trapti on i n whi ch i t was i nstalled. Lack of success wi th thi s machi ne was
not the f ault of the powerplant.
Any di scussi on of steam power for ai rcraf t should i nclude the work of
Dr. Samuel P. Langley, Secretary of the Smi thsoni an Insti tuti on, who
bui lt and successf ully f lew unmanned steampowered models
2
of 14-ft span
i n 1896. Fortunately, Langley's records are complete, and full techni cal
detai ls are avai lable. The most notable f eature of Langley's steam power-
plants (fig. 7) was the use of "f lash" boi lers, that i s, boi lers consi sti ng of
one or more long coi led tubes wi th water pumped i n at one end and steam
i ssui ng f rom the other. Thi s type later was used successf ully i n the Whi te
automobi le and is probably the type whi ch would be used today if no
alternati ve to steam power were avai lable. Langley's steam plants wei ghed
i n the nei ghborhood of 7 lb/hp. He was perhaps the f i rst to grapple wi th
the problem of "f lameout" i n an aeronauti cal bur ner . A sentence f rom hi s
memoi rs reads i n par t, "Unf ortunately there i s a li mi t to thi s process
[i ncreasi ng the ai r f low through the burner] of i ncreasi ng the ai r supply . . .
a certai n speed of efflux cannot be exceeded wi thout putti ng the f lame
out." The early jet engi nes encountered thi s same problem.
Of course, steam ceased to be of i mportance for ai rcraf t af ter f li ghts
by the Wri ght brothers and others had demonstrated the superi or quali ti es
of the i nternal-combusti on engi ne, but i t conti nued to have an emoti onal
Figure 7.Steam engine used by Samuel P. Langley in his 14-ft-span Aerodrome No. 5 (NASM
1905-1), 1896. (Photo A-12555)
appeal to many people well i nto the 1930s. A Travelai r bi plane powered
wi th a steam engi ne desi gned by Wi lli am Besler was actually f lown by
the desi gner i n Cali f orni a i n 1932. A repli ca of thi s engi ne is i n the Smi th-
soni an's Nati onal Ai r and Space Museum (NASM 1965-253).
Steam was pr obably gi ven the coup de grace by Commander Eugene
Wi lson of the Navy Bureau of Aeronauti cs, a naval officer trai ned in
steam power for shi ps, who reported i n 1926, "On the basi s of these three
consi derati ons [wei ght, economy, ai r resi stance] they [steam powcrplants]
are absolutely i mpossi ble." My own opi ni on is not so extreme. If steam
power was wi thout competi tors, we would have successful steam ai rcraf t
today, but at a consi derable sacri f i ce i n perf ormance and perhaps also
i n saf ety.
Early Internal-Combusti on Engi nes
The earli est successful aeronauti cal appli cati on of the i nternal-combusti on
engi ne appears to be i n a di ri gi ble-balloon f li ght by Paul Haenlei n i n
Ger many i n 1872. A 4-cyli nder 5-hp (40 rpm) Lenoi r engi ne usi ng coal-gas
fuel was used. The Lenoi r engi ne was the f i rst commerci al i nternal-com-
busti on engi ne. The cyli nders drew i n ai r for half the stroke and f i red at
atmospheri c pressure at mi dstroke. Ef f i ci ency was lowabout 5 percent.
The relati vely li ghtwei ght and relati vely ef f i ci ent "Otto-cycle" gasoli ne
engi ne began wi th developments i n England and Ger many i n the 1880s,
sti mulated by automobi le development. Its appli cati on to ai rcraf t came soon
af ter. The f i rst f li ght wi th thi s type of engi ne was apparently that of a
di ri gi ble ai rshi p desi gned by Davi d Schwartz. The f li ght took place i n
Germany i n 1897.
Alberto Santos-Dumont, i n Pari s i n 1898, f lew a di ri gi ble equi pped
wi th a pai r of "tri cycle" engi nes i n tandem, rated together at 3% hpand
wei ghi ng, i t is sai d, 66 lb, or 19 lb/hp. These engi nes were probably f ore-
runners of the 3-hp Clement engi ne used by Dumont for hi s one-man
di ri gi ble ai rshi p f lown duri ng the summer of 1903. Thi s engi ne was a 2-
cyli nder V-type, ai r cooled, and wei ghed 8.8 lb/hp. It is on exhi bi t at the
Smi thsoni an's Nati onal Ai r and Space Museum (NASM 1908-1).
The f i rst successful heavi er-than-ai r f li ght powered by a gasoli ne
engi ne was that of Langley's %-size model, whi ch f lew 350 ft on 18 June
1901, and 1,000 ft on 8 August 1903. The engi ne (fig. 8) was a 5-cyli nder
ai r-cooled radi al, desi gned and bui lt by Stephen M. Balzer and redesi gned
and rebui lt by Charles M. Manly. It produced 3.2 hp at 1800 r pm wi th a
wei ght of 7 lb (see table 1, p. 88, for other data). At 2.2 lb/hp, thi s engi ne
can legi ti mately be descri bed as remarkable for i ts ti me. Fi gure 9 shows a
letter f rom Manly gi vi ng some data on thi s engi ne that were not publi shed
i n the Langley Memoir.
Ther e is sti ll some controversy, however academi c and f uti le, about
who made the f i rst man-carryi ng powered f li ght. If short strai ght-ahead
"hops" are counted as "f li ghts, " then the clai ms of Ader and Du Temple,
pre-date the well documented f li ghts of the Wri ght brothers i n 1903. These
8
Figure 8.Gasoline engine used in Langley's quarter-size model aerodrome (NASM 1950-3); 3.2 hp
at 1800 rpm, 7 lb (without battery), 1901. (Photo A-23759)
were also short hops but they demonstrated good control and were f ollowed
soon af ter by sustai ned f li ghts. Certai nly the Wri ght brothers developed
the f i rst practi cal, controllable ai r plane; and thei r f li ghts at Ki tty Hawk,
Nor th Caroli na, on 17 December 1903, mark the begi nni ng of thi s rev-
oluti onary achi evement. Also, the engi ne they used i n 1903, and i n thei r
subsequent f li ghts, was thei r own desi gn.
The Wri ght engi ne of 1903, and the Langley f ull-scale engi ne com-
pleted late i n 1901, and tested i n 1902, 1903, and 1904, may be taken as
the real begi nni ng of the age of the reci procati ng i nternal-combusti on
engi ne i n aeronauti cs. As such, these engi nes are worthy of some detai led
attenti on.
Wright Brothers' Engine, 1903
Li ttle was known about the accompli shments of the Wri ght brothers
unti l some years af ter thei r f li ghts of 17 December 1903. Fi gure 10 shows
a short and amusi ngly i naccurate report i n The New York Times of 26
December 1903, whi ch attracted li ttle attenti on.
MANLY AND V E AL
C O N S U L T I N G E N GI N E E R S
2 5 0 WE S T 5 4 T " S T RE E T
NEW YORK
Apr i l 27, 1926.
Pr of essor C. Fayette Taylor ,
Aeronaut! cal Ds partui ent ,
Massachusetts Ins t i t ut e of Technology,
Cambri dge A, Massachusetts*
Dear Pr of essor Tayl or : -
I had f or gotten that T had not i ncluded i n the I&inolr the more de-
t ai l ed i nf or mati on concern" nr the s i z e , wei ght and speed of the
sma?.l Manly "otor ,
Unf or tunatel y, T cannot r ef er to
J
he or i gi nal r ecor ds whi ch were
r etur ned f or saf e keepi ng to the ar chi ves of the Smi thsoni an. How-
ever , my r ecol l ecti on of the matter , I thi nk, i s qui te accur ate and
i s as f oi l 'T,7s:
The bor e was 2-1/16" di ameter ; the str oke 2-3/ 4
n
; the power developed
was 3 H.P, at 1300 R.P.M. a>d the wei ght was j us t ten (10) l b s . , i n*
eludi ng car bur eter , i gni ti on coi l aad the small stor age batter y that
had a l i f e of about f i ve (5) mi nutes ser vi ce i n f i r i ng the engin< *
I do not r e c a l l that any photographs -/ere made of thi s engi ne except
whi le i t was assembled i n the f rame of the quar ter -si ze model aad
bel i eve that the oi ctur es shown i n the Memoir ar e as good os arty
that T had of i t .
The cyl i nder s of t hi s engi ne were irv.de of heavy steel tubi ng turned
down to f orm thi n i ntegr al r adi ati ng f i ns. wi th the cyl i nder bar r el
?nly l / o2" t hi c i at the bottom of the f i ns . Casti r on l i ner s .vere
shrunk i nto these cyl i nder s and were bored out to l e-^ e them 1/32"
thi ck. The cyl i nder heads were made from sol i d hi nd f orglngsf machi ned
out)v;hi ch were screw thr eaded and brazed to the steel cyl i nder
bar r el s bef or e the Tatter were f i ni sh machi ned. T e gener al olan
of constr ucti on of i t was si mi l ar to that of tho l ar ge engi ne except
that Lt was ai r -cool ed i nstead of water -cooled.
I wi l l tr y to look up some per sonal memoranda that T have and see
i f I can gi ve you more def i ni te detai l ed data r egar di ng the wei ght
of the' engi ne and i t s accessor !eSj but, I thi nk the above i nf or mati on
i s f a i r l y accur ate as t o gener al f eatur es*
Yours ver y t r ul y,
CI104CB <3S*.>fyv->^^U-
Figure 9.Letter from Charles M. Manly describing the small gasoline engine of figure 8. (Photo
A-51010)
10
Figure 10.Account of Wright brothers' first air-
plane in The New York Times, December 25, 1903.
\
AIRSHIP
AFTER BUYER. /
I nventor* of North Carol i na Box Ki t e
Machi ne Want Government to
Purchase It.
Special io 7 hr New York T>mn.
WASHINGTON, Dec 23The Invent or s
of the ai r shi p whi ch Is sai d to have made
sever al ul f l i ghts In Nor t h Car o-
li na, near Ki tty Hawk, ar e anxi ous to v l l
the use of thei r devi ce to the Gover nment .
lalm thai they ha \ e solved the pr ob-
lem of aer i al navi gati on, nnd have never
made a f ai l ur e of any at t empt to f ly
Thei r machi ne In an adapt at i on of t hs box
ki te Idea wi th a pr opel l er wor ki ng on a
per pendi cul ar shaf t to r ai se or lower the
cr af t, and anot her wor ki ng on a hor l sontal
shaf t to send It f or war d The machi ne, It
Is Bald, can be rals> d or l ower ed wi th per -
,|, and can car r y a str ong; gas o-
li ne engi ne capabl e of maki ng a tpeed of
t> n mi les an hour
The test mad.- In N' r th Car ol i na wi ll be
f ully r epor ted to Iht Or dnance Boar d of tho
War Depar t ment , and If the machi ne com-
mends i f . if suf f i ci entl y, f ur ther tests wi ll
be made In the vi ci ni ty of Washi ngton, and
ange a sale of the de-
r nment. The use to whi ch
J put It would be In
wor k, and possi bly i n
t or pe. J .
In spi te of the f act that the f li ghts near Dayton i n 1904 and 1905
were wi tnessed by numerous people, the press i gnored them. The f i rst
eyewi tness report publi shed was a letter i n Gleanings in Bee Culture, Medi na,
Ohi o, 1 Januar y 1905, by i ts publi sher, A. I. Root, under the ti tle "What
God Hath Wr ought." Thi s arti cle is reproduced by Gi bbs-Smi th i n hi s
book The Aeroplane.
An early publi c report by the Wri ghts themselves appeared i n the
September 1908 i ssue of Century Magazine, a publi cati on si mi lar i n content
and f ormat to Harpers and the Atlantic Monthly. I recall di scoveri ng thi s
arti cle when our copy arri ved at home, and I remember that my f ather,
i n spi te of the many photographs of the machi ne i n f li ght, ref used to be-
li eve that human f li ght had been achi eved. Thi s atti tude, five years af ter
the Wr i ght' s f irst f li ght, was pretty general at the ti me, par tly on account
of the great number of f alse clai ms of f li ght whi ch had been made i n the
past. These spuri ous clai ms also account for the seemi ngly i ncredi ble
11
absence of reports by the Dayton press, whose representati ves, af ter wi t-
nessi ng two unsuccessf ul attempts at f li ghts made i n 1904, f ai led to r epor t
eyewi tness accounts of the many f li ghts made i n 1904 and 1905, or even
to go ei ght mi les out of town to see for themselves!
The Century arti cle is extraordi nary for i ts si mple and beauti f ul exposi -
tory style, and for i ts evi dence of the almost excessi ve modesty of the
brothers Wri ght, together wi th thei r rati onali ty and persi stence. I beli eve
that i t should be rated as a classi c i n Ameri can sci enti f i c li terature.
The 1903 Wri ght engi ne (fig. 11) was desi gned by the brothers and
bui lt wi th the assi stance of thei r f ai thf ul mechani c Charles E. Taylor (fig.
12; he is not related to the wri ter). Thi s engi ne is especi ally well descri bed
by Rober t B. Meyer i n the Annual Report of the . . . Smithsonian Institu-
tion . . .for the year ended June 30, 196 J. It was a 4-cy Under water-cooled,
hori zontal engi ne of 200-cu-i n. di splacement, wi th automati c i nlet valves.
Figure 11.Engine from Wright brothers'1903 airplane (NASM 1961-48); 12 hp at 1090 rpm,
179 lb. (Photos A-38626-B)
12
Fuel was suppli ed by gravi ty f rom a small can on top of the engi ne. Fr om
there i t f lowed thr ough an adjustment valve to a surf ace car bur etor i n the
i ntake mani f old, whi ch was heated by the cyli nder water jacket. Igni ti on
was by a low-tensi on magneto wi th
k
' make-and-break" spark contacts i n the
cyli nders. The engi ne would gi ve 16 hp for a mi nute or so, af ter whi ch i t
gave a steady 12 hp. Control, such as i t was, was by the spark ti mi ng.
As shown i n table 1, thi s engi ne was heavy and of low power compared
to the contemporary Langley engi ne, but i t f lew! Thi s basi c desi gn
was later i mproved by the Wri ghts so that by 1910 i t was deli veri ng 30 hp
for a wei ght of 180 lb, or 6 lb/hp.
The f i rst and subsequent engi nes f ollowed contemporary automobi le
practi ce i n cyli nder ar r angement; however, crankcases were of cast alumi -
num, and the f i rst engi ne had an en-bloc cast-alumi num water jacket.
These, i n use for ai rcraf t engi nes f rom the begi nni ng, have just recently
come i nto use f or some automobi les. Af ter bei ng i n England f or a number of
years, the f i rst Wr i ght engi ne, wi th some alterati ons made subsequent to
the 1903 f li ght, is now on di splay i n the ori gi nal ai rplane i n the Nati onal
Ai r and Space Museum, Smi thsoni an Insti tuti on.
Figure 12.Wright brothers' mechanic Charles E. Taylor (left), who helped to build Wright 1903
engine, with a later model Wright brothers' engine. (From Airway Age, vol. 9, no. 12 (December
1928), p. 38)
13
Figure 13.Langley AerodromeA,engine (NASM 1918-1), 1903, in test stand; 52 hp at 950 rpm,
135 lb. A description of this engine appears in "Langley's Aero E'rjgiine of 1903," by R. B. Meyer
(Smithsonian Annals of Flight, no. 6, 1971). (Photo A-15864)
It was my good f ortune to know Orvi lle Wri ght, and to see hi m
f requently duri ng the peri od f rom 1919 to 1923 when I was engi neer-i n-
charge of the ai rcraf t-engi ne laboratory of the U.S. Army Ai r Servi ce i n
Dayton, Ohi o. He had previ ously reti red f rom acti ve parti ci pati on i n
aeronauti cs, and had become a very modest, very qui et, much beloved
member of the Dayton communi ty, and of the f amous Dayton Engi neers
Club.
14
Langley Engines, 1900-1903
Consi deri ng the state of the ar t at the tur n of the century, the 52-hp 5-
cyli nder water-cooled radi al engi ne Langley used i n hi s Aerodrome repre-
sents one of the most remarkable pi eces of engi ne desi gn and constructi on
ever achi eved.
The hi story of thi s engi ne is i nteresti ng. In 1898 Samuel P. Langley,
then Secretary of the Smi thsoni an Insti tuti on, had accepted a contract to
develop a f lyi ng machi ne for the Uni ted States Government, and on
June f i rst of that year hi red Charles M. Manly, a young gr aduate of Cornell
Uni versi ty, as hi s assi stant to supervi se the desi gn and constructi on of hi s
Aerodrome. On 12 December, Langley contracted wi th a New York Ci ty
automobi le bui lder, Stephen M. Balzer, for a 12-hp engi ne to be completed
i n three months. Consi deri ng that even now, the development of a reli able
gasoli ne engi ne is a matter of at least two years, thi s contract must stand
as one of the most opti mi sti c on record! Later, he contracted wi th Balzer
for a 1 /'i -hp engi ne to power a /1-size model Aerodrome.
Nei ther engi ne had been deli vered by 1900, and the slow progress
led Langley and Manly to spend three months i n Europe seeki ng even the
prospect of an engi ne to power the f ull-si zed Aerodrome. The search was
unsuccessf ul and i t was f i nally deci ded that Manly should joi n i n the
f urther development of the Balzer engi nes, whi ch had f ai led to produce
the power requi red.
These engi nes were of the rotati ng-radi al type, but Manly, af ter
f urther consulti ng European bui lders, deci ded to use the stati onary radi al
pri nci ple. Hi s choi ce was qui ckly justi f i ed. Whereas the f ull-scale rotary
engi ne had developed only 8 hp and the small engi ne 1 hp, the f i rst non-
rotary versi ons produced 16 and 2 hp, respecti vely, an i ncrease largely
attr i buted to better valve acti on i n the absence of centri f ugal f orce. Fur ther
development resulted i n the f ull-si ze engi ne of 1901, shown i n f i gures 13
and 14, wi th speci f i cati ons i n table 1, and i n the ^ -si ze one of the same
year, descri bed i n Manly' s letter of 27 Apri l 1926 (fig. 9).
Both engi nes, descri bed i n detai l i n the Langley Memoir, are now
di splayed i n the Smi thsoni an, removed f rom thei r Aerodromes. Power
of the large engi ne was caref ully measured on a dynamometer and, most
remarkably, sustai ned for three consecuti ve 10-hr tests. The speci f i c wei ght,
2.58 lb./hp,
3
remai ned as a low record unti l the Li berty engi ne of 1918.
The f i gure 0.196-lb/cu i n. di splacement has never been closely approached.
The 5-i n. bore cyli nders, assembled by Manly hi mself , were bui lt
up of steel lie i n. thi ck, li ned wi th
l
/
16
i n. of cast i ron.
4
The water jackets,
15
5" Cy/inder if Si '" {ffrvkt jEhafnc.
Section through Cylinder tjfrum.
ENGINE OF AERODROME A. SECTION THROUGH CYLINDER AND DRUM
Figure 14.Section through cylinder and crankcase of Langley Aerodrome A engine, 1903. (From
Langley Memoir, pi. 78)
16
of steel 0.020 i n. thi ck, were brazed onto the cyli nder, as were the cyli nder
heads and valve ports. The di f f i culty of thi s operati on is menti oned by
Manly and can well be i magi ned.
Thi s engi ne somewhat anti ci pated modern large ai rcraf t engi nes
i n i ts use of the radi al ar r angement wi th a master connecti ng rod, i ts cam
and valve-gear ar r angement, and i ts use of crankcase, cyli nders, and other
parts machi ned all over to caref ully controlled di mensi ons.
Manly' s ski ll as an engi neer and machi ni st was matched by hi s courage
i n maki ng two (unsuccessf ul) takeof f s f rom the top of a houseboat, wi thout
previ ous i nstructi on or experi ence as a pi lot and i n an ai rplane wi thout
landi ng gear. Hi s survi val of two crashes i nto the i cy waters of the Potomac
Ri ver testi f i es to hi s qui ck thi nki ng and skill as a swi mmer. In contrast to
the poor pr epar ati on for the Manly attempts, the Wri ght brothers, bef ore
maki ng thei r f i rst powered f li ghts, flew several hundred ti mes i n gli ders of
a si ze and type qui te si mi lar to that of thei r f i rst powered ai rplane. All
early Wr i ght machi nes were equi pped wi th landi ng ski ds.
Nowadays i t is hard to appreci ate the di f f i culti es of these early ai rcraf t-
engi ne bui lders. Although successful automobi les were i n operati on both
i n Eur ope and i n the Uni ted States, most of them were equi pped wi th
engi nes f ar too heavy and too low i n power for ai rplane use. Accessory
equi pment such as spark plugs, carburetors, and magnetos was not avai lable
on the open market and had to be obtai ned f rom reluctant automobi le
bui lders or else bui lt by hand. Worst of all, there was no establi shed body
of good practi ce, and detai ls of exi sti ng practi ce were ei ther very di f f i cult
to f i nd or else held as closely guarded secrets. In vi ew of these di f f i culti es,
the accompli shments of the Wri ghts and the Langley group are all the
more remarkable.
17
Figure 15.Antoinette monoplane with Levavasseur Antoinette engine, 1909. (Photo A-3099)
Figure 16.Levavasseur Antoinette 8-cylinder engine, 1905-1907; 32 hp at 1400 rpm, 93 lb.
(Photo courtesy Science Museum, London)
18
Engi nes 1903-1909
Af ter the Wri ghts had demonstrated the actuali ty of ai rplane f li ght, a
peri od of nearly three years elapsed bef ore anyone else f lew i n a heavi er-
than-ai r craf t. Meanwhi le the Wri ghts i ncreased thei r dur ati on of f li ght
to more than half an hour and thei r di stance to nearly 25 mi les, both
records accompli shed i n thei r f li ght of 5 October 1905. In 1906 the Hun-
gar i an Tr ajan Vui a, the Dane J. C. H. Ellehammer, and the Brazi li an
Alberto Santos-Dumont accompli shed f li ghts, hardly more than short
"hops, " i n ai rplanes wi th unconvi nci ng control systems. Not unti l 9 No-
vember 1907, di d anyone but the Wri ght brothers stay i n the ai r for as long
as a mi nute or f ly a di stance of over a thousand f eet. On that date Henr i
Far man i n a Voi si n bi plane f lew 3, 368 ft i n 1 mi n 14 sec, wi th a 50-hp
Antoi nette engi ne, apparently under good control.
Antoi nette engi nes (figs. 15 and 16) were bui lt i n Pari s by Levavasseur
as early as 1905 and were to become very i mportant powerplants for Euro-
pean avi ati on i n the next few years. Santos-Dumont used one rated at
24 hp for hi s "hop" of 772 ft i n November 1906. The engi nes of Far man
and Santos-Dumont were 8-cyli nder V types rated at 50 and 24 hp, re-
specti vely. Far man' s engi ne wei ghed 3 lb, hp, a remarkable f i gure at that
ti me (see table 1).
Antoi nette engi nes had machi ned-steel cyli nders wi th brass water
jackets. All were water-cooled V types and were later bui lt i n 16- and
32-cyli nder models. Together wi th the engi nes of Glenn Curti ss and the
French ENV (fr., en V) of 1909, they pi oneered the use of the water-
cooled V-type engi ne i n aeronauti cs. Other noteworthy detai ls of the
Antoi nette i ncluded i nlet port fuel i njecti on, and evaporati ve cooli ng.
Loui s Bleri ot also used the 50-hp Antoi nette engi ne i n hi s first tractor
monoplane, No. VII, whi ch f lew i n December 1907. The f i rst heli copter
to lift a man off the ground (Paul Cornu, 13 November 1907) was also
powered wi th an Antoi nette engi ne. Cody made the f i rst ai rplane f li ght
i n England on 16 October 1908 wi th an ai rplane somewhat resembli ng the
Wr i ght i n desi gn, powered by the 50-hp Antoi nette.
The year 1908 was memorable for the rapi d development of i ncreas-
i ngly successf ul ai rplanes and engi nes. Two i mpor tant new engi nes ap-
19
pearedthe 35-hp Renault 8-cyli nder ai r-cooled V-type (an 80-hp example
is shown i n f i g. 17) and the Curti ss ai r-cooled V-type 8-cyli nder (fig. 18)
whi ch powered a f li ght of 1 mi n 43 sec i n the June Bug on 4 July. And, ex-
cept f or Wr i ght ai rplanes (whi ch had f lown for over an hour ), the longest
f li ght had been by Far man i n a Voi si n, 44 mi n on 2 October, unti l that day
i n 1908 that Wi lbur Wr i ght f lew for 2 hr 20 mi n and 23 sec at Auvours,
France. It was, accordi ng to a French commentator, "un des plus passionants
spectacles qu'ait presents Vhistoire des sciences appliques.'
1
''
Glenn Curti ss was bui ldi ng and raci ng motorcycle engi nes soon af ter
1900. In 1902 Thomas Baldwi n engaged hi m to supply an engi ne for
Baldwi n's di ri gi ble ai rshi p, whi ch f lew successf ully i n 1904. In 1907 Curti ss
joi ned the Aeri al Experi ment Associ ati on headed by Alexander Gr aham
Bell, and thus began hi s di sti ngui shed career as desi gner and bui lder of
both ai rplanes and engi nes and as an ai rplane pi lot.
5
Figure 17.Renault 80-hp V-8 engine (NASM 1932-125), about 1916, with geared propeller drive
(rating of the 1908 version was 35 hp at 1400 rpm, 242 lb). One of the earliest geared engines, i t
used long hold-down studs on the cylinders, a practice widely followed in later aircraft engines.
(Photo A-42316-B)
20
Figure 18.(Above) Glenn H. Curtiss in his airplane June Bug, showing its 8-cylinder air-cooled
engine installed, 1908. (Below) The June Bug at Hammondsport, New York. (Photos A-3100,
A-3101)
21
Curti ss's earli est engi nes were ai r-cooled, i ncludi ng the V-8 engi ne
used i n the f amous June Bug. Late i n 1908, however, he settled on a water-
cooled V-8 engi ne si mi lar to the Antoi nette of Lavavasseur except that
the cyli nders were of cast i ron, wi th monel-metal water jackets.
Next to the Wri ght brothers, Glenn Curti ss was certai nly the most
i mpor tant f i gure i n early Ameri can avi ati on, both i n engi ne and i n ai r-
plane desi gn. The most noteworthy engi ne whi ch developed f rom hi s
early work was the f amous OX -5, to be descri bed later. Engi nes beari ng
hi s name have an i mpor tant place i n avi ati on to thi s day.
The year 1909 has been called the "year of practi cal powered f lyi ng, "
because i n that year f li ght began to be convi nci ngly demonstrated by
others than the Wri ght brothers. Four types of ai r planeWr i ght,
Antoi nette, Far man, and Bleri othad made f li ghts of more than an
hour' s dur ati on.
Bleri ot made hi s f amous cross-channel f li ght (37 mi n, 23.5 mi les) on
25 July 1909. Hi s tractor monoplane was equi pped wi th a 24.5-hp 3-cyli nder
Anzani f an-type ai r-cooled engi ne (fig. 19). Later Anzani bui lt 1- and
2-row radi al ai r-cooled engi nes that were used i n a number of ai rplanes
pri or to and soon af ter World War I. Another f an-type engi ne of thi s
peri od was the REP of Rober t Esnault-Pelteri e, i nstalled i n an unsuccessf ul
ai rplane i n 1907. Hi s subsequent REP f an-type engi nes were used i n
several successful ai rplanes.
An outstandi ng engi ne to appear i n 1909 was the 50-hp 7-cyli nder
Gnome rotary-radi al, f i rst f lown i n Henr i Far man' s No. Ill bi plane.
Rotar y types had been bui lt for automobi les by Stephen Balzer and Adams-
Farwell i n the Uni ted States bef ore the tur n of the century, and thi s type
had been ori gi nally planned and bui lt for the Langley Aerodrome, but
i t was f i rst adapted to f lyi ng i n the Gnome. Thi s engi ne (figs. 20 and 21,
table 2, p. 90) was a masterpi ece for i ts ti me and deserves speci al attenti on
here.
The desi gn of the Gnome was by Laur ent Segui n. Made enti rely f rom
steel f orgi ngs machi ned all over, wi th i ntegrally machi ned cooli ng f i ns
and a modern master-rod system, i t anti ci pated many f eatures of the
latest large ai r-cooled radi als. The rotary f eature was used i n order to
eli mi nate the f lywheel, whi ch had been previ ously thought essenti al, and
also to assist i n cooli ng. It f requently used a cowli ng wi th central ai r i ntake,
somethi ng li ke that later developed for stati c radi als by the Nati onal
Advi sory Commi ttee for Aeronauti cs (see p. 90). Unli ke the NACA cowli ng,
however, the cowli ng used here had i ts openi ng for outlet ai r at the bottom,
rather than around the rear edge. Its pri mary purpose was, probably, to
22
Figure 19.Anzani 3-cylinder fan-type engine, 1909. The type used in Bleriot's crossing of the
English Channel, its rating was 24.5 hp at 1600 rpm, 145 lb. (Photo A-49846-E)
encourage di scharge of exhaust gases and oi l under the ai rplane, away f rom
the pi lot. The f act that i t also greatly reduced engi ne "dr ag" as compared
wi th uncowled engi nes, may not have been understood at that ti me. Thi s
seven-cyli nder model, and subsequent larger and more powerf ul versi ons,
became perhaps the most popular ai rcraf t engi nes up to World War I
and were used wi dely by both si des through that war.
I had the pleasure of f lyi ng wi th a Gnome engi ne i n 1920 and f ound
i t excepti onally f ree of vi brati on and also relati vely qui et.
6
The only
di sagreeable f eature was the castor-oi l f umes di scharged f rom the exhaust.
Lubri cati on was achi eved by pumpi ng castor oil i nto the crankshaf t at a
23
Figure 20.Gnome 7-cylinder Monosoupape rotary-radial engine, 1910; 50 hp at 1150 rpm, 165 lb.
In this longitudinal section note inlet valve in piston to admit fuel-air mixture from crankcase.
(From Aerosphere 1939, p. 341)
24
21.Gnome 50-hp 7-cylinder
engine, 1910, as installed in
er Canard pusher biplane.
A-50895)
f i xed r ate, and oi l whi ch was not burned eventually f ound i ts way out of
the exhaust ports and, despi te the cowli ng, much of i t settled on the
ai rplane (and on the pi lot!). One of my f i rst assi gnments i n avi ati on (1917)
was to make tests to show that mi neral oi l could be used i n aero engi nes.
Previ ous to that ti me castor oi l had been consi dered as i ndi spensable for
aero engi nes as i t was for young chi ldren.
Another i nteresti ng f eature of the Gnome engi ne was i ts method of
control. No carburetor was used; the fuel and ai r were i ntroduced through
the hollow crankshaf t, by means of separate valves controlled by the pi lot.
Because of the great i nerti a of the rotati ng engi ne, i t was possi ble to adjust
to the appropri ate mi xture by tri al, wi thout danger of stalli ng the engi ne.
Wi th a known setti ng of the valves for i dli ng, af ter the engi ne had been
started the ai r throttle was opened wi de, at whi ch ti me f i ri ng ceased but
rotati on conti nued. The fuel valve was then opened unti l f i ri ng restarted and
maxi mum propeller speed was attai ned. Because the reverse process was
di f f i cult, throttli ng down was accompli shed by temporari ly cutti ng the
i gni ti on, and the engi ne was kept goi ng by short bursts of power. Oddly
enough thi s techni que was easy to learn and pi lots seemed to li ke i t.
25
Impor tant engi nes of 1909 i ncluded the f ollowi ng (see also table 1,
p. 88).
Wri ght 4- and 6-cylinder verti cal, water cooled
Curtiss 8-cylinder V-type, water cooled
Antoi nette 8-and 16-cylinder V-type, water cooled
ENV 8-cylinder V-type, water cooled
Darracq 2-cylinder opposed, water cooled
Gnome 7-cylinder rotary, ai r cooled
Renault 8-cylinder V-type, ai r cooled
REP 7-cylinder fan, ai r cooled
Anzani 3-cylinder fan, ai r cooled
These engi nes accounted for nearly all i mportant f li ghts i n 1909, i ncludi ng
the wi nners of the f i rst official avi ati on contests at Rhei ms.
The Dar r acq engi ne, used by Santos-Dumont, was i mpor tant for
bei ng one of the f irst ai rcraf t engi nes to use mechani cally operated i nlet
valves. The JAP (J. A. Prestwi ch Co.) motorcycle engi ne used by A. V. Roe
i n hi s early ai rplane appears to have been the only other one usi ng such
valves. All other ai rcraf t of the peri od used automati c i nlet valves, opened
by sucti on. Si nce automobi le engi nes had been usi ng mechani cally operated
valves for many years bef ore 1909, i t is har d to understand, why thi s
i mportant f eature was so late i n comi ng i nto use for ai rcraf t engi nes.
26
Engi nes 1910-1918
The peri od 1910-1918, whi ch i ncluded World War I, saw such rapi d
developments of ai rcraf t engi nes that only the i mpor tant ones can be
descri bed here. By "i mpor tant" I mean those whi ch pi oneered successful
new desi gn f eatures or whi ch were parti cularly notable i n servi ce.
Early i n thi s peri od the Gnome ai r-cooled rotary engi ne was dom-
i nant and was bui lt i n many countri es and i n several modi f i ed desi gns,
i ncludi ng models by LeRhone and Clerget (French) the Bentley BR-1
and BR-2 (Bri ti sh) and the Oberi i rsel and Si emens (Ger man). It reached
i ts maxi mum development early i n the war and was def i ni tely obsolescent
by 1918. Reasons for i ts demi se were chi ef ly a li mi tati on on speed due to
centri f ugal stress, the consi derable wi ndage losses, desi gn li mi tati ons
i mposed by rotati on of all parts but the crankshaf t, and a r ather strong
gyroscopi c effect on the ai rplane duri ng turns. It set a pattern, however,
for the later development of the modern ai r-cooled radi al engi ne. It was
a f orged-and-machi ned-all-over engi ne, and i t was radi al and ai r-cooled,
f eatures whi ch are now characteri sti c of most large ai rcraf t pi ston engi nes.
Other rotary engi nes were bui lt at thi s ti me, but none achi eved the
i mportance or success of the Gnome and i ts descendants.
As the rotary engi nes became obsolete, the water-cooled V-type
engi ne became domi nant. In the Uni ted States the Curti ss OX - 5 engi ne
(fig. 22 and table 1, p. 88) led the f i eld unti l 1917, when the Li berty and
Hi spano-Sui za engi nes were i ntroduced.
The OX -5, a water-cooled V-8, had an alumi num crankcase, cast-
i ron cyli nders (see f i g. 34a) wi th sheet monel-metal water jackets brazed
onto the barrels, and overhead valves, push-rod operated. Used by both
Army and Navy, i t powered practi cally all Uni ted States and Canadi an
trai ni ng ai rplanes and was probably responsi ble for trai ni ng more pi lots
for World War I than any other engi ne. The best-known trai ner, the
Curti ss JN-4, af f ecti onately known as the Jenny, is shown i n f i gure 23.
My first ai rplane ri de (1917) was i n a si ngle-f loat seaplane wi th the OX X -2,
the Navy versi on of thi s engi ne.
7
27
Figure 22.Curtiss OX-5 water-cooled V-8 engine (NASM 1920-8), 1917; 90 hp at 1400 rpm, 320 lb
(see also fig. 34a). (Photo A-1832)
Figure 23.Curtiss JN-4 Jenny airplane with OX-5 engine, 1915. (Photo courtesy Harrah's Auto-
motive Museum, Reno, Nevada)
Fi gure 24. Mercedes 6-cyl i nder engi ne, 1915; 180 hp at 1500 r pm, 618 l b. Thi s engi ne pi oneered
wel ded-steel cyl i nder const r uct i on. (From [ Br i t i sh] Mi ni st ry of Muni t i ons, Report on the 180-H.P.
Mercedes Engine, March 1918)
Fi gure 25.Rol l s-Royce Eagle V- 12 engi ne, 1917; 360 hp at 1800 r pm, 900 l b. Its cyl i nder con-
st ruct i on is si mi l ar t o t hat of t he Mercedes in f i gur e 24. (Photo A-487)
The OX - 5 engi ne was consi dered very reli able for i ts day, but few
pi lots completed the trai ni ng course (very short) wi thout at least one
f orced landi ng. Its weaknesses i ncluded si ngle i gni ti on, a r ather f li msy
valve-operati ng gear i ncludi ng "pull-rods" for the i nlet valves, and a
tendency to leak water f rom the water pump down onto the low-slung
carburetor. In f reezi ng weather the latter def ect accounted for many
f orced landi ngs
A very i mpor tant new style i n li qui d-cooled cyli nder desi gn appeared
i n 1915 on the Ger man 6-cyli nder 180-hp Mercedes engi ne (fig. 24 and
table 1, p. 88). Thi s was the bui lt-up welded-steel cyli nder constructi on
wi dely used for a long ti me thereaf ter i n most water-cooled engi nes. It was
copi ed by such f amous makes as the Rolls-Royce Eagle (fig. 25), Li berty,
FIAT (Fabri ca Itali ana Automobi li Tor i no), Renault, Salmson, and
BMW (Bayeri sche Motoren Werke), but f i nally gave way to the cast-
alumi num en bloc constructi on, to be di scussed later (p. 33).
Among the engi nes bui lt i n thi s style, an i mpor tant one was the Uni ted
States Li berty (figs. 26, 27, and 34b), whi ch was developed under extraor-
di nary ci rcumstances.
8
Af ter a deci si on on 29 May 1917 (only 7 weeks
af ter the Uni ted States entered the war ), by the War Producti on Board
to bui ld an ai rplane engi ne more powerf ul than any i n use up to that
ti me, J. G. Vi ncent, Chi ef Engi neer of Packard, and Elbert J. Hall, of the
Hall-Scott Motor Co., started to desi gn such an engi ne i n the Wi llard
Hotel, Washi ngton, D. O On 31 May preli mi nary layouts were approved by
the WPB and some extra help was called i n. Complete layouts were ap-
proved 4 June, all draf ti ng was completed by 15 June, the f i rst 8-cyli nder
engi ne was deli vered to the Bureau of Standards for test 3 July, and the
first 12-cyli nder engi ne completed the official 50-hr test 25 August 1917.
The first "pr oducti on" engi ne was deli vered to the Army Ai r Servi ce i n
Dayton on Thanksgi vi ng Day 1917, just 6 months af ter Vi ncent and Hall
had started thei r layout. I beli eve thi s record has never been equaled,
bef ore or si nce, except perhaps by the f i rst Pr att & Whi tney Wasp, de-
scri bed later.
9
The desi gn was based on the welded-cyli nder constructi on pi oneered
by Mercedes. It had no radi cal f eatures, but was an excellent synthesi s
of the state of the art of i ts ti me. Its pri nci pal weaknesses were cracki ng
of the cyli nder-head water jackets, burni ng of exhaust valves, and breaki ng
of accessory gears. These f aults were gradually reduced as ti me went on,
and i t came to be consi dered a reli able engi ne. Early producti on engi nes
had a 50-percent chance of passi ng the government 50-hr endur ance test.
In later modi f i cati on a bar was welded between the ports to reduce cyli nder
30
Figure 26.Li berty V-12 engi ne,
1918; 420 hp at 1700 r pm, 856 l b.
It has Mercedes-type cyl i nder con-
structi on (see also f i g. 34b) . (Photo
A-691)
Fi gure 27.Li berty 12A, V-12 engi ne,
transverse secti on vi ewed f r om rear,
1918. (From Aerosphere 1939, p. 467)
Fi gure 28.Wri ght Aeronaut i cal Corp.
Hi spano-Sui za Model E V-8 engi ne,
magneto end, 1920; 180 hp at 1700
rpm, 470 l b. The French-bui l t model
was rated at 150 hp (see also f i g. 34c).
( P/ ?of oA- 5i 0i J)
Fi gure 29.Hi spano-Sui za V-8 en-
gi ne, transverse sect i on, vi ewed f r om
rear. (From The French Hispano-Suiza
Aero Engine, Instruction Book, p. 25)
di storti on and jacket cracki ng, and heavi er teeth were used i n the gears.
The only major weakness remai ni ng was i n the exhaust valves, whi ch served
well most of the ti me.
Large quanti ti es of the Li berty-12 engi ne were produced by the auto-
mobi le compani es, i ncludi ng Packard, Ford, Li ncoln, and some General
Motors di vi si ons. It was used by the Bri ti sh i n mi li tary ai rplanes as well
as by the Uni ted States Army Ai r Servi ce and Naval Flyi ng Corps. Li berty
engi ne producti on was f ar ahead of ai rplane producti on i n thi s country,
and at the end of the war many thousands of these engi nes were on hand.
Many were sold at low pri ces to "r um r unner s" and were very successf ully
used i n r unni ng li quor through the Coast Guar d blockade along the Atlanti c
and Paci f i c coasts duri ng the Prohi bi ti on Era. Duri ng these years the Coast
Guar d had no "r equi r ements" for a li ght and powerf ul mari ne engi ne, and
thei r motor boats were f ar outclassed by the Li berty-equi pped bootleggers'
craf t.
The Li berty engi ne remai ned i mportant i n Uni ted States Army and
Navy avi ati on well i nto the 1930s. Thi s engi ne was used i n the NC f lyi ng
boats wi th a speci al economi cal carburetor setti ng developed at the Wash-
i ngton Navy Yard. The NC-4 was, of course, the f i rst ai rcraf t to cross the
Atlanti c, 16-27 May 1919.
10
The Li berty was also the f i rst engi ne to f ly
nonstop across the Ameri can Conti nent (i n the Fokker T-2, 2-3 May 1923,
pi loted by Kelly and McCready).
11
Also, i n a turbo-supercharged versi on,
i t held the world's alti tude records i n 1920, 1921, and 1922, and i n 1924
i t powered the f li ght of several Army ai rplanes around the world.
Fr om a techni cal vi ewpoi nt, the outstandi ng ai rplane engi ne dur i ng
World War I was undoubtedly the Hi spano-Sui za V-8 (figs. 28, 29, and
34c, and table 1, p. 88), bui lt f i rst i n Barcelona by a Swiss engi neer, Mar c
Bi rki gt. It was adopted for French f i ghters i n 1915 and used i n the Spad
(Soci ete pour Avi ati on et ses Deri ves) 7 and 13, perhaps the best f i ghters
of World War I (see f i g. 30).
The basi c contri buti on of Bi rki gt to engi ne desi gn was the en bloc
cyli nder constructi on wi th a cast-alumi num water jacket contai ni ng steel
cyli nder barrels and wi th enclosed and lubri cated valves and valve gear.
12
The success of thi s engi ne started a revoluti on i n li qui d-cooled engi ne
desi gn whi ch culmi nated i n the Rolls-Royce Kestrel and Merli n, vi a the
Curti ss K-12, C-12, and D-12 engi nes. It was also the prototype for the
Mercedes and Junker s engi nes whi ch were the backbone of the 1940-45
Ger man Luf twaf f e, together wi th en-bloc Russi an, Japanese, and Itali an
desi gns. By 1917 Hi spano-Sui za engi nes were bei ng bui lt i n England and
the Uni ted States, as well as i n France.
33
Figure 30.An Hispano-Suiza V-8 powered this Spad 7 airplane, used by 27th Squadron, AEF, World
War I, 1917-1918, (Photo A-44832-C)
The only weakness i n the early Hi spano-Sui za engi nes, by standards
of the ti me, was a tendency toward exhaust-valve burni ng. Thi s was due
to the f act that the steel cyli nder heads were "dr y, " that i s, they di d not
come di rectly i nto contact wi th the cooli ng water (see f i gs. 29 and 34c).
The f lat steel head had a tendency to war p and lose contact wi th the
alumi num jacket, whi ch reduced valve cooli ng and also di storted the
valve seats, causi ng exhaust valves to leak and bur n under condi ti ons of
severe operati on.
The development of thi s engi ne was conti nued i n the Uni ted States
af ter World War I by the Wr i ght-Mar ti n Company, whi ch i n 1919 became
the Wri ght Aeronauti cal Corporati on. One of the most i mpor tant changes
made was to eli mi nate the steel cyli nder head and to seat the valves i n
bronze i nserts pressed i nto the alumi num heads. Thi s basi c i mprovement
set a patter n for the most successful subsequent li qui d-cooled engi nes.
In contrast to the all-f orged constructi on of the Gnome and the modern
large radi al engi nes, the Hi spano-Sui za engi ne and i ts descendants were
essenti ally cast-alumi num engi nes except for the movi ng parts and the
cyli nder barrels.
34
Pi ston Engi nes Af ter 1918
In the peri od af ter 1918 hundreds of new engi ne types appeared. Fr om the
techni cal poi nt of vi ew, the peri od is marked by the f ollowi ng si gni f i cant
developments:
Further development of the liquid-cooled engine of the all-cast type,
chiefly for mi li tary purposes
The development of the air-cooled radi al engine to a place of domi nance
in all but f i ghter-type mi li tary and small civilian aircraft
The advent of 4-cyli nder verti cal i n-li ne, and later, opposed-cyli nder,
hori zontal, air-cooled engines for li ght aircraft
Liquid-Cooled Engines
By 1920 the success of the Hi spano-Sui za engi nes, then bui lt i n both the
ori gi nal and a larger (300 hp) size had convi nced most desi gners that the
welded-cyli nder constructi on was obsolescent.
The Curti ss Company i n the Uni ted States took up the cast-alumi num
engi ne, generally based on the Hi spano-Sui za, wi th successi ve 12-cyli nder
desi gns known as the K-12,
13
C-12, D-12 (fig. 31), and V-1400 models.
These were all of the 12-cyli nder V-type, wi th 4 valves per cyli nder,
i nstead of 2 as i n the Hi spano-Sui za. The two early models had steel
cyli nder heads li ke that of the ori gi nal Hi spano-Sui za, but cooli ng was
greatly assi sted by an i ntegral stud, i n the center between the valves, by
means of whi ch the head was held ti ghtly agai nst the water-jacket casti ng
(fig. 34d). In the D-12 the steel head was abandoned, and the valve seats
were bedded di rectly i n the alumi num head, as i n the Wri ght versi on of the
Hi spano-Sui za.
The great success of the Curti ss engi nes i n raci ng (first to exceed 200
mph i n the Mi tchell
14
Tr ophy race, Detroi t, 1922, and wi nner of the
Schnei der trophy i n 1923 and 1925) led the Rolls-Royce company to
develop alumi num V-12 engi nes of si mi lar type. The f i rst was the Kestrel
35
Figure 31.Curtiss D-12 V-12 engine; 325 hp at 1800 rpm, 704 lb. This engine was the first to
fly more than 200 mph, in the Mitchell Trophy race, Detroit, 1922; and for the race, engine speed was
increased so that it probably developed about 400 hp. (Photo A-3109)
Figure 32.Rolls-Royce Merlin 61 V-12 engine with 2-stage supercharger, about 1944; 2000 hp
at 3000 rpm, about 1700 lb. (Photo A-3110)
f
^ll]J&22*
MOUNTING TOR
KtND STATER
GLM INTERRUPTER
Germany's Leadi ng In-li ne Engi ne
BREATHER
BALANCED
CRANKSHAFT
ROG_ER BEARING
MAIN KARWGS
Wyf]2
i ^ \ m
L\\\vT
r / / 7 \ \ \ \ \
[ | y K
v l \ v \ii
y ', V , .' \ i
' I \Y \
AUTCMATALL>
THROTTLE
ky
; B pfte CVUNDG
- = : . ;
SUPERCHARGER
hr?
Pa r t-sectiona l dr a wing of the l iquid-cool ed D .B .601N of 33.9 l itr es, bor e a nd str oke 150 x 160 mm. Fea tur es of the
engine a r e the twel ve pl unger in-l ine dir ect injection pump, a nd the fl uid coupl ing which pr ovides a n infinitel y va r ia bl e gea r for
the super cha r ger dr ive. B . H. P. a t 2,600 r .p.m. is 1,270, which for a weight of 1,540 l b. = 1.20 I b./h.p.
Figure 33.Daimler-Benz, DB-601-N V-12, Germany's leading World War II engine (see also fig.
34h). Roller bearings are used on the crankpins. (From Flight, vol. 41, p. 367, April 16, 1942.)
of 1927 soon f ollowed by the raci ng, or R, type whi ch attai ned theretof ore
unhear d of power output i n proporti on to i ts si ze and wei ght and won the
Schnei der trophy i n 1929 and 1931. The Kestrel was f ollowed by the
Rolls-Royce Merli n (fig. 32), wi nner of the Battle of Bri tai n, and also by
the Alli son V-1710 (a f ai rly f ai thf ul copy of the Merli n), and the Ger man
Dai mler-Benz (fig. 33) and Junker s V-12 li qui d-cooled engi nes, all des-
cendants of the Hi spano-Sui za and Curti ss. In all these engi nes the valves
were seated i n i nserts embedded i n the alumi num head, and thus had
better valve cooli ng than the ori gi nal Hi spano-Sui za desi gn. In every case
the basi c structure consi sted of cast alumi num crankcase wi th en bloc
water jackets and cyli nder heads, also of cast alumi num. Cyli nder barrels
were uni f ormly of steel. Desi gn detai ls vari ed, especi ally i n the method of
taki ng the cyli nder-head-to-crankcase load. Thi s was successf ully done as
f ollows (fig. 34 i llustrates the evoluti on of li qui d-cooled cyli nder construc-
ti on) :
37
Thr ough the cyli nder barrelsLi berty (f i g. 34b), Hi spano-Sui za (f ig.
34c), Packar d (f i g. 34e), and Dai mler-Benz (fig. 34h)
Thr ough the alumi num water-jacket structureCurti ss (fig. 34d and f )
and Junker s V-12 gasoli ne engi ne
By long bolts f rom cyli nder heads to crankcaseCurti s OX -5 (f i g. 34a),
Rolls-Royce (fig. 34g) and Alli son
The i mpr ovement i n per f or mance of li qui d-cooled engi nes si nce 1918
has been astoni shi ng. The f ollowi ng f i gures f or two engi nes of near l y the
same pi ston di spl acement and r epr esenti ng desi gn i deas 30 year s apar t i llus-
tr ate thi s devel opment:
1918 1948
Engi ne Li berty Packard
Merli n
Number of cyli nders 12 12
Bore and stroke, i n 5x7 5. 4x6
Maxi mum hp 420 2, 250
Rpm 1, 700 3, 000
Brake mean ef f ecti ve pressure, psi . . . . . . 118 360
Mean pi ston speed, f t-mi n 1, 985 3, 000
Hp per sq i n. pi ston area 1. 78 8.2
Wei ght, lb, per hp, dry (wi thout water, oi l,
radi ators) 2.04 0. 78
Figure 34.Liquid-cooled cylinder development:
a
b
c
d
e
f
9
h
Year
1914
1917
1915
1921
1922
1923
1934
1935
Name
Curti ss OX-5
Li berty
Hi spano-Sui za
Curti ss K-12 '
Packard V- 12 -'
Curt i ss C-12
3
Rol l s-Royce Mer l i n
Dai ml er-Benz
4
Barrel
Cast i ron
Steel
Jacket
Monel sheet
Steel , wel ded
Cast al umi num
/ / it
Steel , wel ded
Cast al umi num
// //
// ;/
Load by
Studs
Barrel
//
Jacket
Barrel
Jacket
Studs
Barrel
1
Water jacket is cast integral with crankcase.
2
Aluminum casting containing valve ports and camshaft was continuous over 6 separate steel
cylinders.
3
Improvement on K-12 by bolting separate water-jacket casting to crankcase for easier assembly
and disassembly.
4
Unique fastening of cylinder barrels to crankcase by means of a ring nut.
39
These i mprovements are attr i butable not only to i mproved detai l desi gn,
but also to i mpor tant developments i n f uel, superchargi ng, and cooli ng
f lui d, whi ch wi ll be di scussed later.
sgs
Figure 35. Br i t i sh ai r-cool ed cyl i nder devel opment : Left, ABC steel cyl i nder wi t h f i nned al umi -
num cap, 1917; t hi s cyl i nder had poor head and val ve cool i ng ( f r om Journal of the American
Society of Naval Engineers, vol . 38, no. 4, p. 872, 1926). Right, Cyl i nder devel oped by Dr. A. H.
Gi bson at Royal Ai rcraf t Est abl i shment , 1918, ant i ci pat ed t he essenti al f eat ures of moder n air-
cool ed ai rcraf t-engi ne cyl i nderst hat is, al umi num head, wi t h hard val ve-seat i nsert s, screwed
over steel bar r el ; appl i ed f i nni ng on barrel is t ypi cal of many moder n engi nes ( f r om [ Br i t i sh]
Advi sory Commi t t ee for Aeronaut i cs Report I.E.C. 260, p. 268, f i g. 11, January 1919).
40
Air-Cooled Engines
The Gnome and i ts rotary descendants (LeRhone, Clerget, Bentley B. R.,
Oberi i rsel, and others) were obsolescent by 1918. Also obsolescent were
ai r-cooled engi nes usi ng cast-i ron cyli nders wi th i ntegral heads and f i ns.
These i ncluded the radi al Anzani , and the Renault V-type wi th i ts de-
scendants, the RAF (Royal Ai rcraf t Factory), and FIAT.
Dur i ng the f irst World War i t had become evi dent that the si mple
cast-i ron cyli nder
15
had reached i ts li mi t, and the Royal Ai rcraf t Factory
of Gr eat Bri tai n had employed Prof. A. H. Gi bson, assi sted by Samuel D.
Heron, to develop more ef f ecti ve ai r-cooled cyli nders. By 1918 they had
constructed and tested steel cyli nders wi th cast-alumi num heads screwed
onto them, that were capable of hi gher specif ic outputs than any cast-i ron
cyli nder (fig. 35, r i ght). However, the practi cal use of the alumi num-head
cyli nder i n England was seri ously delayed by a parallel development,
starti ng i n 1917, of ai r-cooled radi als wi th steel f lat-head cyli nders capped
by a bolted-on valve-port assembly of cast-i ron or cast alumi num (fig. 35,
lef t). Thi s cyli nder desi gn suf f ered f rom the same trouble as the early
Hi spano-Sui za engi nes, namely, poor exhaust-valve cooli ng because of
poor contact between the head and the separate cooli ng element; however,
the f i rst r adi al engi ne usi ng thi s cyli nder type, the ABC (All Bri ti sh Engi ne
Company) Wasp of 4/^ -i n. bore, was successful enough to gai n the support
of the Bri ti sh government for i ts development i n a larger versi on, the
Dragonf ly of 5%-in. bore. The f act that cooli ng problems i ncrease wi th
i ncreased cyli nder si ze evi dently was not reali zed at the ti me.
Thi s development f i nally became, through several changes i n owner-
shi p, the Bri stol Jupi ter engi ne (fig. 37), whi ch was bui lt and used i n
consi derable quanti ti es i n England and i n Europe, chi ef ly for mi li tary
purposes. It was never a really sati sf actory ai rcraf t engi ne, because of poor
exhaust-valve cooli ng (S. D. Heron sai d that i ts consumpti on should be
gi ven i n terms of pounds of exhaust valves, rather than i n pounds of f uel,
per horsepower-hour!). Fi nally reali zi ng thi s f act, Bri stol changed f rom
steel heads to Alumi num heads wi th the Jupi ter F, about 1930.
Meanwhi le the Gi bson-Heron type cyli nders had been f urther de-
veloped by Armstrong-Si ddeley, and were used on the Jaguar 2-row
radi al (fig. 38) whi ch passed i ts type test i n 1922, ten years af ter Gi bson
started hi s work.
A parallel development of ai r-cooled engi nes wi th alumi num cyli nders
havi ng steel li ners was begun about 1916 by Charles L. Lawrance. Starti ng
wi th a 2-cyli nder opposed engi ne, he bui lt a 3-cyli nder engi ne i n 1919, and
41
a
vV,
Figure 36.Development of air-cooled cylinders in the United States: a, Lawrence J- l (1922) and
Wright Aeronautical J-3 (1923) used cast aluminum structure with thin steel liner, b, Wright J-4
(1924) used flanged steel barrel with screwed-on head and jacket casting, c, Wright J-4A (1924-5)
similar to J-4. d, Wright J-4B (1925-6) similar to J-4A but with air passage and fins between the
ports, e, Wright J-5 (1926-7) designed by Heron; barrel carries integral steel fins, f, Wright
Turbo-Cyclone cylinder of 1948, with forged and machined aluminum head, forged-steel barrel
with rolled-on aluminum fins, and sodium-cooled exhaust valves, stellite-faced, has more than 100
square inches of fin area for each square inch of piston area, (a-e, from Transactions of the Society
of Automotive Engineers, vol. 21, pt. 2, p. 872, 1926; f, courtesy Wright Aeronautical Corporation.)
f i nally a 9-cyli nder 200-hp radi al i n 1921. Thi s was the J - l (fig. 39), whi ch
was supported by an order f or 200 engi nes f rom the Uni ted States Navy. In
1922 Lawrance' s company was absorbed by the Wri ght Aeronauti cal
Corporati on
16
and, wi th Navy support, the 9-cyli nder engi ne was bui lt i n
i mproved models known as the Wri ght J - 3, J-4, and J-4b, all wi th essen-
ti ally the Lawrance cyli nder desi gn (see f i g. 36a-d).
Dur i ng the same peri od, 1918-1926, S. D. Her on had left England
and had been employed by the Uni ted States Army Ai r Servi ce at McCook
Fi eld, Dayton, Ohi o, to assi st i n the development of large radi al engi nes.
17
Her on was a devoted worker and an able engi neer, and by 1921 had devel-
oped successf ul ai r-cooled cyli nders of nearly 6-i n. bore, based on hi s work
wi th Gi bson plus hi s own i mprovements worked out at McCook Fi eld.
Agai nst consi derable resi stance f rom thei r chi ef engi neers, who at the
ti me were thoroughly commi tted to water cooli ng, the Curti ss Aeroplane
Company and Wr i ght Aeronauti cal accepted contracts f rom the Army
Ai r Corps to bui ld prototype radi al engi nes wi th Heron-desi gned cyli nders.
Some engi nes were bui lt, but i n very small numbers.
The Lawr ance and Her on developments were brought together when
Her on i n 1926 joi ned Wr i ght Aeronauti cal Corporati on, of whi ch Lawr ance
was presi dent. The f i rst result, the Wri ght J - 5, was essenti ally a Lawrance-
type engi ne wi th Her on-type cyli nders (figs. 36e and 40). Thi s was a
successf ul engi ne of the 200-hp class, as evi denced by i ts use i n Li ndbergh' s
New York-Pari s f li ght, 20-21 May 1927, i n many other pi oneeri ng f li ghts,
and i n a number of early transport ai rplanes. It won the Rober t J. Colli er
trophy, thi s country's most sought af ter avi ati on award, i n 1927. Wri ght
Aeronauti cal had also been experi menti ng wi th ai r-cooled radi al engi nes
43
Figure 37.Bristol Jupiter 9-cylinder engine,
1922; 400 hp at 1650 rpm, 700 lb. This example
was built by Cosmos Engineering Co., Ltd. Cylin-
der design is similar to that of ABC cylinder in
figure 35, left. (Photo A-3104)
Figure 38.Armstrong-Siddeley Jaguar
14-cylinder 2-row radial engine, about
1922; 360 hp at 2000 rpm, 910 lb. First
successful British radial engine with
aluminum-head cylinders and gear-
driven supercharger. Cylinder design is
similar to that of Gibson cylinder in
figure 35, right (Photo A-3111)
Figure 39.Lawrance J- l air-cooled
radial engine, 1922. The first American-
designed 9-cylinder radial to be put into
general use, its rating was 200 hp at
1800 rpm, 476 lb. The cast-aluminum
cylinder head and internally cooled
exhaust valves have been retained in
modern practice. Cylinder section is
shown in figure 36a. (Photo A-3086)
Figure 40.Wright Whirlwind J-5 engine (NASM 121) of 1927; 220 hp at 1800 rpm, 510 lb. This is
the type used in transoceanic flights by Lindbergh, Chamberlin, Byrd, and others. Cylinder section
is shown in figure 36e. (Photo A-44092)
havi ng cyli nders larger than those of the J - 5, the bore of whi ch was 4.5 i n.,
but the f i rst really successf ul engi ne of the larger type was the Pr att and
Whi tney 425-hp Wasp of 1927. "
Subsequent to the merger of Wr i ght and Lawrance, a consi derable
f racti on of the Wr i ght Aeronauti cal staff, headed by the chi ef engi neer
George J. Mead, resi gned to joi n Frederi ck B. Rentschler i n f ormi ng the
45
Pr att & Whi tney Ai r cr af t Company of Har tf or d, Connecti cut. In a ti me
almost as shor t as that f or the Li ber ty engi ne, thi s new gr oup pr oduced
the Was p (shown i n f i g. 41), the f i rst lar ge r adi al ai r -cooled engi ne of what
may be called "mode r n" desi gn. The notabl e f eatur es of thi s engi ne
i ncl uded:
Rati ng, 425 hp at 1,800 r pm
9 cyli nders, 5.75x5.75 i n. bore and stroke
Bui lt-i n geared centri f ugal supercharger
Fully enclosed valve gear, wi th rocker boxes i ntegral wi th cyli nder head
(fig. 41)
Forged and machi ned crankcase (fig. 42)
Domed-head, 2-valve cyli nders, basi cally of the Her on desi gn
Di vi ded crankpi n (fig. 43) wi th one-pi ece master rod
Whi l e most of these f eatur es had appear ed pr evi ously, thei r combi nati on
her e was an emi nentl y r ati onal and successf ul one, and set a hi gh standar d
f or f utur e devel opment of r adi al engi nes.
The only i mpor tant basi c i mpr ovements to be developed later f or
r adi al ai r -cooled engi nes wer e:
The f orged and machi ned alumi num cyli nder head, pi oneered by
Bri stol i n England and Wr i ght Aeronauti cal i n the Uni ted States
about 1940 (Gnome had pi oneered the f orged and machi ned steel
head for ai r-cooled engi nes)
The automati cally lubri cated (by engi ne oi l) valve gear, pi oneered by
Pr att & Whi tney i n 1932 (first used i n water-cooled aero engi nes
by Hi spano-Sui za, ca. 1914)
The vi brati on-absorbi ng counterwei ght, i ntroduced by Wr i ght Aero-
nauti cal i n 1935, whi ch wi ll be di scussed later
Second-order balanci ng wei ghts, to reduce unbalanced f orces
The basi c f eatur es of the Wasp, wi th the addi ti on of the above i mpr ove-
ments, ar e used i n all moder n lar ge ai r -cooled r adi al engi nes. Thi s type,
of cour se, has domi nated tr anspor t and much of mi l i tar y avi ati on unti l
the r ecent advent of the jet and tur bi ne engi ne. Fi gur es 44-47 show the
outstandi ng moder n ai r -cooled r adi al engi nes whi ch ar e basi cally de-
scendants of the Gnome, but wi th gr eatl y i mpr oved detai l desi gn, i n-
cl udi ng the composi te steel and al umi num cyli nder constr ucti on pi oneer ed
by Gi bson, Her on, and Lawr ance. Fi gur e 36 shows the evoluti on of Wr i ght
cyli nder s f rom about 1920 to 1930, i n compar i son wi th the cyli nder used
on the Wr i ght tur bo-compound engi ne, the most hi ghly devel oped ai r -
cooled r adi al .
46
Fi gure 41.Pratt & Whi tney
Wasp ai r-cool ed radi al engi ne,
1926; 425 hp at 1900 r pm, 650
l b. The f i rst such Uni t ed States
engi ne of over 400 hp to go
i nto general servi ce, it pio-
neered many t echni cal f eatures
whi ch became standard prac-
ti ce for t hi s t ype. Cyl i nder
desi gn was si mi l ar to t hat of
the Wri ght J-5 ( f i g. 36e) except
that rocker-arm support s and
housi ng were cast i ntegral
wi th t he cyl i nder headan
i mpor t ant i nnovat i on. (Photo
A-3087)
Figure 42.Forged al umi num crankcase of
Pratt & Whi tney Wasp engi ne. Left, compl et e
crankcase. Ri ght, f orgi ng of one hal f before
machi ni ng. (Photo A-3105)
Figure 43.Di vi ded crankshaf t , f r om Pratt &
Whi tney Wasp engi ne. The Gnome (see f i g. 20)
pi oneered t hi s desi gn for radi al ai rcraf t en-
gi nes. (Photo A-3106)
47
Figure 44.Pratt & Whtney
Doubl e Wasp R- 2800- CB- 16
18-cyl i nder ai r-cool ed 2-row
radi al engi ne, 1946; 2800 hp
at 2800 r pm, 2327 l b. Earlier
model s were extensi vel y used
in Worl d War I I , and t hi s model
was wi del y used in commer ci al
and mi l i t ar y ai rcraf t. (Photo
A-3103)
Figure 45.Pratt & Whi tney Wasp Maj or R-4360 28-cyl i nder 4-row radi al engi ne, 1948 (cutaway);
3500 hp at 2900 r pm, 3842 l b. A post-Worl d War II mi l i t ary and commer ci al engi ne. (Photo A-4132)
48
Figure 46.Wright Cyclone R-1820
1425-hp9-cylinderengine, 1953. When
this engine first came into use in 1933,
it was rated at 525 hp at 1900 rpm. It
was used in the Douglas DC-3 and
Boeing B-17, among others. (Photo
A-3090)
Figure 47.Wright Turbo-Cyclone R-3350 18-cylinder 2-row radial engine, 1955 (cutaway); 3700
hp at 2900 rpm, about 3000 lb. This post-war engine had three exhaust-driven turbines geared to
the crankshaft, and it was the latest and most highly developed piston type to be widely used in
large military and commercial airplanes. (Photo A-3089)
i
rV>
.JH m
The f ollowi ng compari son i llustrates the development of ai r-cooled
engi nes f rom 1922 to the present ti me:
1922 1955
Engi ne . . .,..'.'. Lawrance J-l Wri ght Turbo-
Compound
Number of cyli nders 9 18
Bore and stroke, i n 4.5x5.5 6.125x6.3125
Maxi mum hp 200 3, 700
Rpm . . 1,800 2, 900
Brake mean effective pressure,
psi . . 112 302
Mean pi ston speed, ft/min . . . 1, 650 3, 070
Hp per sq i n. piston area . . ... . 1.4 7. 0
Wei ght, lb, per hp, dry (wi th-
out oil and oil radi ators) . . 2.38 0.96
As had been true of li qui d-cooled engi nes, i mprovements i n f uels, super-
chargi ng, and cooli ng systems as well as great i mprovements i n detai l
desi gn, were i mpor tant f actors i n thi s development.
The subject of the ai r-cooled engi ne should not be left wi thout menti on
of the remarkable development of the li ght-ai rplane engi ne, begi nni ng
wi th the small Bri ti sh 4-cyli nder verti cal Ci rrus and DeHavi lland Gypsy
engi nes of 1927, and of the 4-cyli nder Conti nental A-40 (fig. 48). Intr o-
duced i n 1931, thi s 38-hp engi ne used cast-i ron L-head cyli nders. It was
the f orerunner of contemporary hori zontal-opposed li ght-plane engi nes.
Later models use composi te alumi num and steel cyli nders si mi lar to the
J - 5 cyli nder of f i gure 36e. Engi nes of thi s type bui lt by Conti nental Motors
Corporati on and by others, i ncludi ng pri nci pally the Lycomi ng Di vi si on
of Avco Corporati on, have developed to a remarkable degree of reli abi li ty
and perf ormance. In 1961, a li cense to bui ld Conti nental engi nes of thi s
type was acqui red by Rolls-Royce, a real compli ment to the hi gh quali ty
of these small powerplants.
Another i nteresti ng category of ai r-cooled engi nes compri ses those
bui lt for i nstallati on i n model ai rplanes. These are usually 1-cyli nder 2-cycle
engi nes of less than 1-in. bore and stroke (fig. 49). Some are rated up to 1
hp at speeds of 15, 000 r pm or more. Ori gi nati ng i n the Uni ted States about
1930, these engi nes were produced i n very large quanti ti es between 1945
and 1950. It is clai med that there were 180 manuf acturers of model engi nes
i n the Uni ted States duri ng that peri od, and thei r total producti on, i n
number of engi nes, pr obably exceeded that of all other ai rcraf t engi nes
combi ned. The populari ty of engi ne-powered model ai rplanes fell off about
50
Figure 48. Cont i nent al A- 40 ai r-cool ed hori zontal -
opposed 4-cyl i nder engi ne, 1931; 40 hp at 2500 r pm,
145 l b. Thi s engi ne was t he f or er unner of cont empor ar y
hori zont al -opposed l i ght-pl ane engi nes. (Photo A-
50897)
Figure 49. Model ai rpl ane engi ne,
Super Cyclone (NASM 1944- 20) , about
1950; about 1/10 hp at 10, 000 r pm, 5
ounces. Thi s t ypi cal si ngl e-cyl i nder, 2-
cycl e, ai r-cool ed model engi ne uses
speci al fuel wi t h hot-wi re i gni t i on.
(Photo A-36625)
C
Figure 50.Frontal cool ant ra-
di ator for Li berty engi ne on
DeHavi l l and DH- 4 (NASM
1919- 51) , 1918. Thi s posi ti on
for the radi ator requi red a
large cool i ng surface and con-
t r i but ed heavi l y to ai rpl ane
drag. (Photo A-9850-D).
Figure 51.Compl etel y ex-
posed Lawrance J - l radi al
engi ne on Curti ss F4- C1, about
1924. Below, Parti al l y exposed
Wri ght J-5 engi ne on Ryan NYP
ai rpl ane Spirit of St. Louis
(NASM 1928- 21) , after ret urn
f r om Europe, 1927. (Photos
A-47190.A-1193-B).
Figure 52.Radi al engi ne wi th
NACA-type cowl i ng on Frank
Hawks' Lockheed Ai r Express,
1929. (Photo A-33428-E)
1950, but has revi ved dur i ng the past decade. Dur i ng 1966 one manuf acturer
alone produced a mi lli on model aero engi nes.
Air Versus Liquid Cooling
The classi c and of ten emoti onally charged ar gument over the relati ve
meri ts of li qui d and ai r cooli ng started wi th the early days of f lyi ng
(Antoi nette vs. Gnome, for example) and persi sted to the end of World
War II, when the advent of jets and tur bo props di verted attenti on elsewhere.
As we have seen, water cooli ng was domi nant through World War I,
except for the rotari es, whi ch at i ts close were obsolescent. European
mi li tary avi ati on remai ned generally commi tted to water cooli ng up to and
through World War II, although some ai r-cooled engi nes were used i n
bombers and transports, and there was one excellent ai r-cooled European
f i ghter, the Focke-Wulf wi th the BMW 2-row radi al, developed f rom a
Pr att & Whi tney li cense. Japanese f i ghter ai rcraf t also used ai r-cooled
radi als copi ed f rom Wri ght and Pr att & Whi tney desi gns. Thei r other
mi li tary ai rcraf t used these and copi es of the Ger man Dai mler-Benz li qui d-
cooled engi ne (fig. 33).
In the Uni ted States, the Navy made a commi tment to ai r cooli ng i n
1921 whi ch has held for reci procati ng engi nes to thi s day. It was chi ef ly
Navy support that underwrote early Pr att & Whi tney and Wri ght ai r-
cooli ng developments. The reason for thi s choi ce lay i n the li mi tati ons of
the ai rcraf t carri er, whi ch i mposed such desi gn cri teri a as short takeoff,
compact si ze, and mi ni mum mai ntenance. Commander Bruce Lei ghton
was pr obably the i ndi vi dual most responsi ble for thi s well-consi dered
deci si on.
The most i ntense controversy on thi s subject took place i n the Uni ted
States Army Ai r Servi ce, whose support for ai r-cooled engi ne development
i n the 1920s and 1930s was never as enthusi asti c as that of the Navy, because
of the assumed larger f rontal area and greater drag of ai r-cooled radi als,
especi ally for use i n f i ghter ai rplanes. That cooli ng dr ag was a real problem
i n the early days i s i llustrated by f i gures 50 and 51, showi ng typi cal
i nstallati ons of the 1920s.
The dr ag of ai r-cooled engi nes was greatly reduced by the advent of
the very ef f ecti ve cowli ng and cyli nder baf f i ng developed at Langley Fi eld
by NACA, starti ng i n 1929 (figs. 52 and 53). Fur ther reducti ons i n cooli ng
dr ag were achi eved by i ncreased cooli ng-f i n area, whi ch reduced the ai r
veloci ty requi red for cooli ng (compare f i gs. 36a-e and 36f. These develop-
53
tPtu'ilion of
"flap"when
\.-aoseo/
Figure 53.Cooling-air flow in tractor
installation of a cowled radial engine. Only
the upper half of the installation is shown.
Figure 54.Installation of radial engine on a
Douglas DC-6, 1949, showing modern cowling
for radial engine, with controllable outlet flaps.
(Photo A-50822)
Figure 55.Comparison of radiator installations for water (left) and for ethylene glycol cooling, on
Curtiss Falcon airplanes, 1930. (From The Project Engineer, vol. 13, no. 10, p. 9, 1954, publ. by
the Thermix Corp.)
Figure 56.Liquid-cooled fighter, North American P-51 Mustang of World War II. Coolant radiator
is housed under fuselage, below the star insignia. Inlet and outlet ducts are designed to minimize
drag. (Photo A-45801)
ments put the ai r-cooled radi al vi rtually on a par wi th the water-cooled
engi nes wi th regard to cooli ng dr ag, unti l the advent of hi gh-temperature
li qui d cooli ng wi th glycol-water mi xtures. Fi gure 54 show's modern cowli ng
for the ai r-cooled radi al engi nes.
The use of hi gh-boi li ng li qui ds (mi xtures of water and ethylene
glycol) for engi nes f ormerly water-cooled was an i mpor tant f orward step
i n reduci ng the heat-transf er area, and thereby the drag, of radi ators for
li qui d-cooled engi nes. At the suggesti on of S. D. Heron, a 1-cyli nder engi ne
was tested at McCook Fi eld i n 1923 wi th a mi xture of water and ethylene
glycol at a hi gh coolant temper atur e, probably near 300 F Dur i ng 1928-
1929 f urther tests were made at McCook Fi eld wi th a Curti ss D-12 engi ne.
Af ter consi derable development work to avoi d leaks and to overcome other
troubles encountered, the use of thi s method of cooli ng was adopted for
Curti ss li qui d-cooled engi nes by 1932, and used soon af terward by Alli son
and Rolls-Royce. Thi s change, whi ch allowed operati on of the coolant
55
at 250 F, reduced the r adi ator area requi red by about 50 percent (f i g.55).
Thi s i mprovement, together wi th better radi ator desi gn and r adi ator
cowli ng (fig. 56) brought the dr ag of li qui d-cooled engi nes well below that
of ai r-cooled radi als of equal power. Thei r i nstalled wei ght, whi ch had
been greater than that of ai r-cooled radi als, also came down to more
comparable f i gures. Schlai f er gi ves the wei ght per horsepower of the best
li qui d-cooled f i ghter i nstallati on i n relati on to a comparable ai r-cooled
i nstallati on as 30 percent more at sea level and about the same at 25, 000 ft.
18
The f act that the Battle of Bri tai n was won by li qui d-cooled engi nes
(the Rolls-Royce Merli n) gave a great i mpetus to the Army prejudi ce
i n f avor of water-cooled f i ghters.
19
Actually, both types were used, and i t
was f ound that the ai r-cooled f i ghter was better at low alti tude both because
of i ts li ghter speci f i c wei ght and i ts lesser vulnerabi li ty to small-arms f i re.
For commerci al uses, however, the eli mi nati on of the wei ght, compli -
cati on, and mai ntenance requi rements that characteri ze li qui d-cooli ng
has been a chi ef reason for the populari ty of ai r-cooli ng for ai r-transport
purposes si nce about 1932; and wi th few excepti ons, commerci al ai r trans-
ports all over the world have used ai r-cooled engi nes, mostly of Ameri can
manuf acture, f rom the early begi nni ngs i n the late 1920s up to the present.
Although today (1969) jet and turbi ne engi nes are standard for large
mi li tary and commerci al ai rplanes, there are sti ll many more planes powered
by ai r-cooled pi ston engi nes, because of thei r use i n planes of smaller si ze,
than by all other types combi ned.
56
Unconventi onal Engi nes
Hundr eds of unconventi onal types of ai rcraf t engi nes have been proposed,
bui lt, and tested. Among these the f ollowi ng may be menti oned.
BARREL- OR REVOLVER-TYPE ENGINES. In thi s type the cyli nders were
posi ti oned around the crankshaf t wi th thei r axes parallel to i t. Its advantage
was i ts compactness, whi ch provi ded a small f rontal area and allowed
good streamli ng. Perhaps the best known was the Almen engi ne of 1921.
None were successf ulalthough duri ng 1929 there were bri ef demonstrati ons
of the Swiss Statex and Bri ti sh Redr up types, and an example of the latter,
the Fur y powered a Si mmonds Spar tan bi plane i n f li ght. The methods of
li nki ng the pi stons to the dri veshaf t caused lubri cati on and mechani cal
problems that were never solved.
FAIRCHILD-CAMINEZ ENGINE. Thi s was a 4-cyli nder radi al engi ne (fig. 57)
wi th rollers i n the pi stons operati ng on a 2-lobe cam. Its advantages were
i ts small di ameter and a propeller shaf t r unni ng at half engi ne speed
wi thout the usual reducti on geari ng. The only crankless reci procati ng
engi ne to reach the stage of official approval, i t recei ved i n June 1927
Uni ted States Depar tment of Commerce Approved-Type Certi f i cate No. 1.
Duri ng 1926-28 i t was f lown experi mentally, but i t proved i mpracti cal
because of excessi ve vi brati on resulti ng f rom torque vari ati on.
SLEEVE-VALVE ENGINES. The earli est development of a sleeve-valve
ai rcraf t engi ne that I recall was that of the Belgi an Mi nerva, a Kni ght-
type, or double-sleeve, engi ne whi ch appeared i n the 1920s, but never
got beyond the experi mental stage. The si ngle-sleeve, or Burt-McCollum,
type, was exploi ted chi ef ly i n England and f i nally became operati onal i n
the Bri stol li ne of ai rcraf t radi al engi nes, i ncludi ng the Hercules (fig. 58),
Perseus, and Centaurus. These were used by the Royal Ai r Force duri ng
World War II. The Napi er Sabre, also usi ng the si ngle-sleeve valve, was a
24-cyli nder, li qui d-cooled, 2-crankshaf t H-type engi ne used i n Bri ti sh
f i ghters toward the end of World War II. The Rolls-Royce Eagle (not to
be conf used wi th the 12-cyli nder Eagle of World War I), a 24-cyli nder
H-type engi ne wi th sleeve valves, was very si mi lar to the Napi er Sabre.
57
Figure 57.Fai rchi l d-Cami nez
engi ne, transverse sect i on; 135
hp at 1000 r pm, 360 l b. The
onl y crankl ess reci procati ng
ei ngi ne to reach the stage of
of f i ci al approval , it was later
f ound to be i mpr act i cal be-
cause of severe t or que vari a-
t i on. (From Page, Modern
Aviation Engines, 1929, vol .
2, p.1112, f i g. 535) .
Fi gure 58.Bri stol Hercul es
759 14-cyl i nder sl eeve-val ve
engi ne, 1956; 2000 hp at 2800
r pm, 2060 l b. Earlier model s
were used in Bri t i sh bombers
duri ng Worl d War I I . (From
Wi l ki nson, Aircraft Engines of
the World, 1954, p. 244)
58
It was developed af ter the war, too late to compete wi th the rapi dly de-
velopi ng jet and tur bi ne engi nes.
DIESEL AIRCRAFT ENGINES. Di esel engi nes bui lt by Beardmorc and May-
bach were used experi mentally i n some ri gi d ai rshi ps duri ng the 1920s.
Those used operati onally aboard the Hindenburg and i ts li ttle-known
si ster shi p, the Graf ^eppelin II, were of Dai mler-Benz manuf acture. The
f i rst di esel engi ne to power an ai rplane was a Packard ai r-cooled radi al
(fig. 59) desi gned by L. M. Woolson, who was ki lled i n a crash (due en-
ti rely to bad weather) of an ai rplane powered wi th one of these engi nes
bef ore the development was completed. The Packard di esel recei ved f rom
the Ci vi l Aeronauti cs Admi ni strati on a CAB Approved-Type Certi f i cate
43 on 6 Mar ch 1930. It set the world's nonref ueli ng dur ati on record for
heavi er-than-ai r craf t 25-28 May 1931, a record that sti ll stands. Thi s
Figure 59.Packard 4-stroke-cycle 9-cylinder radial air-cooled diesel engine (NASM 1932-7), 1928;
225 hp at 1950 rpm, 510 lb. Although diesel engines had been used earlier in lighter-than-air craft,
this was the first to power an airplane. (Photo A-2388)
engi ne and i ts desi gner and manuf acturer were the reci pi ent of the Rober t
J. Colli er trophy for 1931; however, i t never became an i mpor tant ai rplane
powerplant. The Gui berson ai r-cooled radi al di esel engi ne appear ed about
three years af ter the Packard, recei vi ng a CAB Approved-Type Certi f i cate
79, but was never wi dely used.
The most successful di esel ai rplane engi ne was the Junker s Jumo a
6-cyli nder, opposed-pi ston, water-cooled engi ne (fig. 60), the development
of whi ch was started about 1920. Thi s engi ne was used to a li mi ted extent
i n Ger man mi li tary ai rplanes and i n Ger man ai r transport, i n the late
1930s. A model f i tted wi th a tur bo supercharger powered a hi gh-alti tude
photographi c reconnai ssance ai rplane of World War II, the Junker s J u -
86P, but by that ti me the engi ne was obsolescent.
NACA (Nati onal Advi sory Commi ttee for Aeronauti cs, later the
Nati onal Aeronauti cs and Space Agency, NASA, Washi ngton, D.C.) con-
ducted exhausti ve research di rected toward the development of ai rcraf t
Di esel engi nes duri ng the decade 1930-1940. Thi s work was centered on
i njecti on-system development and combusti on-chamber desi gn. No multi -
cyli nder engi nes were bui lt. For ref erence to thi s research see Index of
NACA Technical Publications li sted i n the f i rst secti on of the bi bli ography
(p. 96), and also that on di esel engi nes (p. 112).
The Napi er Nomad engi ne, a 2-cycle di esel compound powerplant was
desi gned af ter World War II for excepti onally hi gh speci f i c output, but i t
was made obsolete by the gas turbi nes bef ore full development.
Numerous other ai rcraf t di esels were bui lt and test f lown, mostly i n
Europe, but by the begi nni ng of World War II, and wi th the general use
of hi gh octane fuels, i t became evi dent that the di esel engi ne could not
compete wi th the conventi onal spark-i gni ti on type, and i ts development
termi nated. The research work of the NACA on di esel engi nes for ai rcraf t
duri ng the late 1920s and early 1930s was extensi ve and outstandi ng, but
i t f ound no practi cal appli cati on.
TWO-CYCLE GASOLINE ENGINES. The earli est 2-cycle ai rcraf t engi ne
f lown successf ully was bui lt i n England by the New Engi ne Company, Ltd.
(NEC), i n 1909. It was used i n a Bri ti sh-Wri ght ai rplane of that peri od.
The cyli nders were cross-scavenged wi th a Roots-type scavengi ng pump.
Fr om 1909 to 1912 both ai r-cooled and water-cooled NEC engi nes were
bui lt havi ng 2 to 6 cyli nders and 20 to 90 horsepower.
A great many 2-cycle gasoli ne ai rcraf t engi nes have been proposed,
and many were bui lt experi mentally. Most of these were of the crankcase-
compressor type, now common i n outboard mar i ne engi nes. The attracti on
of thi s type of engi ne li es i n i ts mechani cal si mpli ci ty and low cost, but i t
60
has seri ous drawbacks f or ai rcraf t use, pri nci pal among whi ch are i ts hi gh
fuel consumpti on when used wi th a carburetor, and i ts tendency toward
mi sf i ri ng and stalli ng at li ght loads. Most of the proposals have been for
small, low-cost engi nes, but so f ar none has been developed wi th the char-
acteri sti cs necessary for a truly successf ul f ull-scale ai rcraf t engi ne.
On the other hand, nearly all engi nes used for model ai rplanes are
2-cycle and crankcase scavenged, for the sake of mechani cal si mpli ci ty.
In 1966 an engi ne of thi s type became avai lable for small target ai rcraf t.
The Junker s di esel engi ne descri bed above stands as the only 2-cycle ai r-
craf t engi ne ever to be used i n consi derable numbers for mi li tary and trans-
port ai rcraf t.
Figure 60.Junkers Jumo 207- D 2-stroke-cycl e 6-cyl i nder opposed-pi ston di esel engi ne (NASM
1966- 13) ; 1200 hp at 3000 r pm, 1430 l b. Photograph shows engi ne equi pped wi t h exhaust-dri ven
t urbo-supercharger as used i n hi gh-al t i t ude German reconnai ssance ai rpl ane i n Worl d War I I .
Earl i er unsupercharged versi ons (rated 750 hp at 1800 r pm, 1650 lb) were used in pre-war com-
merci al ai rpl anes. (Photo A-3112)
Fi gure 61.Napi er Li on 12-cyl i nder W-type l i qui d-cool ed engi ne, t he onl y W-type ever wi del y used;
450 hp at 2350 r pm, 985 l b. A raci ng versi on, of 800 hp, powered t he 1927 wi nner of t he Schnei der
Trophy, t he Super mar i ne S-5 seapl ane, whi ch fl ew at 281. 65 mph. (Photo A-3098)
UNCONVENTIONAL CYLINDER ARRANGEMENTS. Fi nally there should be
menti oned some engi nes wi th unconventi onal cyli nder arrangements.-"
The f i rst is the Napi er Li on (fig. 61), the only W-type engi ne to see exten-
.si ve servi ce. Thi s engi ne was li qui d-cooled wi th i ts 12 cyli nders arranged
i n 3 rows of 4 each. Brought out i n 1918, i t was qui te wi dely used i n Bri ti sh
mi li tary and commerci al ai rcraf t, and won the Schnei der Tr ophy, a race
for seaplanes, i n 1927. A second engi ne i n thi s category is the Pr att &
Whi tney R-4360, 28-cyli nder ai r-cooled radi al wi th 4 rows of 7 cyli nders
each (fig. 45). Thi s is the largest (but not the most powerf ul) successful
pi ston-type ai rcraf t engi ne ever to reach the servi ce stage. It has been used
i n many large mi li tary ai rcraf t and i n the Boei ng 377 Stratocrui ser.
Besi des the large number of cyli nders and thei r unusual arrangement i n
"staggered" radi al f ormati on, unusual f eatures i nclude machi ned-all-over
cyli nder heads of novel shape and an i ngeni ous arrangement of the push-
rod valve gear. Thi s engi ne would undoubtedly have been more fully
developed had i t not been for the advent of turbo-jet and turbo-prop
engi nes.
The Rolls-Royce Eagle (the second li ne wi th that name) and the
Napi er Sabre, both usi ng the double-crankshaf t H ar r angement, have
already been menti oned (p. 57).
62
Related Techni cal Developments
Fully as i mpor tant as the hi stori cal development of actual engi nes, has been
progress i n engi ne research, leadi ng to i mproved understandi ng of the
basi c phenomena i nvolved. Especi al attenti on under thi s headi ng should
be gi ven to the i mprovement i n the structural desi gn of ai rcraf t engi nes
made possi ble by the development of experi mental stress analysi s;
21
however,
a hi story of research i n the f i eld of i nternal-combusti on engi nes is beyond
the scope of thi s paper. Vari ous secti ons of the bi bli ography contai n
selected ref erences to some of the i mpor tant contri buti ons i n thi s area.
Whi le thi s li st is by no means complete, i t should serve as a conveni ent
i ntroducti on to the subject. Most of the i tems li sted contai n relevant
bi bli ographi es.
Interesti ng related hi stori cal developments have also occurred i n
fuel systems, exhaust systems, control systems, f i re exti ngui sher systems,
and many of the other elements compri si ng the ai rcraf t powerplant. To
treat all of these i n detai l is beyond the scope of thi s work, but a few are of
suf f i ci ent i mportance to deserve menti on here.
Valves and Valve Cooling
As previ ously menti oned, the poppet exhaust valve has always been a
cri ti cal i tem because i t is subjected to such hi gh gas temperature (up to
3000 F) and hi gh gas veloci ty, wi th small areas avai lable (stem and seat
only) for heat di ssi pati on to the coolant. One method of attack on thi s
problem has been through the use of i mproved materi als. By 1918 the
ordi nary steels used at f i rst had gi ven way to hi gh-speed tool steel whi ch
has a hi gh degree of strength at elevated temperatures. Tungsten is the
chi ef alloyi ng element i n such steel. Unf ortunately, thi s type of steel bur ns
readi ly at the seat of a leaki ng valve. Si nce about 1920 austeni ti c (hi gh-
chromi um) steels have been successf ully used i n vari ous f orms, wi th several
other alloyi ng elements, i ncludi ng pri nci pally si li con, ni ckel, and cobalt.
A f urther i mpor tant i mprovement, about 1934, was the use of Stelli te
f aci ng on both valve seats and seat i nserts. Thi s development occurred
63
Figure 62.Evolution of exhaust valves used in Wright radial engines. In all but the first (upper left)
the interior space was half filled with sodium to promote heat flow from head to stem and thus to
assist in cooling the valve. (From S.A.E. Journal, vol. 46, no. 4, p. 150, fig. 9, 1940)
joi ntly i n the Uni ted States and abroad (chi ef ly i n Bri tai n), wi th the
manuf acturers of poppet valves playi ng an i mpor tant par t.
Another, and very i mportant, contri buti on to exhaust-valve life and
reli abi li ty has been the use of a hollow valve parti ally f i lled wi th li qui d for
the purpose of i mprovi ng the conducti vi ty of heat f rom head to stem.
Heron and Gi bson tri ed water i n 1913, but the hi gh steam pressure ex-
ploded the valve stem. Mercury was next tri ed, wi th more success, si nce
i ts vapor pressure i s lower. But mercury wi ll not wet steel. A method of
coati ng the i nternal valve surf ace wi th wettable materi al was developed by
Mi dgeley and Ketteri ng i n 1917, and the Lawrance J - l 9-cyli nder radi al
of 1921 (fig. 39), used mercury-f i lled valves wi th some success, although
wi th trouble f rom mercury leakage.
64
When S. D. Her on came to McCook Fi eld i n 1919, he conti nued hi s
work on valve coolants and soon used successf ully the mi xture of sodi um
and potassi um ni trate previ ously used for heat treati ng of steel. Thi s ma-
teri al has the necessary low vapor pressure, but i ts densi ty is low. Con-
ti nui ng hi s work, Her on by 1928 had adopted li qui d sodi um as the i n-
ternal coolant, now used i n large ai rcraf t exhaust valves and i n many
non-ai rcraf t engi nes.
Fi gure 62 shows a sequence of development i n exhaust-valve desi gn.
Much i ngenui ty has been di splayed by valve manuf acturers i n f abri cat'ng
the modern hollow-head wi th hollow-stem valve, and f i lli ng i t (parti ally)
wi th metalli c sodi um.
The automati c lubri cati on of valves by engi ne oi l, i ntroduced to li qui d-
cooled engi nes by Hi spano-Sui za (1914) and to ai r-cooled engi nes by
Pr att & Whi tney (1932) has also been an i mpor tant contri buti on to the
present long life and reli abi l ty of ai rcraf t-engi ne valves.
Another method of attack on the valve-cooli ng problems was to eli mi nate
the poppet valve i n f avor of some-f orm of sli di ng valve. As already men-
ti oned, the Bri stol Aeroplane Company developed i ts si ngle-sleeve-valve
ai r-cooled radi al i n the 1930s to the poi nt where i t was used i n World War
II, and the Napi er Sabre and the second Rolls-Royce Eagle also had sleeve
valves.
Fuels and Combustion
One of the most i mpor tant developments i n ai rcraf t propulsi on has been
the i mprovement i n, and control of, avi ati on gasoli ne. Thi s development
is a long and complex story, and only a bare outli ne can be gi ven here.
For successful use i n spark-i gni ti on engi nes, gasoli ne must have the
proper volati li ty range, and the hi ghest possi ble resi stance to "knock" or
"detonati on." Control of volati li ty seems never to have been a seri ous
problem, and development work i n ai rcraf t fuels has centered ar ound i n-
creasi ng thei r anti knock value. Earli est work on the relati on of detonati on
to fuel composi ti on seems to have been by Har r y R. Ri car do i n England
and by Charles F. Ketteri ng i n the Uni ted States. Intensi ve work, under
Ketteri ng's di recti on, was started by Thomas Mi dgeley and Thomas A.
Boyd i n Dayton, Ohi o, i n 1917. Dur i ng the course of thi s work i t was
di scovered that some substances, notably i odi ne, had a strong anti knock
effect even i n very small concentrati ons. Thi s di scovery led to an i ntensi ve
search for powerf ul anti knock agents.
65
WI T H wmf t '
Figure 63.Increase in avi ati on f uel perf ormance number wi t h respect to t i me. The i mpr ovement
was due both to addi t i ons of tetraethyl lead (T.E.L.) and to i mproved ref i ni ng met hods. Perf ormance
number is rati o of knock-l i mi t ed power to t hat wi t h pure i so-octane (xl OO).
Mi dgeley's work was done on a small 1-cyli nder engi ne i n an old
Dayton ki tchen, and when a promi si ng substance was f ound there, he would
bri ng i t to the McCook Fi eld engi ne laboratory for test i n an ai rcraf t
engi ne. I was closely associ ated wi th hi s work duri ng my admi ni strati on
of that laboratory, 1919-1923. By 1920 toluene and i ts related compounds
appeared promi si ng as an addi ti ve and were used i n f li ght tests, notably
by Schroeder for the 1920 alti tude record wi th a turbo-supercharged
Li berty engi ne. By 1921 the extreme anti knock effects of metallo-organi c
compounds was evi dent, and i n 1922 Mi dgeley brought the first samples
of tetraethyl lead, Pb(C
2
H
5
)
4
, to McCook Fi eld for tests i n 1-cyli nder and
f ull-scale ai rcraf t engi nes. Experi mental work wi th leaded f uel conti nued
thereaf ter at a rapi d pace. It was officially adopted for use i n avi ati on
gasoli ne by the Uni ted States Navy i n 1926 and by the Army i n 1933,
and has si nce become uni versally accepted as an addi ti ve for gasoli ne.
Another i mpor tant contri buti on was Gr aham Edgar' s work, about
1926, i n determi ni ng the effect of fuel structure on anti knock quali ty and,
66
speci f i cally, di scoveri ng the hi gh anti knock properti es of the branched-
chai n paraf i ns such as i so-octane.
Speci f i cati ons and laboratory tests for anti knock quali ty of avi ati on
fuels were sponsored by the Cooperati ve Fuel Research Commi ttee i n 1933,
and led to good control of thi s quali ty i n Uni ted States avi ati on fuels soon
af ter. S. D. Her on was also an i mpor tant contri butor to thi s result. The
"perf ormance number " of a f uel, used f rom about 1942, is the rati o of
knock-li mi ted i ndi cated mean ef f ecti ve pressure (kli mep) wi th that f uel,
to the kli mep i n the same engi ne usi ng i so-octane." Fi gure 63 shows the
i mprovement i n the perf ormance number achi eved both by the use of
tetraethyl lead and the control of fuel composi ti on.
The powerf ul effect of water or water-alcohol i njecti on i s also i llus-
trated i n f i gure 63. Thi s development seems to have been started at Pr att &
Whi tney about 1940, and was conti nued by them, by the Army Ai r Corps
at Wri ght Fi eld, and by the NACA laboratori es. By 1946, water-alcohol
i njecti on was generally used for takeof f by both mi li tary and transport ai r-
planes. The hi gh consumpti on of the auxi li ary f lui d (about 50 percent of
the fuel f low) li mi ts i ts use to short peri ods and to engi nes wi th suf f i ci ent
superchargi ng to take advantage of the i ncreased knock li mi t.
Altitude Performance and Superchargers
The f act that, as alti tude i ncreases, reduced ai r densi ty reduces engi ne power
must have been reali zed bef ore i t became obvi ous i n 1909, when ai rplanes
began to try for hi gh-alti tude f li ght. The advantage of alti tude i n mi li tary
work became very appar ent i n World War I, but the only attempt at
i mproved alti tude perf ormance used i n World War I was embodi ed i n the
German BMW and Maybach engi nes, whi ch were desi gned to be partly
throttled near sea level, the throttle to be f ully opened only above about 5, 000
f eet. Both engi nes were desi gned to be li ghter i n wei ght than would have
been requi red for f ull-throttle operati on at sea level, and the BMW also
had hi gher compressi on rati os than could be used wi th full throttle at sea
level wi thout detonati on. The advantage i n alti tude perf ormance over an
engi ne capable of f ull-throttle operati on at sea level, however, was qui te
small.
Measurement of engi ne perf ormance at alti tude was first seri ously
undertaken when the Uni ted States Bureau of Standards completed i ts
alti tude test chamber i n 1918. Subsequently a consi derable li terature on thi s
subject developed (see bi bli ography).
67
The Swiss engi neer A. J. Buchi suggested the turbo-supercharger for
ai rcraf t i n 1914. Thi s type was then developed i n France by Rateau, and
experi mental models were tested duri ng the war, but none was put i nto
servi ce use. Laboratory work on gear-dri ven superchargers was conducted
dur i ng the war by the RAF at Farnborough, England. Intensi ve develop-
ment of superchargi ng equi pment began both i n England and the Uni ted
States i n 1918.
R.-R. MERLIN "SIXTY-ONE"
H

PASSAGES
VERTICAL
COOLI NC
FINS
INLET BRANCH
OF INTERCOOLER
Perspecti ve drawi ng of the new two-stage
two-speed supercharger of the Rolls-Royce
Merli n 61 engi ne. The twi n rotors are
mounted on a si ngle shaf t. Change of
speed of the supercharger dri ve i s effected
by a hydrauli c pump.
FULL GEAR
CLUTCH & CEAR
DRIVE
TWO-SPEED
CHANCE
OPERATI NC.
PUMP
AMAL
FUEL PRESSURE
REDUCING VALVE
BOOST
CONTROL
UNI T
Figure 64.A two-stage two-speed geared supercharger with intercooler and aftercooler, as installed
on the Rolls-Royce Merlin 61 engine of 1942, the first of its kind to be used in service. (From Flight,
vol. 42, p. 656, Dec. 17, 1942)
68
Many types of compressors have been consi dered, but only one,
the centri f ugal type, ever got beyond the experi mental stage. The Royal
Ai rcraf t Factory had Armstrong-Si ddeley construct a radi al engi ne wi th
a bui lt-i n geared centri f ugal supercharger i n 1916, but the desi gn was
unsuccessf ul, probably because of torsi onal vi brati on i n the dri ve system.
Si ddeley di d not produce a successf ul geared supercharger unti l that used
i n 1926 i n the Jaguar (see f i g. 38).
Geared superchargers were bui lt experi mentally by Curti ss and by
Wr i ght Aeronauti cal Corporati on i n 1925, but the f i rst Uni ted States pr oduc-
ti on engi ne to be so equi pped was the Pr att & Whi tney Wasp of 1927,
a year later than the Jaguar . Af ter 1930 all mi li tary and transport engi nes
were equi pped wi th geared centri f ugal superchargers, and i n all cases some
ki nd of f lexi ble coupli ng was i ntroduced i n the gear trai n to prevent
cri ti cal torsi onal vi brati on. The culmi nati on of the geared centri f ugal type
is represented by the 2-stage, 2-speed supercharger of the Rolls-Royce
Merli n (fig. 64).
In 1918 the Engi neeri ng Di vi si on of the Army Ai r Servi ce contracted
wi th the General Electri c Company to develop turbo-superchargers of the
Rateau type. The man i n charge of thi s development for GE was Dr .
Sanf ord A. Moss, who remai ned i n thi s posi ti on for over twenty years.
Experi mental models appli ed to the Li berty engi ne were tested at the
top of Pi kes Peak i n 1918, and i n f li ght at McCook Fi eld i n 1919.
Fi gure 65 shows an i nstallati on of thi s early type of General Electri c
supercharger on a Li berty engi ne. A Le Pere ai rplane wi th thi s equi pment
held the world's alti tude record for the years 1920, 1921, and 1922. Super-
chargi ng was har d on an engi ne not ori gi nally desi gned for i t, and I re-
member when Major Schroeder, who made the 1920 record, returned
f rom a f li ght wi th the Li berty engi ne and i ts nacelle cut i n two by a f ai led
connecti ng rod at the thi rd crank f rom the f ront end. The only elements
holdi ng the f our f orward cyli nders and the propeller i n place were the
crankshaf t and the two camshaf t housi ngs. In spi te of thi s condi ti on, and
the loss of all i ts cooli ng water, the Li berty engi ne was sti ll r unni ng!
A seri ous di f f i culty wi th the supercharger shown i n f i gure 65 was the
f ai lure of turbi ne blades due to i nadequate cooli ng of the turbi ne. In 1922
Ernest T. Jones, i n charge of superchargers under Major G. E. A. Hallett,
chi ef of the power plant secti on at McCook Fi eld, was asked to redesi gn
the General Electri c supercharger to overcome thi s di f f i culty. In a con-
f erence wi th Jones over the desi gn board, I suggested placement of the
turbi ne wheel on the nacelle surf ace, usi ng an overhung turbi ne wheel as
i n f i gure 66. Thi s suggesti on was adopted for the new desi gn. Tur bi ne
69
Figure 65.a, General Electric turbo-supercharger installed on Liberty engine (NASM 1966-43)
of the type which held the world's altitude record for 1920, 1921, 1922. Tubes conveying air from
compressor to carburetor serve as an aftercooler. b, Night view of turbo-supercharger in operation.
The exhaust manifolds and the nozzle box are white hot (about 1500 F) and the turbine, operating
at over 20,000 rpm, is surrounded by hot exhaust gas. (Photo A-3092, A-3193)
wheels of thi s type have been used on all subsequent i nstallati ons of turbo-
superchargers i n the Uni ted States, i ncludi ng the Mar ti n bi plane bombers
u>a
of the 1920s and the B-17 and B-24 bombers and P-38 and P-47 f i ghters
of World War II. The Boei ng Stratocrui ser and the B-29 and B-50 bombers
used essenti ally the same system, although i n these ai rplanes the turbi ne
was located i nsi de the nacelle and the overhung wheel was cooled by ai r
pi ped i n f rom outsi de. Begi nni ng wi th the B-17 the engi nes were also
equi pped wi th gear-dri ven superchargers acti ng as the second stage.
Figure 66.Side-type turbo-supercharger installed on Curtiss D-12F 460-hp engine in Curtiss P-5
Hawk, 1927. This exposed position of the turbine wheel was effective in reducing the blade tempera-
ture as compared to the earlier arrangement shown in figure 65. (Photos A-3094)
Figure 67.NACA Roots-type supercharger, coupl ed t o Pratt & Whi t ney Model A Wasp engi ne, 1927.
Bypass val ve, l ower ri ght , cont rol s i nl et pressure. A wor l d' s al t i t ude record was est abl i shed i n 1927
wi t h t hi s i nst al l at i on in a Wri ght Apache ai r pl ane. (Photo courtesy Pratt & Whi t ney)
The only servi ce use of turbo-superchargers on f orei gn-bui lt ai rplanes
appears to be that of the German Junker s di esel-engi ne hi gh-alti tude
photographi c plane shown i n f i gure 60. It is remarkable that thi s very effec-
ti ve devi ce recei ved so li ttle development outsi de of the Uni ted States.
In 1927 the official world's alti tude record was taken by Li eutenant
C. C. Champi on, Jr ., USN, wi th a Pr att & Whi tney Wasp equi pped wi th
a NACA Roots-type supercharger acti ng as f i rst stage to the engi ne's own
72
geared centri f ugal equi pment (fig. 67). Thi s is the only i mpor tant use of a
noncentri f ugal supercharger i n ai rcraf t.
24
Af tercoolers,
25
that i s, devi ces to cool the ai r af ter leavi ng the super-
charger, have been generally used wi th turbo-superchargers, and wi th 2-
stage geared types. Such coolers are shown i n f i gures 64 and 65. The Merli n
engi ne (fig. 64) used a water-cooled af tercoolcr wi th i ts own separate
r adi ator and ci rculati on system.
The culmi nati on of the supercharger art is represented by the Wri ght
Turbo-cyclone R-3350 engi ne shown i n f i gure 47. Thi s engi ne, i ntroduced
about 1946, has three exhaust-dri ven turbi nes geared i nto the power
system, as well as a 2-speed centri f ugal geared supercharger. It is standard
on the Douglas DC-7 and the Lockheed Super Constellati on, the last
large pi ston-engi ne passenger-transport planes bui lt i n the Uni ted States.
Vibration Control
Powerplant vi brati on presents two ki nds of problems i n ai rcraf t. One is
external vi brati on, or vi brati on of the power plant wi th relati on to the ai r-
plane itself. The other is i nternal vi brati on, that is vi brati on of parts wi thi n
the powerplant. Consi derable external vi brati on f rom engi ne and propeller
was accepted as normal i n the early days of avi ati on. In my experi ence i t
became of concern f i rst i n 1920, wi th the Hi spano-Sui za V-8 300-hp engi ne,
a larger versi on of the ori gi nal model. Thi s engi ne, li ke all V-8s up to that
ti me, had cranks at 180, whi ch gave a strong second-order hori zontal
vi brati on. It also had an unusually large torque vari ati on, due to i ts large
cyli nders and hi gh mean ef f ecti ve pressure. Pi lots complai ned of di scom-
f ort wi th thi s engi ne.
About 1921 the Wri ght Aeronauti cal Corporati on, whi ch produced
the 300-hp Hi spano engi ne, bui lt one wi th counterbalanced cranks at
90, thus eli mi nati ng the hori zontal shake. Vi brati on-measurement at
that ti me was i n a crude state, and the i mprovement obtai ned was demon-
strated on the test stand by the f act that, wi th the 90 shaf t, a penny
would remai n on the crankcase, whereas wi th the 180 shaf t the penny
would qui ckly bounce off.
The next test was to mount two engi nes i n si mi lar Thomas-Morse
f i ghters, one wi th the 180 shaf t and one wi th the 90 shaf t. A number of
engi neers ran these engi nes on the ground, and a number of pi lots f lew
them. The consensus was that there was no noti ceable di f f erence i n vi bra-
ti on of the ai rplane. Probably, the engi ne torque vari ati on was so large i n
both cases as to obscure the i mprovement i n si dewi se shake. In any case,
73
the 90 shaf t was not approved, although i t soon became standard on V-8
engi nes for nonai rcraf t use. Such was the state of vi brati on analysi s i n 1922!
Reducti on of engi ne vi brati on became essenti al i n the early days
of commerci al avi ati on when passenger comf ort became i mpor tant. In
thi s case, radi al engi nes were used. Charles S. Dr aper and George Bentley
made a seri ous study of the shaki ng f orces and movements of radi al engi nes
i n 1937-1938. One soluti on lay i n f lexi ble engi ne mounts to reduce the
transmi ssi on of vi brati on to the ai rplane structure. Thi s i nvolved a problem
of
Ct
droop" due to gravi ty when the engi ne was mounted at i ts rear, as i n
the case of radi als.
Ther e was also the problem of decoupli ng the several modes of vi brati on
i n order to avoi d numerous cri ti cal speeds. Thi s problem was solved by the
mount patented by Edward S. Taylor and K. Browne, whi ch has been
wi dely used si nce. The pri nci ple employed is an arrangement of li nks whi ch
have the effect of supporti ng the engi ne at i ts center of gravi ty, although
the actual f lexi ble mounts are at the rear. Otto C. Koppen has used very
f lexi ble decoupled engi ne mounts i n li ght ai rplanes wi th good effect si nce
about 1939. Another contri buti on to reducti on of engi ne vi brati on was
the adopti on by Wri ght and Pr att & Whi tney, i n the late 1930s, of second-
order rotati ng wei ghts to balance the second-order shaki ng component
characteri sti c of the master-rod system in radi al engi nes.
Inter nal vi brati on of reci procati ng engi nes has been most seri ous
i n the propeller-crankshaf t system. Thi s type of vi brati on ori gi nates chi ef ly
f rom the torque vari ati on i nherent i n pi ston engi nes and may be destructi ve
when resonance i s i nvolved. The Li berty engi ne of 1917 had a torsi onal
resonant speed of 1900 r pm wi th the usual propeller. Its rati ng at 1700
r pm was close enough to cause accessory-gear breakage, as previ ously
menti oned (p. 30). Seri ous trouble wi th torsi onal vi brati on was experi enced
i n the 1920s i n di ri gi ble ai rshi ps usi ng long shaf ts between engi ne and
propeller. Thi s type of vi brati on also held back the development of metal
propellers, to be di scussed later (p. 77).
A very cri ti cal case of crankshaf t-propeller vi brati on appeared wi th
the i ntroducti on of the geared versi on of the Wri ght 9-cyli nder 1820-cu-i n.
radi al engi ne i n 1935. Thi s problem was qui ckly and bri lli antly solved by
E. S. Taylor and R. Chi lton, who developed the pendulous counterwei ght,
whi ch ef f ecti vely counteracted the pri nci pal torque components of the
engi ne and prevented breakages i n the dri ve system. The basi c concept
was that of E. S. Taylor, for whi ch he recei ved the Reed Award i n 1936.
Chi lton contri buted the mechani cal embodi ment. Thi s type of devi ce has
been used i n large radi al ai rcraf t engi nes ever si nce, and also i n many
74
non-ai rcraf t powerplants. Af ter the f i rst engi nes so equi pped had been
tested, i t was f ound that these i nventi ons had been anti ci pated i n Fr ance,
but the credi t for practi cal appli cati on should go to Taylor and Chi lton.
It should also be menti oned that the Packard Di esel engi ne of 1928 (see
p. 59) was equi pped wi th spri ng-loaded pi voted counterwei ghts desi gned
to reduce torsi onal vi brati on. These, however, could be ef f ecti ve only at
one speed, whereas the Taylor-Chi lton desi gn was ef f ecti ve over the enti re
speed range.
Another i mpor tant torsi onal vi brati on problem was that caused by
the gear-dri ven supercharger rotor. Vari ous types of f lexi ble coupli ng have
been used i n the gear trai n to avoi d seri ous trouble.
Fur ther consi derati on of vi brati on problems i s i ncluded under the
headi ng, Propellers, below.
Propellers
Gi bbs-Smi th credi ts the Chi nese wi th f i rst use of the ai r propeller, on toy
heli copters. A heli cal screw is shown on a DaVi nci heli copter drawi ng of
about 1500, and screw propellers were used on di ri gi ble balloons as early
as 1784. An early Langley propeller is shown i n f i gure 68a.
The success of the Wri ght brothers was i n no small degree due to the
excellent perf ormance of thei r two counter-rotati ng ai rf oi l-secti on propellers,
chai n dri ven at 8/23 engi ne speed, or about 380 r pm. They gave seri ous
attenti on to propeller desi gn. Apparently they could get no usef ul data
f rom mar i ne engi neers and had to develop thei r own theory. In doi ng so,
they of ten argued each other i nto a reversal of opi ni on, but f i nally arri ved
at a desi gn whi ch Frank W. Caldwell says ran at near opti mum rati o of
f orward speed to ti p speed, and had an ef f i ci ency of about 0.70.
The Wri ght propellers were of 3-ply lami nated wood, very li ght i n
wei ght. It should, perhaps, have served as a warni ng to f uture propeller
desi gners that the f i rst f atal acci dentthe crash of Orvi lle Wr i ght and
Li eutenant Thomas E. Self ri dge i n 1908, resulti ng i n the death of Self ri dge
was caused by a propeller f ai lure. A broken blade set up suf f i ci ent vi brati on
to cause the propeller to cut a rudder-braci ng wi re, upon whi ch the tai l
came askew and all control was lost.
Wooden propellers were uni versally used f rom the ti me of the Wri ghts'
f i rst f li ght unti l well af ter World War I. They were very reli able for the
needs of that ti me, and were superseded only when the requi rements for
power and ti p speed exceeded the li mi ts wi thi n whi ch a wooden propeller
would saf ely operate.
75
Figure 68.Propeller development: a, Langley wood
propeller (NASM 1938-56E) of 1893, used on Aero-
drome No. 4. b, Curtiss-Reed twisted-duraluminum
propeller (D-6), 1925. c, Hamilton-Standard 2B20
constant-speed propeller, 1946. d, Hamilton-Stand-
ard Hydramatic full-feathering propeller of 1947.
For typical wooden propeller of the period 1910 to
present, see figure 50. (Photos, respectively, A-287,
A-51875, A-3096, A-3097)
76
Mater i al s super i or to wood wer e acti vely sought af ter Wor l d Wa r I.
Fr ank Cal dwel l , head of the pr opeller secti on at McCook Fi eld (1918-1930)
and later chi ef engi neer at Hami l ton Standar d, was a leader i n thi s f i eld,
and has gi ven excellent accounts of pr opel l er devel opments. Her e ther e i s
space f or only the bri ef est r evi ew.
Mi car t a (canvas l ami nated wi th bakeli te) was successf ully used as a
wood substi tute by 1920. In 1921 Cal dwel l tested a steel-bladed pr opel l er
on hi s electr i c whi r l i ng machi ne to twi ce i ts r ated power . He then, ver y
i nnocentl y, pr esented i t to me f or a "r outi ne" test on a Hi spano-Sui za
300-hp engi ne. Af ter a f ew mi nutes at r ated power , a bl ade br oke off, came
thr ough the contr ol boar d between the heads of two oper ator s, cl i mbed a
wooden stai r case, and went thr ough the roof . The engi ne was r educed to
junk.
The above i nci dent was an ear ly war ni ng of the i mpor tance of vi br a-
ti on and f ati gue i n pr opeller oper ati on. At my i nsi stence, f ur ther "r out i ne"
pr opel l er tests on exper i mental pr opeller s wer e made i n a speci ally con-
str ucted "bombpr oof " shelter . All metal pr opeller s of that ti me (1921-1922)
f ai led, wi th mur der ous r esults to the engi ne. In one case the whol e assembly
of cr ankshaf t, r ods, and pi stons was pulled out and thr own 20 f eet f r om what
r emai ned of the engi ne and stand.
Subsequent metal pr opel l er devel opment i nvolved car ef ul attenti on to
vi br ati on pr obl ems. The Reed type, usi ng a twi sted al umi num pl ate as
a base (f i g. 68b), was one of the ear ly successf ul desi gns. Later , the
manuf actur er s of metal pr opel l er s developed el abor ate equi pment and
pr ocedur es f or the measur ement and suppr essi on of bl ade vi br ati on.
An excellent hi stor i cal r ecor d of the devel opment of var i abl e-pi tch
pr opeller s i s gi ven by K. M. Mol son. The i dea star ted wi th mar i ne pr o-
peller s as ear ly as 1816. The need f or pi tch contr ol i n ai r pl ane pr opel l er s
was r eali zed as ear ly as 1912. Var i ous desi gns of contr ol l abl e-pi tch
pr opeller s wer e tested, usually wi th di sastr ous r esults because of mechani cal
weaknesses. Var i abl e pi tch became essenti al wi th the advent of the hi gh-
per f or mance ai r pl ane, the Boei ng 247 and the Dougl as DC- 3 bei ng ear l y
exampl es. Impor tant pr opel l er devel opments, wi th appr oxi mate dates
ar e:
1921 Alumi num blades, f i xed pi tch (Reed)
1923 Alumi num blades, adjustable pi tch
1931 Hollow steel blades
1929 Controllable pi tch, 2-posi ti on
1935 Automati c, constant speed
1938 Featheri ng
1945 Reversi ble and f eatheri ng
77
The above dates i ndi cate general use i n at least some ai rplanes. Among
the f i rst f li ghts wi th controllable pi tch were those at McCook Fi eld wi th
the Heath propeller about 1921. The f i rst appli cati on of the constant-
speed vari able-pi tch propeller was by Hele-Shaw and Beacham for a test
f li ght i n England i n 1928. Both hydrauli c and electri c pi tch control
were used unti l af ter World War II. Now hydrauli c control and alumi num
blades are standard on pi ston engi nes, wi th a few excepti ons. Fi gure 68
shows examples.
Reduction Gears
The Wri ghts, wi th thei r chai n dri ve, were evi dently aware that the opti mum
speed for engi nes i s not usually that for propellers. Even bef ore the Wri ghts,
most experi mental ai rplanes (Stri ngf ellow, Maxi m, Langley, and others)
had belt- or gear-dri ven propellers, although the dri ve rati o for steam
engi nes was usually up rather than down.
Di rect propeller dri ve, wi th the propeller mounted on the crankshaf t,
is attracti ve for i ts si mpli ci ty and reli abi li ty, and was used by most of the
early f li ers af ter The Wri ght's and up to the start of World War I. An
excepti on was the early Renault ai r-cooled V-8 (fig. 17, p. 20), the propeller
shaf t of whi ch was an extensi on of the camshaf t (or vi ce-versa) and r an at
half crankshaf t speeda rati o whi ch has been wi dely used si nce.
Other geared engi nes whi ch appeared for use i n World War I i ncluded
the RAF (a copy of the Renault), the 8-cyli nder-i n-li ne Mercedes, and the
220-hp Hi spano-Sui za. These were soon f ollowed by the Rolls-Royce Eagle,
wi th planetary gears.
The need for propeller geari ng results f rom the f act that the propeller
speed for opti mum propeller efficiency is usually lower than the speed at
whi ch the engi ne gi ves i ts best perf ormance. Wi thout geari ng, the speed
for the engi ne-propeller combi nati on is chosen as a compromi setoo hi gh
for best propeller ef f i ci ency and too low for maxi mum engi ne power. As
i mproved engi ne desi gn called for hi gher engi ne speeds, thi s compromi se
became more unsati sf actory. By 1920 most large Eur opean engi nes were
geared. In the Uni ted States, however, the general use of reducti on gears
came much later. For that matter, i n 1924 geari ng was actually eli mi nated
f rom the Curti ss D-12 engi ne i n order to save 25 pounds of wei ght! Never-
theless, by 1930 i t was evi dent that large engi nes should be geared to allow
of opti mum perf ormance. Pr att & Whi tney used an i nternal gear i n 1931,
and both Wri ght Aeronauti cal and Pr att & Whi tney adopted the Far man
planetary gear for use i n the DC-3 i n 1933 (fig. 69). Fr om that ti me on,
78
Figure 69.Bevel planetary
reduction gear system as used
on Farman engines, after World
War I. This type was also used
by some American engine
builders under license from
Farman. Below, Spur-type
planetary reduction gear sys-
tem which superseded the
bevel type.
>///////;//M////w//},
propeller reducti on gears became an i ntegral par t of all large ai rplane en-
gi nes, spur type planetary gears bei ng standard f or most radi als and plai n
2-element spur gears f or V-type engi nes (fig. 70). The plai n spur gears
used by the Rolls-Royce Merli n of 1945 carri ed 2, 200 takeof f horsepower
sati sf actori ly on a f ace 2-i n. wi de, a remarkable achi evement i n gear desi gn.
Other Developments
Only bri ef menti on can be made here of the numerous secondary, though
of ten very i mpor tant, problems encountered and solved i n the develop-
ment of reci procati ng ai rcraf t engi nes. Among these, however, should be
menti oned the f ollowi ng:
IGNITION SYSTEMS. As menti oned previ ously, the Wr i ght Brothers' engi ne
of 1903 used "make-and-br eak" i gni ti on. Thi s system i nvolved a pai r of
contacts wi thi n the cyli nder, one i nsulated and connected to a batter y
79
Figure 70.Two-element spur reduction gear as used on
Renault Type 12-Kh liquid-cooled engine. This type of
gear has been generally used in V-type and in-line
engines since about 1930. (From Aerosphere 1939, p.
649)
and coi l system and one operated by a shaf t protrudi ng thr ough the cyli nder
wall. Thi s shaf t was operated f rom the camshaf t so as to "br eak" the contact
poi nts apar t at the moment of i gni ti on. The low voltage arc so f ormed
was an ef f ecti ve i gni ter. However, the mechani cal compli cati on i nvolved,
and the di f f i culty of cooli ng the contact levers wi thi n the cyli nder made
i t i mpracti cal for any but very low-output engi nes. Thi s system was soon
di splaced by the "hi gh-tensi on" system wi th spark plugs whi ch was used
i n all other successf ul ai rplane engi nes, and, i n i ts essenti als, is accepted
practi ce to date for all spark-i gni ti on engi nes.
80
Cerami c-i nsulated spark plugs were generally used i n the Uni ted States
bef ore 1921. Both mi ca and cerami c plugs were used i n Eur ope. Fr om
about 1921 to 1940 m' ca plugs were generally used. The development
of new cerami c materi als about 1940 caused a uni versal change to thi s
materi al.
CARBURETION. At the ti me of the Wri ght brothers' f i rst f li ght, li ttle was
known about carbureti on, and vari ous devi ces were used to i ntroduce
fuel to ai r. As menti oned earli er (p. 13), the Wri ght brothers used grav-
i ty fuel feed f rom a small can to a heated surf ace i n the i nlet pi pe. Manly
used a large sheet-metal box f i lled wi th porous wooden blocks, a scheme
ori gi nally concei ved by Balzer. These blocks were saturated wi th f uel,
and the engi ne ai r was dr awn past them, i n the hope that a combusti ble
mi xture would result. The Antoi nette engi ne and all of the Wri ght
brothers' engi nes produced duri ng 1907-1912 used a small pump to i nject
fuel i nto the i nlet ports. The carbureti on system used for the Gnome
rotary engi ne has already been descri bed (p. 25). All these systems
requi red experi mental adjustment, good for only one engi ne speed.
Meanwhi le, f loat-type carburetors were bei ng developed for auto-
mobi le use, and these were used by most ai rcraf t engi nes af ter the Gnome
and Antoi nette. Float-type carburetors were used by the Wri ght brothers
on thei r later engi nes, and were generally used for ai rcraf t engi nes up to
about 1935. A f loatless carburetor was i ntroduced by the Chandler-
Groves Corporati on i n 1935, and the Stromberg f loatless i njecti on-type
carburetor became operati onal about 1938. Si nce that ti me most mi li -
tary and transport engi nes have used f loatless-type carburetors, many of
the i njecti on type. Li ght-plane engi nes have, generally, conti nued to use
f loat-type carburetors, although i njecti on systems are avai lable for thi s
type.
FUEL INJECTION. Di rect i njecti on i nto the i ndi vi dual cyli nders was used
i n gasoli ne engi nes for a short ti me on some Pr att & Whi tney Wasps i n
1931-1932. Thi s method was developed to servi ce use i n World War II i n
Ger man mi li tary engi nes. It was adopted by Wri ght Aeronauti cal Corpo-
rati on for thei r R-3350 engi ne i n 1944.
Injecti on through nozzles located at each i nlet port, f i rst used on the
Antoi nette engi ne of 1906, has been used to a li mi ted extent i n li ght-ai rcraf t
engi nes si nce about 1946.
STARTING. Hand starti ng by the propeller was standard bef ore 1920.
Subsequent development i ncluded si mple hand cranks, hand cranks wi th
i nerti a f lywheel, cartri dge starters, ai r starters, and f i nally the present
electri c starter wi th storage battery.
81
BEARINGS AND LUBRICATION. Most radi al engi nes, even as early as the
Gnome (fig. 20), used ball or roller beari ngs for the crankshaf t. Thi s pr ac-
ti ce has been conti nued wi th few excepti ons, of whi ch f i gures 44 and 45 show
examples. Ball or roller beari ngs occasi onally have been used for crankpi ns
(see f i gs. 20 and 33). Thr ust beari ngs generally have been of the ball type.
Most ai rcraf t engi nes have used plai n jour nal beari ngs for the crankpi n,
and, wi th the excepti ons noted above, for the mai n crankshaf t beari ngs.
Bef ore about 1930 such beari ngs were made of the lead-ti n-anti mony
alloy babbi t. Thi s materi al i s excellent for beari ngs i n all respects except
i n structural strength, whi ch i s low.
Af ter about 1930 the i ncreases i n power and speed, resulti ng i n
i ncreased beari ng loads, began to cause seri ous f ati gue f ai lure of plai n
babbi t beari ngs. Meanwhi le a subsi di ary of the General Motors Corporati on
had developed a beari ng materi al consi sti ng of a copper matri x f i lled i n
wi th lead. These "copper-lead" beari ngs were f ound to have excellent
load carryi ng abi li ty as compared to babbi t, and were soon adopted as
standard for all hi gh-output ai rcraf t engi nes.
Dur i ng World War II, U.S. radi al engi nes started to have crankpi n-
beari ng f ai lures when overspeeded i n combat di ves. A beari ng consi sti ng
of a steel shell li ned wi th a thi n layer of cadmi um, wi th a very thi n overlay
of si lver was developed to solve thi s problem. Vari ati ons on thi s beari ng
have been used i n large radi al-engi nes crankpi ns si nce that ti me. Copper-
lead beari ngs, when i mproved wi th a very thi n overlay of ti n, have gen-
erally been f ound adequate for V-type engi ne crankshaf ts and crankpi ns.
These beari ng developments have been an i mpor tant f actor i n the
up-rati ng of ai rplane engi nes i llustrated by f i gure 71.
Improvements i n lubri cati on systems have i ncluded the use of full
pressure feed to beari ngs, r ather than gravi ty or splash f eed, or such "total
loss" systems as that already descri bed for the Gnome engi ne (see p. 23).
Another i mpor tant i mprovement has been the i nstallati on of adequate oi l
f i lteri ng elements wi thi n the engi ne's oi l-ci rculati on system. As si ze and
power of engi nes has i ncreased, i t has become necessary to li mi t oi l tem-
per atur e by ci rculati ng the lubri cant through oi l radi ators, usually ai r
cooled.
The use of castor oi l as a lubri cant for most, if not all, ai rcraf t, engi nes
previ ous to 1918, has already been menti oned (p. 25). When f resh, thi s
type of oi l i s an excellent lubri cant, but has the di sadvantages of r api d
breakdown to gummy deposi ts i n the engi ne, and a very li mi ted supply
base. Work to explore the possi bi li ti es of petroleum oi ls for ai rcraf t-engi ne
lubri cati on was started at the Uni ted States Navy Aero-Engi ne Labor ator y
82
at Washi ngton, D. O, i n 1917, and wi thi n a few months a number of
propri etary mi neral oi ls were f ound sati sf actory and approved f or use
i n all except rotary engi nes. Si nce that ti me, development of mi neral oi ls
sui table for ai rcraf t engi nes has been energeti cally carri ed on by the oi l
i ndustry. The resulti ng i mproved quali ty of lubri cants has been an i m-
por tant f actor i n i ncreasi ng the reli abi li ty, and the runni ng ti me between
overhauls, of ai rcraf t pi ston engi nes.
ENGINE INSTRUMENTS. The development of engi ne i nstruments has been
concurrent wi th that of the engi nes themselves. The earli est f li ghts were
made wi thout any engi ne i nstruments at all. Early i nstruments were chi ef ly
for the purpose of i ndi cati ng whether or not the engi ne was perf ormi ng
sati sf actori ly (i n f act thi s is sti ll the purpose of most engi ne i nstruments
carri ed i n ai rcraf t). Fi rst to come i nto use was some sort of tachometer for
observi ng engi ne speed. It was f ollowed, i n the approxi mate order of use,
by si ght glasses or gauges to i ndi cate oi l f low or oi l pressure, remote-readi ng
temper atur e gauges for oi l and coolant, and thermocouples f or i ndi cati ng
the temper atur e of ai r-cooled cyli nders at some cri ti cal poi nt. As f li ght
dur ati on i ncreased, f uel-supply i ndi cators, usually showi ng f uel-level i n
tanks, were f ound i mpor tant. The i ntroducti on of superchargi ng requi red
mani f old-pressure i ndi cators. A late development i n engi ne i nstruments
is the engi ne "analyzer , " an electroni c system whi ch observes the i gni ti on-
voltage versus ti me curve of any cyli nder on a cathode-ray screen and whi ch
requi res the servi ces of a f li ght engi neer. Used i n most large multi -engi ne
ai rplanes, i t enables a trai ned observer to detect and anti ci pate many f orms
of engi ne trouble or i nci pi ent f ai lure by observi ng these curves for each
cyli nder i n tur n.
A detai led account of i nstrument hi story and technology is beyond
the scope of thi s volume. Chatf i eld, Taylor, and Ober i n the vari ous
edi ti ons of The Airplane and its Engine (1928-1948) gi ve descri pti ons of i n-
struments as they appeared at the ti me of publi cati on. Other relevant
publi cati ons wi ll be f ound i n the bi bli ography.
83
400
o
LO
en
Ui
0_
LO
GO
LO
LO
LU
Q
>
O
300
<
GO
LU
Q_
X
DO
cr.
LU
o_
LO
GO
1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960
Fi gure 7 1 . Engi ne devel opment curves. Typi cal per f or mance charact eri st i cs of mi l i t ar y and
l arge commer ci al ai r pl ane pi ston engi nes, 1903- 1960. From 1930 on these curves appl y to
super char ged engi nes; unsuper char ged engi nes, except as regards overhaul per i od, r emai n
at appr oxi mat el y t he 1930 l evel s.
84
Summary of Pi ston-Engi ne Development
Fi gure 71 shows perf ormance parameters for pi ston ai rcraf t engi nes si nce
1903.
Brake mean ef f ecti ve pressure (bmep) is a measure of an engi nes'
abi li ty to wi thstand hi gh cyli nder pressures and to produce power wi th a
gi ven speed and si ze. Starti ng at 62 psi (Langley, 1902), i t rose to 130 by
1925, whi ch i s near maxi mum for unsupercharged engi nes. Wi th the
i ntroducti on of superchargi ng and i mproved fuels i n the 1930s, bmep was
i ncreased to takeof f values up to 360 psi (Rolls-Royce Merli n) and 300
psi (large r adi al engi nes i n the Uni ted States), where i t has remai ned si nce
the advent of jets and turbi nes.
Mean pi ston speed (mps) at takeof f rose steadi ly f rom 750 f t/mi n i n
1903 to a maxi mum of 3, 000 f t/mi n i n 1935, where i t has remai ned.
Speci f i c fuel consumpti on has been reduced f rom nearly 1 lb/hp-hr
to current mi ni mum values of less than 0.40. Thi s i mprovement has been
achi eved partly through i mproved desi gn and partly because i mproved
f uels have allowed hi gher compressi on rati os (f rom about 4.0 i n 1903 to
present values, up to 8.0.
Best wei ght per horsepower i n 1903 was that of the Manly engi ne,
at 2.6 lb/hp. Thi s f i gure was reduced to 1 i n 1935 and has gone sli ghtly
below that si nce (see table 1).
One of the most remarkable i mprovements has been i n reli abi li ty and
reduced mai ntenance. The very early ai rcraf t engi nes were overhauled
af ter every f li ght. The approved overhaul peri od f or the best moder n
transport pi ston engi nes i s now as hi gh as 2, 600 hours.
Fur ther i mprovements i n pi ston engi nes would have been made had i t
not been f or the i ntroducti on of tur bopr op and turbojet engi nes, whi ch
vi rtually put an end to i ntensi ve development of the large pi ston engi ne.
Jet engi nes are also used f or certai n categori es of small ai rcraf t.
Fi gure 72 shows the pi ston-engi ne f ami ly as i t has developed, f i nally
culmi nati ng i n the V-12 li qui d-cooled engi nes as represented by the
Rolls-Royce and Packard Merli n, and the 18-cyli nder ai r-cooled radi als,
by the Pr att & Whi tney R-2800 and the Wr i ght 3350, of whi ch the
85
AI RCRAFT ENGINE
STEAK
PI STON- SPARK
LI QUI D COOLED
HBNSON-STR.INS FELLOW
G I F F A W *
( MAXI MA
L ANG L EY
B ES Lt R
I N- LI NE
VEA
I903
I 9 0 4
i9to
1915-
l <J20
I 92r
1930
1^35
W R I C H T CLBM.MT*
CAST-IROW CVLS
t l / R. Tl i *
HALL *coTT
Ot T^OI T
PANHAKO
HOTTA
MAY BACH
r-i t a c Et t i
AUSTWJ-"0lML'tk
u n v n o t i
SCHWARTZ i e 9 7 * UAf c oHNi u e )
OU MOWT | S 3 8 * ( T I < I CWCL ( ( )
i EpPELJH IJOO* ( I V I I T M ' M>
AtT T Ol N ET T EVs
STBCL CVL. H6A"OSr^
E. NV.
C U T 5T 1S 4-V8
(C.I. CYLINOE.ll
WELDED STEEL
CYHNPgt t S
MERCEDES
i 'PA l0TTA
AN*ALOO
HALL SCOTT
r r c.
U P..EPT.Y : ! ; .
MODEL EMCIWCS
I - CYLINDER.
AlR COOLED
NAPI ER.
LI ON' t
CURTI SS K- i a
CURTI SS C- 1 2
CURTISS p-1.3.
VVRl &MT 'T'
CURTI SS C0NQUER0U-
K - R K E S T R E L
R- ROYCG *R. "
ALLI SON V-1710
J U NK E R S
RAD I A L
( MAKLV)
C LEMENT
SALMS0Ml 9l e- I B|
ALUMINUM HEADS
l Ay/RAHC E 3-C Y L
LAWR ANC E H
W R I S H T X - 3
WRI CHT X - 4 B
WRIOWT J - 5
? W iVoRLNBT
WR l f r H T R- I B2 0
BRI STOL J UP I T ER '
G N OME-RHON E
O. t - l . W.
NAKAJI MA
WRI &HT R-ZfcOO
MI TSUBI SHI
I940
1945
P AC K AR D J W E R L W
YTRI GHT 3 3 5 0
BRI STOL HERCULES
(SLllVt.-ALVm)
^35i5t5~J55E^2!HL25
1950
I'JS'S'
NOTES
ONLY SIGNIFICANT EN&I UES IMCLUPD
DATE5 BEFORE ig 10 ARE Fon. R U T SUCCESSFUL. r uf i uT
AFTER 1)10 PATE l i SCHi HL, UiK OH TY. FS- TEI T COMPLETION
PATKS AMP 0HT>R I N oavCS , APPROTUKATC
"Ll f t HTEE- TAM-AIR.
PARCMTHIiSlS = X>ID HOT FLY
C.KTAYLOR FEB . ig*2
19^0 Ff'aure 72
86
FAMILY TRE E
I G N I T I ON
Al l ? C OOL E D
I N LI NE
ANO
Yf i E
MA NL Y 'A SCALE
OPPOS ED
( . LIMIT FLAMEtl
R OT AR V
ANZ ANI
RADIALS
CURTISS V-B
RENAULTv-a
R AF *-
STEEL HEADS
A B C ' W A S P *
B.&. MERCURV
COSMOS J UPI T ER
B R I S T OL J U P I T E R / " - * MaSa
mAKY Ac. LI BERTY'
FOR.BI6V LltEMSCCS
SMALL VEWTICALS
r*AN
( B AL Z ER ' )
( L A N t L t X )
igor
f * 6 AMJ PAHWU. I . )
G N O M E ( ESNAULT- PELTEEle")
ANZ ANK t c Y L )
I9J0
LE R.HOU E
CLSHET
OOEAURSEL
SIEM KM!
D I ES EL
A^D.C^CIRR-"?
I M f U RPIALC
WAI MI H .
CONTHLMTAL
7 AC OM
D-H. GYPSY
MENASCO
FAI RCHI LD
ETC.
SOCKET
( Pi Lor ep)
F-RlTZ OPEL Oj t }
' OLI O PROPSLLMTT
MlikEL-<7
WALTER
n i - i FUKTKR
tXSUe-L."JATP!OCK*T"
1920
l50
VON
POWER JE.T5
( WHI TTLE^
1940
o e > w u r
LMAU-)
TUKUMI C/ I
WSSTIWCHOUSE
IS^S'A.
C.B. Tt-IBO, IJO
ARM. XieCELBV
PKATT * WWTHW
ROLL* ROVCE
ALLlSffV Ig-E,")
S.N.e.X:M.AC
ETC.
6.6.7-8S- I5K>
ROLLS, T H EH T
ROUS-ROYCE
ARin. IIDDCLEY
BRISTOL
SEN. ELECTRIC
DE HAVILAND
MAPI BR.
PRATT B.WHIT.
ALLISON
FRENCH
Ru n i Ay
ETC.
SKVALLfl/.Vl
195-0
TURBO- FAN DI KECT- LI FT CEXP")
RSACTIOW MOTORS
NORTH AM U . X - I I
htBTAO.VK.KRRt
ROLLi - ROYCE
PRATT aWHITWEY
6BM. ELECTRIC
ROLLC- HOMCt
ARMST. W HITW0H.7 H
SEN. ELECTRIC I?PO
87
TABLE 1.Engi nes of Hi stori cal Impor tance
Engine
Water-cooled
Langl ey
Wr i ght
Antoi nette
Dar r acq
Cur ti ss OX - 5
Mer cedes
Hi spano-Sui za
Li ber ty
Cur ti ss D- 12
Rolls Royce Kestr el
VI .
Rol l s Royce Mer l i n I
Packar d-Mer l i n
Air-cooled
Langl ey (model )
Anzani
Renaul t
Gnome
J upi ter
J a gua r
Lawr ance J - l
Pr att & Whi tney
Was p.
Wr i ght 1820
Conti nental A- 65
Pr att & Whi tney
2800.
Pr att & Whi tney
4360.
Wr i ght 3350
Tear
1901
1903
1906
1909
1910
1915
1915
1917
1922
1930
1936
1945
1901
1909
1908
1909
1920
1922
1922
1926
f 1930
i 1945
1938
' 1940
1945
1948
[ 1941
1955
Type
r adi al
hor i zontal
V
opposed
V
ver ti cal
V
V
V
V
V
V
r adi al
f an
V
r otar y
r adi al
2-r ow-r adi al
r adi al
r adi al
r adi al
r adi al
opposed
2-r ow-r adi al
2-r ow-r adi al
4-r ow-r adi al
2-r ow-r adi al
2-r ow-r adi al
No.
cyl.
5
4
8
2
8 *
6
8
12
12
12
12
12
5
3
8
7
9
14
9
9
9
9
4
18
18
28
18
18
Bore
(in.)
5
4
3. 15
5. 2
4
5. 51
4. 72
5
4. 5
5
5. 4
5. 4
2. 06
4. 13
2. 76
3. 93
5. 75
5
4. 5
5. 75
6. 13
6. 13
3. 88
5. 75
5. 75
5. 75
6. 13
6. 13
Stroke
(in.)
5. 5
4
3. 15
4. 72
5
6. 3
5. 11
7
6
5. 5
6
6
2. 75
5. 12
4. 72
3. 93
7. 5
5. 5
5. 5
5. 75
6. 88
6. 88
3. 63
6. 0
6. 0
6. 0
6. 31
6. 31
Displ.
(cu. in.)
687
200
196
194
503
901
718
1, 650
1, 145
1, 296
1, 650
1, 650
46. 5
206
226
335
1, 753
1, 512
787
1, 344
1, 823
1, 823
171
2, 804
2, 804
4, 363
3, 347
3, 347
Horse-
power
b
52
d 16
32
24
90
160
150
420
325
560
1, 030
2, 250
3. 2
24. 5
35
50
400
360
200
425
575
1, 525
65
2, 000
2, 800
3, 500
2, 000
3, 700
Rpm
950
1, 090
1, 400
1, 500
1, 400
1, 400
1, 450
1, 700
1, 800
2, 500
3, 000
3, 000
1, 800
1, 600
1, 400
1, 150
1, 650
2, 000
1, 800
1, 900
1, 900
2, 750
2, 350
2, 700
2, 800
2, 700
2, 400
2, 900
Weight
c
lb lb/hp
135
179
93
121
320
618
467
856
704
992
1, 320
1, 740
7
145
242
165
700
910
476
650
940
1, 376
155
2, 300
2, 327
3, 470
2, 848
3, 560
2. 6
11. 2
2. 9
5. 04
3. 55
3. 86
3. 1
2. 04
2. 16
1.77
1.28
. 78
2. 2
5. 9
6. 9
3. 3
1.75
2. 53
2. 38
1.53
1. 64
. 90
2. 38
1. 15
. 8 3
. 99
1.43
. 96
Bmep
(psi)
63
58
91
65
101
100
114
118
125
137
165
360
30
59
88
103
109
94
112
132
245
128
209
305
235
197
302
Piston
speed
(fl/min)
870
725
735
1, 180
1, 170
1, 470
1, 235
1, 985
1, 800
2, 290
3, 000
3, 000
825
1, 360
1, 100
753
2, 060
1, 830
1, 650
1, 820
2, 180
3, 150
1, 420
2, 700
2, 800
2, 700
2, 550
3, 070
Ref ers to year of f i rst general use (except for Langley
engi ne). Where two dates are gi ven, they ref er to typi cal early
and late models of the same basi c engi ne.
* Maxi mum rated, or takeoff power.
c
Radi ator, cowli ng, and coolant arc not i ncluded i n the
wei ght of li qui d-cooled engi nes Cowli ng is not i ncluded for
ai r-cooled engi nes.
d
Dropped to 12 hp af ter 1 mi n.
All li qui d-cooled engi nes later than Curti ss D-12 are
supercharged.
All ai r-cooled engi nes later than Lawrence J - l , except
Conti nental, are supercharged.
88
latter two remai n i n ai r-transport servi ce, as do also the Pr att & Whi tney
R-1830 and Wri ght R-1820 (i n the DC-3 ai rplane). Ther e are also some
Pratt & Whi tney 9-cyli nder Wasp and Wasp Jr . engi nes i n servi ce i n
medi um-powered ai rplanes, especi ally i n Canada, and a few r emai n i n
servi ce i n the old Ford tri motors dati ng f rom about 1930. A few Pr att &
Whi tney R-4360 28-cyli nder engi nes also remai n i n servi ce.
Where the pi ston engi ne conti nues to rei gn supreme is wi th the popular
li ght plane. Li terally tens of thousands of ai r-cooled, hori zontally opposed
pi ston engi nes manuf actured by Conti nental, Lycomi ng, and Frankli n
power Ameri can li ght planes; and they have thei r counterparts i n lesser
quanti ti es i n Europe. Although by no means as dr amati c as the power-
plants that count thei r horsepower i n f our di gi ts, these modest pri me movers
have enjoyed greater quanti ty producti on than any other type of aero
engi ne except those for model ai rplanes.
Fi gure 72 also i ncludes a f ami ly tree for rocket, turbo-jet, and turbo-
prop engi nes. The hi story of these developments is so recent and so well
covered i n the li terature (parti cularly by Schlai f er and Gi bbs-Smi th) that
no attempt wi ll be made to cover i t here. Ther e could well be a paper as
long as thi s one, or even a whole volume, devoted to thi s i mpor tant and
revoluti onary development i n ai rcraf t propulsi on.
It is i nteresti ng to revi ew the contri buti ons of the vari ous nati ons i n
the field of ai rcraf t propulsi on. Table 2 summari zes thi s subject. It i s
evi dent that the Uni ted States and France have been the pri nci pal con-
tri butors to early engi ne development, whi le England has made si gni f i cant
contri buti ons i n late pi ston and early turbi ne engi nes, and Germany was
the f irst to f ly rocket and jet engi nes, although Ger man and Bri ti sh turbojet
development was concurrent.
If the ar t and sci ence of ai rcraf t propulsi on develop as f ast i n the next
50 years as they have si nce the Wri ght brothers' i ni ti al f li ght, the f ollowi ng
prophecy of Lester D. Gardner i n Aviation (vol 1, no. 1, August 1916),
wi ll be as meani ngf ul today as i t was then:
Now many of the most distinguished scientists in all countri es are giving
aeronauti cs close and careful study. From the work of these men aero-
nauti cs will deri ve the inf ormation upon whi ch progress, such as has never
been thought possible, will be achi eved.
89
TABLE 2. Cr edi ts, by Countr y, f or Engi ne Devel opments
First manned flight Engine Aircraft
AUSTRIA
Inter nal combusti on engi ne Lenoi r gas engi ne Haenlei n (di ri gi ble)
Tear
1872
DENMARK
Fi xed r adi al engi ne ai r-cooled Ellehammer Ellehammer 1906
Wi th gear-dri ven centri f ugal
supercharger
Tr ansatlanti c nonstop
Automati c constant-speed pro-
peller
Tur bo-pr opeller engi ne
ENGLAND
Ar mstr ong Si ddeley
Rolls-Royce Eagle
Bri stol Jupi ter
Rolls-Royce Tr ent
Armstrong Si ddeley
Vi ckers Vi my
Gloster Gr ebe
Meteor
1917
1919
1928
1945
FRANCE
Steam engi ne
Electri c motor
Ai r-cooled Otto-cycle engi ne
Heli copter
Rotar y r adi al engi ne
Mor e than 8 cyli nders
Propeller reducti on gear
Inlet-por t fuel i njecti on
Seaplane (f loats)
Tur bosuper char ger
Steam
Electri c motor
Tri cycle engi ne
Antoi nette V-8
Segui n Gnome
Levavasseur Antoi nette 16-
cyli nder
Renault V-8
Antoi nette
Gnome
Rateau
GERMANY
Gi f f ard (di ri gi ble)
Ti ssandi er (di ri gi ble)
Santos-Dumont (di ri gi ble)
Cor nu heli copter
Voi si n
Antoi nette
Far man
Antoi nette
Heur i g Fabr e
R.A.F. 4D
1852
1883
1898
1907
1909
1910
1910
1906
1910
1918
Rocket engi ne
Di esel engi ne i n commerci al
tr anspor t
Jet engi ne
Axi al f low jet engi ne
Rocket engi ne i n mi li tary servi ce
Alumi num cyli nder structure
von Opel Opel-Sander Rak-1
Junker s 2-cycle opposed pi ston Junker s G38
von Ohai n
Junker s Ju-004
Walter
SPAIN-SWITZERLAND
Hi spano-Sui za
90
Hei nkel He-178
Messerschmi tt 262
Messerschmi tt 163
Spad 7
1929
ca. 1936
1939
1944
1944
1914
UNITED STAT
Engine
Wr i ght
Curti ss
Li berty
4 Li berti es
Li berty
Reed
Hi spano-Sui za
Curti ss D-12
Cami nez
Li berty
Packard
Pr att and Whi tney
Wr i ght 1820
ES
Aircraft
Wr i ght
Curti ss
DeHavi lland-4
Navy-Curti ss NC-4
DH- 4 (McCook Fi eld)
Standar d J - l
Curti ss J N- 4 (McCook Fi eld)
Curti ss racer (Detroi t)
Fai rchi ld
DH- 4 (NACA)
Sti nson Detroi ter Monoplane
For d or Fokker
Wr i ght Experi mental
Tear
1903
1912
1918
1919
1921
1921
ca. 1921
1922
1926
1927
1928
1931
1935
First manned flight
Ai rplane
Seaplane (f lyi ng boat)
Over 400 hp
Tr ansatlanti c wi th 2 stops
Wi th fuel anti knock
Metal propeller
Controllable-pi tch propeller
Over 200 mph
Crankless engi ne
Roots supercharger*
Di esel engi ne
Cyli nder f uel i njecti on wi th spark
i gni ti on
Wi th pendulum-type vi brati on
absorber
*As stated (p. 60), the Bri ti sh two-cycle NEC engi ne used a Roots-type scavenger blower, but thi s was
not a supercharger i n the sense that i t was used f or alti tude compensati on
Footnotes
1
The plane had a wi ng span of 80 ft, a wi ng area of 300 sq ft, a f uselage length of 25 f t,
and wei ghed 130 lb. The pi lot was requi red to develop 0.4 hp. i n or der to f ly the plane,
whi ch had a crui si ng speed of 21 and a stalli ng speed of 16 mph. Detai ls of i ts tests are
contai ned i n the catalog of the Shuttleworth Collecti on, the Bri ti sh museum wher e i t is
exhi bi ted. (See " Southampton Uni versi ty Man Powered Ai rcraf t (I960)" In The Shuttle-
worth Collection of Historic Aeroplanes, . . . Descri bed by Wi ng Commander T. E. Gutter y,
. . . Old War den Aer odr ome, Bi ggleswade, Bedf ordshi re, 1969, pp. 70-71. In May of
the f ollowi ng year, accordi ng to the Chri sti an Sci ence Moni tor (May 18, 1962, p. 21), the
Puf f i n, a speci ally bui lt monoplane of 84-f t span, wei ghi ng 115 lb, wi th the propeller
behi nd the tai l, was f lown under pedal power a di stance of half a mi le by John Wi mpenny
at St. Albans, also i n England.
2
These models, Aerodromes 5 and 6, are i n the Smi thsoni an's Nati onal Ai r and Space
Museum (NASM 1905-1 and 1905-2).
3
Wi thout water or f lywheels, but wi th i gni ti on battery. Thi s condi ti on i s the same as
f or the wei ghts quoted f or other li qui d-cooled engi nes.
4
Later development shows thi s to have been unnecessary. Steel cyli nder bores have
been used si nce the Gnome engi nes of 1909.
5
Also i n 1907 Curti ss broke the Wor ld' s motorcycle speed record (137 mph) wi th a
40-hp V-8 ai r-cooled engi ne.
6
See Appendi x A for a descri pti on of the uni que worki ng of the r otar y engi ne.
7
The Navy versi on was a sli ght modi f i cati on havi ng dual i gni ti on and a 100-hp
r ati ng.
91
8
The detai ls of thi s f eat ar e related i n Smithsonian Annals of Flight, vol. 1, no. 3, "The
Li berty Engi ne, 1918-1942, " by Phi li p S. Di ckey III, Lt. Col. USAF, Ret.
9
The Wasp, however, di d not go i nto real quanti ty pr oducti on nearly as qui ckly
as di d the Li berty.
10
The f i rst nonstop Atlanti c crossi ng was by Alcock and Brown, about a month
later, 14-15 June 1919, usi ng two Rolls-Royce Eagle engi nes (see f i g. 25), also wi th welded-
cyli nder constructi on.
11
The story of thi s f li ght is related i n Smithsonian Annals of Flight, vol. 1, no. 1, "The
Fi rst Nonstop Coast-to-Coast Fli ght and the Hi stori c T-2 Ai r plane, " by Loui s S. Casey.
12
It wi ll be recalled that the Wr i ght brothers also used cr ude alumi num en bloc
water-jacket constructi on on thei r f i rst engi ne. Subsequent engi nes, however, had separ ate
cyli nders.
13
The K was for Charles B. Ki r kham, who concei ved the basi c desi gn for thi s seri es
and was also consulted i n the desi gn of the earli er Li berty engi ne (see p. 30).
14
Named for the brother of General Wi lli am (Bi lly) Mi tchell.
15
The chi ef li mi tati ons on the cast-i ron cyli nder are poor heat conducti vi ty as com-
par ed wi th alumi num, and low strength as compar ed wi th steel.
16
See previ ous remarks, page 33, r egar di ng the Hi spano-Sui za engi ne.
17
The author was i n charge of the engi ne laboratory at McCook Fi eld, and was
closely associ ated wi th Her on and hi s work dur i ng thi s peri od.
18
Owi ng to the f act that r adi ator area can be desi gned large enough f or any alti tude,
whi le f i n area on an ai r-cooled cyli nder has a practi cal li mi t; the power of ai r-cooled
engi nes above a certai n alti tude is theref ore li mi ted by cooli ng.
19
On one occasi on I asked a hi gh-ranki ng of f i cer: "Does the Ar my want li qui d-
cooled f i ghters even if better f i ghters can be bui lt ar ound ai r-cooled engi nes?" He answered
i n the af f i rmati ve!
20
Obvi ously, the sleeve-valve Napi er Sabre and the Junker s Di esel also had uncon-
venti onal cyli nder arrangements.
21
An i mpor tant contri buti on to thi s ar t i n the Uni ted States was the development of
Stresscoat by E. S. Taylor and Greer Elli s i n 1938. Thi s method of showi ng stress patter ns
by means of a bri ttle lacquer coati ng had been used by the Ger mans earli er, but was not
used i n thi s country unti l the work of the above-menti oned persons. Exper i mental stress
analysi s, usi ng strai n gages and photoelasti c techni ques as well as Stresscoat, has been
generally used i n ai rcraf t-engi ne development si nce about 1940.
22
For official def i ni ti ons of fuel terms, i ncludi ng perf ormance number , see f uel hand-
books publi shed by the Ameri can Soci ety for Testi ng Mater i als, Phi ladelphi a, Pennsylvani a.
23
A squadron of Mar ti n bombers was the f i rst combat group ever equi pped wi th
turbo-superchargers (1923-1924).
24
The NEC 2-cycle engi nes of 1909-1912 were equi pped wi th Roots-type scavengi ng
blowers, but these were not superchargers i n the sense that they were used for alti tude
compensati on.
25
When the cooler is used between stages of superchargi ng, i t is called an i ntercooler,
when i t is used between the supercharger and the engi ne, i t is called an af tercooler.
92
Appendix
The Rotar y Radi al Engi ne
The radi al engi ne has been bui lt i n two essenti ally di f f erent conf i gura-
ti ons: the stati c radi al, whi ch sti ll enjoys wi despread use; and the rotary
(rotati ng) radi al, whi ch passed out of use soon af ter 1918. The f ormer
may be consi dered a "conventi onal" engi ne, i n whi ch the pi stons, reci pro-
cate i nsi de the cyli nders of an engi ne f i rmly attached to the ai rf rame.
In the rotary radi al, however, the anti -propeller end of the crankshaf t
is attached to the ai rf rame, and the cyli nders and crankcase, to whi ch
of necessi ty the propeller is f i xed, rotate around the crankshaf t (see f i gs. 20
and 21). The rotary engi ne f uncti ons i nternally i n exactly the same manner
as the conventi onal radi al engi ne, but because of thi s ar r angement the
pi stons do not reci procate relati ve to the mounti ng structure, and theref ore
no unbalanced f orces result. Thus, i n operati on, the rotary engi ne is ex-
cepti onally f ree f rom vi brati on. As menti oned i n the text (p. 25), the large
f lywheel effect of the rotati ng cyli nders was i mpor tant i n relati on to the
type of control system used at the ti me.
The rotary radi al engi ne shares wi th the conventi onal radi al the
advantages of compactness, short crankshaf t, and adaptabi li ty to ai r cooli ng.
On the other hand i t has the f ollowi ng i nherent di sadvantages:
1. Severe li mi tati ons on r pm, resulti ng f rom hi gh centri f ugal f orces
created wi thi n the revolvi ng engi ne and wi nd dr ag caused
by the rotati ng cyli nders.
2. Desi gn li mi tati ons i mposed by the rotati on of all parts except the
crankshaf t.
3. An undesi rable gyroscopi c effect on the ai rplane dur i ng turns.
4. Li mi tati ons on the lubri cati on system, whi ch, owi ng to the
desi gn of the engi ne, resulted i n hi gh oi l consumpti on and the
throwi ng out of excess oi l wi th the exhaust, as menti oned i n
the text.
5. Di f f i culty of provi di ng a closed exhaust system.
93
In spi te of these di sadvantages, however, the rotary engi ne was an excellent
desi gn for the state of the ar t duri ng the two decades af ter 1900. It was
produced i n large quanti ti es duri ng 1914-1918, and powered many success-
ful f i ghter planes.
94
Bi bli ography
Expanded and Arranged by Dr. Ri chard K. Smi th
From Materi al Furni shed by G. Fayette Taylor
Thi s bi bli ography is li mi ted to materi al, mostly i n the Engli sh language,
whi ch the author consi ders i mpor tant i n connecti on wi th the hi story of
ai rcraf t propulsi on, and wi th whi ch he is f ami li ar. An exhausti ve bi bli og-
r aphy i ncludi ng all i mpor tant f orei gn ref erences would be a desi rable
project for some f uture hi stori an.
The f i rst secti on of the bi bli ography contai ns books and peri odi cal
arti cles i n whi ch the emphasi s i s on the hi stori cal aspects of engi ne develop-
ment. The second and thi rd secti ons, compri sed mai nly of ref erences to
topi cal arti cles i n the peri odi cal li terature, i s ar r anged chronologi cally by
date of publi cati on. Thi s was done on the assumpti on that anyone usi ng
thi s bi bli ography i s more li kely to be f ami li ar wi th the ti me peri od i n whi ch
a development has occurred that wi th an author' s name.
NACA (Nati onal Advi sory Commi ttee for Aeronauti cslater the
Nati onal Aeronauti cs and Space Admi ni strati on, NASA, Washi ngton,
D.C.) carri ed out, and also sponsored, exhausti ve and i mpor tant research
i n ai rplane engi ne technology. For a complete li st of i ts publi cati ons i n
thi s f i eld, see the i ndex of NACA publi cati ons, li sted i n the f i rst secti on
of thi s bi bli ography. Especi ally relevant NACA reports are i ncluded on
pages 123 to 134, and are ref erenced under the appr opr i ate headi ngs.
Bi bli ographi es and Indexes
BROCKET, PAUL, ed. Bibliography of aeronautics of the National Advisory Committee for Aero-
nautics [now NASA]. Washi ngton, D. C: U.S. Gover nment Pri nti ng Of f i ce.
Publi shed dur i ng the years 1910 thr ough 1932, when f urther work on i t was un-
f ortunately abandoned, thi s valuable source had i ts i ncepti on when the edi tor was
assi stant li br ar i an at the Smi thsoni an Insti tuti on, and the f i rst volume appear ed as
volume 35 of the Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections.
GAMBLE, WILLIAM BURT, ed. History of aeronautics. A selected list of references to material in
the New York Public Library, 1938. New York Publi c Li br ar y publi cati on, 1938.
325 pp. Ori gi nally publi shed as a seri es i n the New York Publi c Li br ar y Bulletin
(Januar y 1936 to September 1937). See especi ally "Engi nes, " 122-128.
95
Nati onal Advi sory Commi ttee f or Aeronauti cs. Index of NACA technical publications,
1915-1949. 1950. 605 pp. See also bi bli ography of NACA Repor ts, p. 123.
Hi story and Technology of Ai rcraf t and Fli ght
Cer tai n aspects of the hi story of ai rcraf t propulsi on are also treated i n publi cati ons li sted
under Ai rcraf t Power plants: Aircraft Power Before 1900 (VILLENEUVE, 1868-1869). Engines
1900-1913 ("Ai rshi p Af ter Buyer , " 1903; "The Fai lur e of Langley' s Aer odr ome, " 1903;
SANTOS-DUMONT, 1904; "Samuel Pi er pont Langley, " 1906; "The Whi te Flyer , " 1906;
"The Wr i ght Aer oplane , " 1906; HOWLAND, 1908; "Types of Recent Forei gn
Flyi ng Machi nes, " 1908; WRIGHT, 1908; "The Aero Exhi bi ti on, " 1909; "The Pari s
Avi ati on Exhi bi ti on, " 1909). Engines 1914-1919 (DOUGLAS, 1919). Engines 1920-1924
(BAUMAN, 1920). Engines 1925-1929 (LEIGHTON, 1929).
Cer tai n aspects of theory and technologi cal practi ce are also treated i n publi cati ons
li sted under Ai rcraf t Power plants: Engines 1914-1919 (DURAND, 1918; UPTON, 1918).
Engines 1920-1924 (LOENING, 1920; SPARROW, 1921). Engines 1925-1929 (MCCORD,
1925; CLEMENTS, 1928; FOKKER, 1928; BROOKS, 1929). Engines 1930-1934 (LYON, 1930;
DIETRICH and LEHR, 1932; TAYLOR, 1933). Engines 1935-1939 (LOMBARD, 1937; KAMPER,
1939). Engines 1940 and After (DEFOREST and ELLIS, 1940). Also under NACA Repor ts:
1st, 1915 (LUCKE) ; 2d, 1916 ("Nomenclatur e for Aer onauti cs"); 4th, 1918 (TICE) ; 6th,
1920 (DICKINSON and NEWELL) ; 10th, 1924 (SPARROW) ; 12th, 1926 ( WARE) ; 13th, 1927
(GARDINER and SCHEY) ; 17th, 1931 (MARVIN and BEST) ; 24th, 1938 (GERRISH and Voss).
ABBOT, C. G. The 1914 tests of the Langley Aerodrome. Journal of the Aeronautical
Sciences, vol. 10, no. 1 (Januar y 1943), pp. 31-35, drgs., f ootnote ref s.
ANGLE, GLENN D., ed. Airplane engine encyclopedia; an alphabetically arranged compilation of
all available data on the world's airplane engines. Dayton, Ohi o: Otter bei n Press,
1921. Illustrati ons and data on successf ul and unsuccessf ul engi nes to 1920;
i ncludes several f i ne f old-out drawi ngs.
., ed. Aerosphere; including modern aircraft, modern aircraft engines, and aircraft statistics
and buyer's guide. New Yor k: Ai rcraf t Publi cati ons, annually, 1939-1943. An
encyclopedi c work of Jane's f ormat. The engi ne secti on was someti mes publi shed as
a separate volume, Aerosphere''s modern aircraft engines.
The avi ati on i ndustry. Lubrication, vol. 38, no. 4 (Apri l 1952), pp. 37-52, i llus., hi stori cal
tab. data, bi bl. of 9 i tems.
BANE, THURMAN H. Recent advances i n avi ati on. SAE Transactions, vol. 15, pt. 2,
1920, pp. 63-86, i llus. Bane was chi ef of the U. S. Army Ai r Servi ce's Engi neer-
i ng Di vi si on at McCook Fi eld, Ohi o.
BANKS, F. R. The avi ati on engi ne. Proceedings of the Institute of Mechanical Engineers,
vol. 162 (1950), pp. 433-445. General arti cle on progress and development i n
engi nes and accessori es, 1920-1950.
BONNEY, WALTER T. The heritage of Kitty Hawk. New Yor k: W. W. Nor ton, 1962.
211 pp., illus.
96
CHATFIELD, CHARLES HUGH, and TAYLOR, CHARLES FAYETTE. The airplane and its engine.
New Yor k: McGr aw-Hi ll Book Co., edi ti ons 1928, 1932, 1936, 1940, and 1949.
Textbook di scussi ons of the subject; each edi ti on outli nes the status of ai r plane
propulsi on as of i ts respecti ve date.
DAVY, M. J. B., and RICHARDS, G. TILGHMAN. Aeronautics; A handbook of the collections
illustrating aeronautics; Volume 3, The propulsion of aircraft. London: Hi s Majesty's
Stati onery Of f i ce, 1930. 104 pp., i llus. Di vi ded i nto hi stori cal and techni cal
surveys, and a catalog of exhi bi ts as of 1930. Includes 2 pp. of bi bl.
DICKEY, PHILIP S. The Li ber ty engi ne, 1918-1942. Smithsonian Annals of Flight, vol. 1,
no. 3, 1968, 110 pp. Generously i llustrated; gr aph and tab. data.
DRIGGS, IVAN H., and LANCASTER, OTIS E. Gas turbines for aircraft. New Yor k: Ronald
Press, 1955. 349 pp., i llus., drgs., di agrs. Chapter 11 is devoted to the hi story
of thi s type.
DRYDEN, HUGH. Our heri tage f rom Wi lbur and Orvi lle Wr i ght. Journal of the Aero-
nautical Sciences, vol. 30, no. 12 (December 1953), pp. 803-804.
Ellehammer : A Dani sh pi oneer who f i rst f lew 50 years ago. Esso Air World, vol. 8, no. 4
(July-August 1966), pp. 16-19, i llus. Although hi s "f li ghts, " 1906-1908, were
i nconsequenti al short hops, Ellenhammer ' s engi ne was unusual i n i ts low wt/ hp
r ati o at thi s early date.
FAUROTE, FAY L., Ai rplane types. SAE Transactions, 1918 pt. 2, pp. 137-202, i llus. Ai r-
planes up to 1918, i ncludi ng hi story starti ng wi th Wr i ght brothers.
FROESCH, CHARLES. A revi ew of commerci al ai r tr anspor t f rom i ts begi nni ngi ts f uture
and problems. SAE Transactions, vol. 71, 1963, pp. 272-280, 292, i llus. Bri ef
arti cle, usef ul i n recogni zi ng engi nes used and thei r appr oxi mate dates of i ntr o-
ducti on to commerci al f lyi ng.
GEISSE, J. H. Twenty-f i ve years of engi ne desi gn. Aviation, vol. 25, no. 23 (December 1,
1928), pp. 1720-1723, i llus. Speci al i ssue, 25th anni versary of f li ght at Ki tty
Hawk; also i ncludes, pp. 1727-1765, a very usef ul seri es of bri ef hi stori es of aer o-
nauti cal manuf acturers.
GIBBS-SMITH, CHARLES H. The aeroplane; an historical survey of its origins and development.
London: Her Majesty's Stati onry Of f i ce, 1960. 375 pp., i llus. wi th 22 pp. photos.
A scholarly and well documented hi story of heavi er-than-ai r f li ght that i ncludes
10 pp. of chronology, a 5 p. glossary, and 4 pp. of bi bli ography. Thi s book is
per haps the most authenti c and well-documented work avai lable i n i ts f i eld, and
i ncludes much valuable mater i al on power plants.
. The invention of the aeroplane, 1799-1909. New Yor k: Tapli nger Publi shi ng Co.,
Inc., 1966. 360 pp. , i llus. wi th photos, drawi ngs, and sketches. Complete and
authenti c, wi th emphasi s on techni cal detai ls r ather than hi stori cal events. Li sts all
engi nes f lown, 1903-1909.
GODDARD, ESTHER C, and PENDRAY, GEORGE EDWARD, eds. Rocket development; liquid
fuel rocket research, 1929-1941. New Yor k: Prenti ce-Hall, Inc., 1961. 222 pp.
Hi story of the pi oneer work of Rober t H. Goddar d i n rocket development, as
edi ted f rom Goddar d' s notes and memor anda.
HARPER, HARRY. "The f i rst ai r di splay: A veteran avi ati on journali st recalls the Rhei ms
meeti ng 40 years ago. Flight, vol. 56, no. 2121 (August 18, 1949), pp. 188-190,
i llus. Account of f i rst Eur opean ai r meet, Rhei ms, 1909; speed contest won by
Curti ss at 47 mph.
97
HAYWARD, CHARLES B. Practical aviation; an understandable presentation of interesting and
essential facts in aeronautical science. Chi cago: Ameri can Techni cal Soci ety, 1919.
784 pp., i llus., drgs., di agrs. An 88-p. secti on treats engi nes; glossary of 15 pp.
HERON, SAMUEL D. History of the aircraft piston engine; a brief outline. Detr oi t: Ethyl
Corporati on, 1961. 130 pp. Chi ef ly hi story i n U.S., i ncludi ng engi nes and f uels
by an engi neer acti vely engaged i n ai rcraf t engi ne development si nce 1915.
HOBBS, LEONARD S. The ai rcraf t engi ne. The Bee Hive, vol. 24, no. 4 (f all 1954), pp.
3-10, i llus. Author was chi ef engi neer of Pr att and Whi tney.
HODGSON, J. E. The History of aeronautics in Great Britain from earliest times to the latter half
of the \9th century. Oxf ord Uni versi ty Press, 1924. 436 pp., i llus., drgs. The
appendi ces, pp. 373-418, i nclude a chronology and an excellent annotated bi bl.
keyed to the text's chapters. The text i ncludes good accounts of work of Stri ngf ellow
and Henson.
HOLZER, HEINRICH. Die Berechnung der Drehschwingungen und ihre Anwendung im Maschi-
nenbau. Berli n: Juli us Spri nger & Co., 1921. 199 pp. , i llus., di agrs. Repr i nted
by Edwar ds Brothers, Inc., Ann Arbor, Mi ch., i n 1948. A classi c work on engi ne
vi brati on.
HOURWICH, ISKANDER, and FOSTER, W. J. Air Service engine handbook. Dayton, Ohi o:
Engi neeri ng Di vi si on, McCook Fi eld, U.S. Ai r Servi ce, 1925. 738 pp. , i llus.,
di agrs., drgs., extensi ve gr aph and tab. data. Exhausti ve data on engi nes of that
peri od.
HUNSAKER, JEROME C. Aeronauti cs. Journal of the Franklin Institute, vol. 253, no. 1
(Januar y 1951), pp. 48-57. Hi stori cal survey of i ts technologi cal aspects.
Aeronautics at the mid-century. Hew Haven: Yale Uni versi ty Press. 1952. 116 pp. ,
i llus.
. Forty years of aeronauti cal research. Annual Report. . . of the Smithsonian
Institution . . .for the year ended June 30,1955, pp. 241-271, 1956.
Jane's all the world's aircraft. Publi shed annually si nce 1909, except 1915 and 1921; i ts
edi tors and publi shers var y over the years.
KELLY, FRED C. The Wright brothers; a biography authorized by Orville Wright. New Yor k:
Har cour t Brace and Co., 1943. 340 pp.
, ed. Miracle at Kitty Hawk; the letters of Wilbur and Orville Wright. New Yor k:
Far r ar , Straus, and Young, 1951. 482 pp., i llus.
LAHM, FRANK P. The Wr i ght brothers as I knew them. Sperryscope, vol. 8, no. 10 (Apri l
1939), 1-5, i llus.
LANGLEY, SAMUEL PIERPONT, and MANLY, CHARLES M. Langley memoi r on mechani cal
f li ght. Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, vol. 27, no. 3, 1911, pp. 1-309,
generously i llus., wi th photos, drgs., and di agrs. Ch. 3 and 4 of pt. 1 tr eat wi th
early engi nes; pt/2, by Manly descri bes the f ull-scale r adi al engi ne and the attempts
at f li ght.
LAWRANCE, CHARLES L. Ai r cooled engi ne development. SAE Transactions, vol. 17,
pt. 1, 1922, pp. 431-477, i llus., drgs.. gr aph data. The Uni ted States pi oneer of the
ai r-cooled r adi al engi ne.
LEY, WILLY. Rockets, missiles and space travel. New Yor k: Vi ki ng Press, 1961. 436
pp., i llus., drgs., di agrs., tab. data. Includes some hi stori cal materi al on rocket
engi nes; has 18 pp. of very usef ul bi bl.
98
Li ndber gh' s Wr i ght Whi rlwi nd a result of seven years' development; work begun on
Feb. 28, 1920, and si nce that ti me seven successi ve models of ai r-cooled engi nes
have been pr oduced. Aviation, vol. 22, no. 25 (June 20, 1927), pp. 1358-1359,
1396, i llus., drgs.
LOENING, GROVER. Fi f ty years of f lyi ng progress. Journal of the Franklin Institute, vol.
256, no. 6 (December 1953), pp. 493-521, i llus. Author was noted ai r plane de-
si gner 1918-1940.
LOUGHEED, VICTOR. Vehicles of the air: A popular exposition of modern aeronautics with working
drawings. Chi cago: The Rei lly & Bri tton Co., 1909. 514 pp., i llus., drgs., di agrs.,
tab. data. Wor k of Penaud, Ader, Wri ght, Santos-Dumont, Voi si n, Maxi m,
Langley, et al. Well i llustrated. The author , who subsequently changed hi s name
to "Lockheed" was one of the brothers who f ounded the Lockheed Ai rcraf t Co.
MAGOUN, FREDERICK ALEXANDER, and HODGINS, ERIC. A history of aircraft. New Yor k:
Whi ttlesey House, McGr aw-Hi ll Book Co., 1931. 495 pp., i llus. Includes a
5-p. bi bl., and 25 pp. of chronology; text is documented thr oughout. An excellent
survey to i ts date of publi cati on.
, and . Sky high: The story of aviation. Boston: Li ttle, Brown and Co.,
1935. 414 pp., i llus. A somewhat more populari zed edi ti on of thei r A history of
aircraft (1931).
MARKS, LIONEL S. The airplane engine. New Yor k: McGr aw-Hi ll Book Co., 1922. 454
pp., i llus., drgs., di agrs. A textbook wi th techni cal data on engi nes up to 1921.
MCFARLAND, MARVIN C, ed. The papers of Wilbur and Orville Wright. 2 vols. New Yor k:
McGr aw-Hi ll Book Co., 1953. Letters of the Wr i ght Brothers, i ncludi ng many
of thei r own drgs., di agrs., etc.
MCMAHON, JOHN ROBERT. The Wright brothers, fathers of flight. Boston: Li ttle, Brown
and Co., 1930. 308 pp., i llus.
MCSURELY, ALEXANDER. The horsepower at Ki tty Hawk. The Bee Hive, vol. 28, no. 1
(Januar y 1953), pp. 7-11, i llus.
MEAD, GEORGE J. The development of f i xed, r adi al ai r-cooled engi nes. SAE Trans-
actions, vol. 24, 1929, pp. 418-422, i llus. Emphasi s is hi stori cal.
. Hi stori cal development of ai r-cooled engi nes. Aero Digest, vol. 14 (Febr uar y
1929), pp. 42-44, 224, 226-228.
. Some aspects of ai rcraf t engi ne development. SAE Transactions, vol. 20, pt. 2,
1925, pp. 809-851, i llus. Thi s arti cle covers development of the i mproved Hi spano-
Sui za engi nes, and of the large li qui d-cooled V-12s and Lawr ance-type radi als
developed by Wr i ght Aer onauti cal Cor por ati on. It was wri tten just bef ore Mead
left Wr i ght to become one of the f ounders of Pr att and Whi tney and i ts f i rst chi ef
engi neer.
MEYER, ROBERT B., Jr . Thr ee f amous early aero engi nes. Annual Report of the . . .
Smithsonian Institution for the Tear Ended June 30, 1961, pp. 357-372, i llus., 1962.
Good descri pti ons of the f i rst Wr i ght brothers' engi ne, the Langley-Manly-Balzer
radi al, and the Clement engi ne used bri ef ly by Santos-Dumont.
On a great pi oneer. The Aeroplane, vol. 22, no. 13 (Mar ch 29, 1922), pp. 221-222. Obi t-
uar y on Levavasseur, desi gner of the Antoi nette ai r plane and engi ne.
PRATT, P. W. Ai rcraf t propulsi on systems i n evoluti on. Astronautics and Aeronautics, vol.
3, no. 3 (Mar ch 1965), pp. 60-66.
99
REBER, SAMUEL, LT. COL. , USA. Recent progress i n mi li tary aeronauti cs. Journal of
the Franklin Institute, vol. 180, no. 4 (October 1915), pp. 437-448.
RICARDO, SIR HARRY RALPH. Engines of high output; thermodynamic considerations. London:
Macdonald and Evans, 1926. 110 pp., i llus., di agrs.
. The development and progress of the aero engi ne. Journal of the Royal Aero-
nautical Society (December 1930), vol. 34, pp. 1000-1015, gr aph data.
SCHLAIFER, ROBERT, and HERON, S.D. Development of aircraft engines and aviation fuels;
two studies of relations between government and business. Boston: Har var d Uni versi ty
Press, 1950. 754 pp. Text documented. Pp. 1-544 by Schlai f er, on engi nes;
547-662 by Her on, on f uels; 665-705, techni cal appendi ces.
Search of archi ves reveals i nteresti ng engi ne hi stori es. The Bee Hive, vol. 12, no. 4 (Apri l
1938), pp. 2-5. Pr att & Whi tney development hi story.
SMITH, G. GEOFFREY. Gas turbines and jet propulsion for aircraft. London: Fli ght Publi sh-
i ng Co., 1942. 79 pp., i llus., drgs., di agrs. An unusually f i ne survey, and at thi s
early date i t i s strong on hi stori cal development.
SQ UIER, GEORGE O., MAJOR, USA. The present status of mi li tary aeronauti cs. ASME,
Transactions, vol. 30, 1908, paper 1210, pp. 639-721, i llus. An excellent survey.
, BRIG. GEN. , USA. Aeronauti cs i n the Uni ted States. SAE Journal, vol. 5, no. 6
(December 1919), pp. 402-414. An excellent survey.
TAYLOR, C. FAYETTE. Hi story of the aeronauti cal engi ne; basi c f eatures almost unchanged
thr ough development years. Aviation, vol. 21 (August 16, 1926), pp. 284-286,
i llus.
TRUE, WEBSTER P. Oper ati on Homecomi ng. Sperryscope, vol. 11, no. 8 (wi nter 1949),
pp. 1-2, i llus. Retur n of the Wr i ght ai rplane f rom England to the U. S.
The two R' sA commemorati ve hi story of Rolls-Royce aero engi nes. Flight, vol. 65,
no. 2363 (May 7, 1954), pp. 571-583, i llus. An outstandi ng survey.
VEAL, C. B. Manly, the engi neer. SAE Transactions, vol. 34, 1939, pp. 145-153, i llus.
Hi stori cal, wi th f ootnote documentati on.
VINCENT, J. G. The trend of avi ati on development. SAE Transactions, vol. 17, pt. 1,
1922, pp. 881-898. Vi ncent was a pri nci pal desi gner of the Li berty engi ne and was
chi ef engi neer of the Packar d Motor Car Company.
WILKINSON, PAUL H. Aircraft diesels. New York: Pi ttman Publi shi ng Corp., 1940.
275 pp. Illus., drgs., di agrs., extensi ve tab. data. Short hi story and descri pti on
of some 15 di f f erent makes.
. Aircraft engines of the world. New Yor k: Paul H. Wi lki nson, an annual publi ca-
ti on, 19441959. Average of 280 pp. per vol. A combi nati on encyclopedi a and
catalog of cur r ent types.
WALCOTT, CHARLES D. Samuel Pi erpont Langley and moder n avi ati on. Proceedings
of the American Philosophical Society, vol. 65, no. 2, 1926, pp. 79-82. Account of
f li ght of reconstructed ai r dr ome wi th ar guments f or the machi ne as the "f i rst one
capable of sustai ned free f li ght carryi ng a man. "
100
Ai rcraf t Powerplants
Classi f i cati on i n thi s secti on i s by date of publi cati on. Many entri es contai n data on earli er
engi nes. For arti cles deali ng wi th unconventi onal engi nes, see also under Engines 1925-
1929 (DENHAM, 1926; "The Fai r chi ld-Cami nez Engi ne, " 1926; "Cam Engi ne Passes
Fi f ty Hour Test, " 1927; "The Conti nental Si ngle Sleeve Valve Engi ne, " 1927; "Per -
f ormance of Fai rchi ld Ai r plane Engi ne Impr oved, " 1927). Engines 1930-1934 (HALL,
1930). Engines 1935-1939 ("Perseus Pr oducti on, " 1938; "The Fi rst Sleeve Valve Engi ne
i n Pr oducti on, " 1938). Engines 1940 and After (HERRMANN, 1945; "Napi er Nomad, "
1954). Also under NACA Repor ts: 12th, 1926 (PATON and KEMPER) .
Aircraft Power Before 1900
VILLENEUVE, A. HUREAU. Rappor t sur 1'Exposi ti on Aer onauti que de 1868. UAero-
nautique, vol. 1, no. 7 (July 1868), pp. 51-53; no. 8 (August 1868), pp. 67-75; no. 9
(September 1868), pp. 83-88; no. 10 (October 1868), pp. 99-105; no. 11 (November
1868) pp. 115-120; no. 12 (December 1868), pp. 131-135; vol. 2, no. 1 (Januar y
1869), pp. 3-6; no. 2 (Febr uar y 1869), pp. 19-22; no. 3 (Mar ch 1869), pp. 35-39;
no. 4 (Apri l 1869), pp. 51-55; no. 6 (June 1869), pp. 83-88; no. 8 (August 1869).
pp. 115-118. Covers the aero exposi ti on at London, 1868.
PENAUD, ALPHONSE. Aeroplane automoteur . UAeronaute, vol. 5, no. 1 (Januar y 1872),
pp. 2-9. Use of i ndi a r ubber f or model propulsi on.
HAENLIEN, PAUL. Ueber den Tr ei bappar at bei Luf tschi f f en. 7.rcArj/iJ fur Luftfahrt,
vol. 1, no. 8, 1882, pp. 240-244. Author made world's f i rst f li ght wi th an i nternal
combusti on engi ne (di ri gi ble balloon).
TISSANDIER, GASTON. Propulseur dynamo-electri que pour aerostat elonge. If Aero-
nautique, vol. 16, no. 5 (May 1883), pp. 83-88. Electri c motor wi th bi chromate
of potassi um batter y. Used i n f li ght of di ri gi ble ai rshi p.
GOUPIL, ALEXANDRE L. La Locomotion aerienne. Charlevi lle, Fr ance: Impr . deA. Poui llard,
1884. 112 pp. , i llus., i ncl. f oldout di agrs.
DEGRAFFIGNY, HENRI. Les moteurs legers; appli cable a la navi gati on aeri enne.
L'Aerophile, vol. 2, no. 6-7 (June-July 1894), pp. 128-134. Contempor ar y steam,
gas, electri c, and compressed-ai r engi nes.
Engines 1900-1913
Ai rshi p af ter buyer ; i nventors of Nor th Caroli na box ki te machi ne want government to
purchase i t. The New York Times (Satur day, December 26, 1903), p. 1, col. 7.
Bri ef noti ce of Wr i ght Brothers' 1903 f li ghts. A 4-i nch i tem, at the top of the
page, whi ch ref ers to the great day at Ki tty Hawk. (Reproduced here, f i g. 10.)
The f ai lure of Langley's Aer odr ome. Scientific American, vol. 89, no. 16 (October 17, 1903),
p. 272, i llus.
By motor thr ough the ai r. The Automobile (London, November 28, 1903), vol. 1, pp. 80-84.
HARRIMAN, J. EINERY, J R. Mechani cal f li ght. Journal of the Association of Engineering
Societies, vol. 33, no. 2 (August 1904), pp. 43-53, i llus.
101
SANTOS-DUMONT, ALBERTO. The f uture of the ai rshi p. Outlook, vol 77, no. 1 (May 7,
1904), pp. 52-53. In thi s i tem he remarks, "Abandon the balloon and bui ld a
f lyi ng machi ne, never !" Later , he di d!
Ei ght-cyli nder "Anti onette" motor for aeroplane. Engineering, vol. 82 (November 30,
1906), p. 703, i llus., dr g.
Li ght-wei ght gasoli ne motors f or aeronauti cal work. Scientific American Supplement, Vol. 62,
no. 1612 (November 24, 1906), pp. 25-33, i llus. Levavasseur's Anti onette V,
li qui d-cooled engi ne.
Samuel Pi erpont Langley. Scientific American, vol. 94, no. 10 (Mar ch 10, 1906), pp. 207,
211. Obi tuar y.
The Whi te Flyerthe motor dri ven aeroplane of the brothers Wr i ght. Automotor Journal,
vol. 11, no. 1 (Januar y 1906), pp. 17-20, i llus. An early account based on vi si ts
to Dayton by representati ves of L'Auto of Fr ance. Di scusses the questi on of secrecy
by the Wri ghts. No menti on of wi ng war pi ng.
The Wr i ght aer oplane and i ts perf ormances. Scientific American, vol. 94, no. 14 (Apri l 7,
1906), p. 291, i llus.
Gasoli ne motors for aeronauti cal work. Scientific American Supplement, vol. 65, no. 1672
(Januar y 11, 1908), pp. 28-30. Illus., dr g. Survey of Fr ench engi nes: Duf aux,
Farcot, R.E.P., Renault, Duthei l & Chalmers, and others.
HOWLAND, HAROLD J. The sons of Daedalus. Outlook, vol. 90, no. 3 (September 26,
1908), pp. 153-169. Illus. Summar y of ai r navi gati on to date. Menti ons Wr i ght
Brothers' f i rst f li ght and f i rst f li ght of Wi lbur at Le Mans, August 11, 1908.
Types of recent f orei gn f lyi ng machi nes. Scientific American Supplement, vol. 65, no. 1680
(Mar ch 14, 1908), pp. 172-174, i llus.
WRIGHT, ORVILLE and WILBUR. The Wr i ght brothers' aer oplane. Century, vol. 76,
no. 5 (September 1908), pp. 641-650, i llus. Fi rst publi c account by the Wr i ght
br other s; i llustrated wi th photos of gli di ng and power f li ghts.
The Aero Exhi bi ti on. Engineering, vol. 87 (Mar ch 26, 1909), pp. 413^ 115, 418, drgs.
Olympi a aero show of 1909.
DANTIN, C. Moteur s ther mi ques: Les Moteur s a. explosi on legers pour di ri gi bles et aer o-
planes. Genie Civil, vol. 55, no. 1408 (June 5, 1909), pp. 111-114; no. 1409 (June
12, 1909), pp. 125-129; and no. 1410 (June 19, 1909), pp. 150-156, i llus., di agrs.,
f i nely done drawi ngs, and f ootnote ref erences i n the text.
FOURNIER, L. Le Moteur d' avi ati on Clement-Bayard. Cosmos (Pari s), vol. 58, no.
1259 (Mar ch 13, 1909), pp. 284-287. Illus. Descri bes the Clement-Bayard
engi ne.
NESFIELD, ALBERT C. The desi gn of engi nes f or aeroplanes. Aeronautics, vol. 2, no. 3
(Mar ch 1909), pp. 22-23; no. 4 (Apri l 1909), pp. 38-40; no. 5 (May 1909), pp.
49-50; no. 6 (June 1909), pp. 60-61. Illus., drgs.
The Pari s Avi ati on Exhi bi ti on. Engineering (October 1, 1909), vol. 88, pp. 452, 456-458,
i llus., tab. data.
RUMPLER, E. Motor en f ur Luf tf ahrzeuge. Vereines Deutsche J^eitschrift des Ingenieure, vol.
53, no. 12 (Mar ch 20, 1909), pp. 441-448; no. 13 (Mar ch 27, 1909), pp. 487-492;
no. 14 (Apri l 3, 1909), pp. 532-538; and no. 15 (Apri l 10, 1909), pp. 578-584.
Illus; many excellent drgs.
102
VORREITER, A. VON. Neue Flugmotor e. ^eitschrift fur Flugtechnik und Motorluftschriffarlet,
Hef t 3 und 4, 1910, pp. 41-44. Panhar d, Wunder li ch, Esnault Pelteri e, Clement-
Bayard, Mi ese, Berti n engi nes.
Alexandre Anzani . L'Aerophile, vol. 19, no. 1 (Januar y 1, 1911), p. 5. Anzani f an,
r adi al, ai r-cooled engi ne.
Le Moteur Renault. L'Aerophile, vol. 19, no. 6 (Mar ch 15, 1911), pp. 128-129, i llus.,
drgs.
Le Nouveau Moteur R. E. P. L'Aerophile, vol. 19, No. 8 (Apri l 15, 1911), pp. 177-179,
i llus.
Loui s Segui n. L'Aerophile, vol. 20, no. 4 (Febr uar y 15, 1912), p. 73. Relates to Gnome
r otar y, ai r-cooled engi ne of whi ch Segui n was the desi gner.
Les Moteur s a l'Exposi ti on. L'Aerophile, vol. 20, no. 22 (November 1, 1912), pp. 512-
517, i llus., drgs. Pari s ai r show, 1912.
See also under Hi story and Technology ("Ellehammer , " 1966; MCSURELY, 1953; MEYER,
1961; "On a Gr eat Pi oneer , " 1922; VEAL, 1939).
Engines 1914-1919
MACCOULL, NEIL. Aeroplane engi nes. Aerial Age Weekly, vol. 1, no. 14 (June 21, 1915)
pp. 322-323; no. 15 (June 28, 1915), pp. 346-347; no. 16 (July 5, 1915), pp.
372-373; no. 17 (July 12, 1915), pp. 406-^ 07; no. 18 (July 19, 1915), pp. 426-
427; no. 19 (July 26, 1915), pp. 450-451; no. 20 (August 2, 1915), p. 475; and no.
21 (August 9, 1915), pp. 498-499. Illus., drgs., tab. data.
. Stur tevant motors. Aerial Age Weekly, vol. 1, no. 2 (Mar ch 29, 1915), pp.
33-34; and no. 7 (May 3, 1915), pp. 154-155. Illus., drgs., gr aph data.
. Amer i can aeronauti cal engi nes; an i mpor tant parallel between the develop-
ment of the engi nes of the automobi le and the ai rplane. Aerial Age Weekly, vol. 1,
no. 1 (Mar ch 22, 1915), p. 7. Tab. data on 12 engi nes.
GRIFFITH, LEIGH M. Some notes on hi gh-pressure avi ati on engi nes. SAE Transactions,
vol. 12, pt. 1, 1917, 180-193. Includes di scussi on by Manly, Vi ncent, Maxi m,
Stout, and others.
LESCARBOURA, AUSTIN C. Bri ngi ng the Gnome engi ne to Amer i ca; how thi s most i ntr i cate
of avi ati on engi nes is bei ng successf ully manuf actur ed i n our country. Scientific
American, vol. 16, no. 14 (Apri l 7, 1917), pp. 374375, i llus., di agr.
PAGE, VICTOR W. Development of avi ati on engi nes. Scientific American, vol. 117, no. 14
(October 6, 1917), pp. 247, 258-259, i llus., tab. data.
. Aviation engines. 589 pp. i llus. New Yor k: Nor man W. Henley Publi shi ng
Co., 1917. A good descri pti on of ai rcraf t engi ne practi ce up to 1917. Detai ls
of some i mpor tant early engi nes.
SHERBONDY, E. H. Avi ati on engi ne development. SAE Transactions, vol. 12, pt. 2, 1917,
pp. 274302, i llus., drgs., tab. and gr aph data.
CHASE, HERBERT. Moder n aer onauti c engi nes. SAE Transactions, vol. 13, pt. 2, 1918,
pp. 241-266, i llus. A survey, heavi ly i llustrated.
. Aer onauti c engi nes. SAE Journal, vol. 3, no. 2 (August 1918), pp. 147-152;
and no. 3 (September 1918), pp. 205-208. Lavi shly i llustrated.
103
DURAND, WILLIAM F. Outstandi ng aer onauti c problems. SAE Journal, vol. 3, no. 3
(September 1918), pp. 213-219; no. 4 (October 1918), pp. 280-284. Excellent
general di scussi on.
Evoluti on of the ai rcraf t engi ne. Scientific American, vol. 119, no. 14 (October 5, 1918),
p. 270, tab. data.
How the Hi spano-Sui za engi ne came to the f oref ront of avi ati on. Scientific American, vol.
118, no. 1 (Januar y 6, 1918), pp. 7, 20.
KETTERING, CHARLES F. The f uture of the ai r plane busi ness. SAE Transactions, 1918,
pt. 2, pp. 363-379. Interesti ng predi cti ons by an emi nent engi neer of that ti me.
LAY, DONALD MCLEOD. The Hi spano-Sui za ai rcraf t engi ne. SAE Transactions, vol. 13,
pt. 2, 1918, 475-491. Illus. Also SAE Journal, vol. 3, no. 6 (December 1918),
pp. 367-372.
The Li ber ty motor ; Its checkered career and detai ls of i ts constructi on. Scientific American,
vol. 119, no. 23 (December 7, 1918), pp. 455, 466, i llus., dr g.
The true story of the Li berty motor. Scientific American, vol. 118, no. 22 (June 1, 1918),
pp. 500, 515.
UPTON, G. B. Ai rplane perf ormance determi ned by engi ne perf ormance. SAE Journal,
vol. 3, no. 4 (October 1918), pp. 275-279.
COLVIN, FRED H. HOW Ford bui lt Li berty motors. American Machinist, vol. 51, no. 23
(December 18, 1919), pp. 1037-1041, i llus.
DOUGLAS, DONALD W. The ai rplane as a commerci al possi bi li ty. SAE Transactions,
vol. 14, pt. 2, 1919, pp. 444-462. Strong emphasi s on need f or engi ne development.
A Ger man vi ew of the Li ber ty engi ne. The Aeroplane, vol. 17, no. 14 (October 1, 1919),
Aeronauti cal Engi neeri ng Supplement, p. 1266.
The 200 h.p. Mercedes engi ne. SAE Journal, vol. 5, no. 2 (August 1919), p. 191.
The 450 h.p. Napi er "Li on" engi ne. SAE Journal, vol. 5, no. 6 (December 1919), pp.
430-432. Includes 2 f i ne cross-secti onal drawi ngs.
SAYERS, W. H. Aeri al propulsi on. The Aeroplane, vol. 17, August 13, 1919, pp. 593-594,
and August 27, 1919, pp. 809-810.
SMITH, JOHN W. Fi xed radi al cyli nder engi nes. SAE Transactions, vol. 14, pt. 1, 1919,
pp. 294303. The Smi th 10-cyl 400-hp, radi al, ai r-cooled engi ne.
VINCENT, J. G. The Li berty ai rcraf t engi ne. SAE Transactions, vol. 14, pt. 1 (1919),
pp. 385-432, i llus., drgs. i n text and large f old-out dr g., tab. and gr aph data.
WARDROP, G. DOUGLAS. The Li berty engi ne. The Aeroplane, vol. 16, Januar y 29, 1919,
pp. 480-482, 499-500; Febr uar y 5, 1919, pp. 582, 599; and Febr uar y 12, 1919,
pp. 676-678, 680, 697. Illus.
See also under Hi story and Technology (ANGLE, 1921; DICKEY, 1968). Under Engines
1920-1924 (HELLER, 1920). Engines 1930-1934 ("The Hi spano-Sui za Aero En-
gi nes, " 1934). Also under NACA Repor ts: 8th, 1923 (SPARROW).
Engines 1920-1924
ABELL, C. F. Ai rshi p machi ner y, past experi ence and f uture r equi r ements. Journal of
the Royal Aeronautical Society, vol. 24 no. 113 (May 1920), pp. 250-268.
BAUMAN, A. Progress made i n the constructi on of gi ant ai rplanes i n Ger many dur i ng the
war . NACA Technical Note, no. 29, 1920, 11 pp., tab. data.
104
LOENING, GROVER C. Engi ne shape as af f ecti ng ai r plane operati on. SAE Transactions,
vol. 15, pt. 1, 1920, pp. 577-590, i llus., drgs., tab. and gr aph data.
NOACK, W. G. Tests of the Dai mler D-IVa engi ne at a hi gh alti tude test bench.
NACA Technical Note, no. 15, 1920, 20 pp., extensi ve gr aph and tab. data.
SCHWAGER, OTTO. Development of Ger man ai rcraf t engi nes. Aviation, vol. 9, October 1,
1920, pp. 161-164, and October 15, 1920, pp. 186-189.
. Recent ef f orts and experi ments i n the constructi on of avi ati on engi nes. NACA
Technical Note, no. 12, 1920, 18 pp., gr aph and tab. data.
CHORLTON, ALAN E. L. Aero engi nes. Journal of the Royal Society of Arts [London], vol.
69, no. 3589 (September 2, 1921), pp. 689-705; no. 3590 (September 9, 1921),
pp. 707-724; and no. 3591 (September 16, 1921), pp. 725-740. Well i llus., by
many f i ne drawi ngs.
Development of an Amer i can pursui t engi ne. Aviation, vol. 11, no. 26 (December 26,
1921), pp. 735-738. The Hi spano-Sui za as developed under li cense i n the U.S.A.
HELLER, A. The 300 h.p. Benz ai rcraf t engi ne. Tr ansl. f rom ^eitschrift des Vereines
Deutsche Ingenieure (1920). NACA Technical Note, no. 34, 1921, 17 pp. Includes
cross-secti onal and several detai l drgs.
SPARROW, S. W. Hi gh ther mal ef f i ci ency i n ai r plane servi ce. NACA Technical Note,
no. 39, 1921, 7 pp. , drgs.
Tests of the 450 h.p. Bri stol Jupi ter engi ne. Aviation, vol. 11, no. 24 (December 12,
1921), pp. 685-686, gr aph and tab. data.
WARE, MARSDEN. Ef f ect of the reversal of ai r f low upon di e di scharge coef f i ci ent of
Dur ley ori f i ces. NACA Technical Note, no. 40, 1921, 14 pp., di agrs., gr aph data.
HERON, S. D. Ai r cooled cyli nder desi gn. SAE Transactions, vol. 17, pt. 1, 1922, pp.
347^ 130, i llus., drgs., gr aph and tab. data. Contai ns hi story and detai l desi gn.
Navy changes i n Li ber ty motor responsi ble f or i mpr ovement i n Navy plane operati ons.
Aerial Age, vol. 15, no. 18 (September 1922), pp. 455, 478.
TAYLOR, C. FAYETTE. Recent ai rcraf t engi ne developments. SAE Transaction, vol. 17,
Pt. 1, 1922, pp. 872-881, i llus.
CHRISTIANSEN, O. C. Test of Ar mstr ong Si ddeley "Jaguar " 14-cyli nder r adi al avi ati on
engi ne r ated at 320 h.p. at 1500 r .p.m. U. S. Ar my Ai r Servi ce (Engi neeri ng
Di vi si on, McCook Fi eld), Report, no. 2218, Jul y 16, 1923. 53 pp. , i llus., di agrs.,
gr aph data.
HERON, SAMUEL D. Exhaust valves and gui des f or ai rcraf t engi nes. U.S. Ar my Ai r
Servi ce (Engi neeri ng Di vi si on, McCook Fi eld), Report, no. 2328, September 4,
1923. 28 pp., Illus., di agrs., gr aph data. Recor d of early development work on
i nter nal cooli ng thr ough the use of "salts, " sodi um and potassi um ni tr ate mi xtur e.
LEIGHTON, BRUCE G., LT. , USN. Recent developments i n ai rcraf t and engi nes i n the
Navy. SAE Transactions, vol. 18, Pt. 1, 1923, pp. 862-887, i llus., drgs., gr aph
data.
MOFFET, WILLIAM A., RADM. , USN. The aeronauti cal engi ne: Some di f f erences be-
tween the ai rshi p and ai r plane power plant. U.S. Air Services, vol. 8, no. 3 (Mar ch
1923), pp. 13-15.
ANGLE, GLENN D. Progress Towar d 1000 hp. ai rcraf t engi nes. Aviation (Febr uar y 25,
1924), vol. 16, pp. 198-200, i llus. Author was i n charge of engi ne desi gn, U. S.
Ar my Ai r Servi ce.
105
MEAD, GEORGE J. Ai rplane Engi ne Desi gni ng for Reli abi li ty. SAE Transactions, vol.
19, Pt. 1, 1924, pp. 695-717, i llus., drgs., di agrs., gr aph data.
See also under Hi story and Technology (HOURWICH and FOSTER, 1925; LAWRANCE, 1922;
Vi ncent, 1922).
Engines 1925-1929
BOEDECKER, K. J. The economy of ai r cooli ng. Aviation, vol. 18, no. 18 (May 4, 1925),
pp. 492-493. Mostly about the Wr i ght J seri es.
MCCORD, CHARLES G., LT. , USN. Aer onauti cal Engi ne Labor ator y, Naval Ai rcraf t
Factor y, Phi ladelphi a. Journal of the American Society of Naval Engineers (May
1925), vol. 37, pp. 275-305.
The makers of Napi er engi nes. Aviation, vol. 19, no. 17 (October 26, 1925), pp. 586-588
i llus. Napi er Li on and the Schnei der Cup.
The new Packar d ai rcraf t engi nes; detai led descri pti on of the latest ai rcraf t engi nes pr o-
duced by the Packar d Motor Car Co. Aviation, vol. 18, no. 19 (May 11, 1925),
pp. 517-520, i llus.
Pr att and Whi tney Ai rcraf t Co. f ormed to manuf actur e ai rcraf t engi nes. Aviation, vol. 19,
no. 5 (August 3, 1925), p. 121.
TAYLOR, C. FAYETTE. The desi gn of ai r-cooled cyli nders. Aviation, vol. 18, no. 23 (June 8,
1925), pp. 634-636; no. 24 (June 15, 1925), pp. 664-667. Drgs., i llus., tab. data.
WILSON, EUGENE E., CDR. , USN. Ai rcraf t engi ne desi gn. NACA Technical Note, no. 211,
1925. 30 pp. , i llus., di agrs., gr aph data. A good survey, as of 1924.
Armstrong-Si ddeley i n f i eld wi th li ght ai r-cooled ai rcraf t engi ne. Automotive Industries,
vol. 55, no. 18 (October 28, 1926), p. 746. Gr aph data on Armstrong-Si ddeley
65-hp Genet.
DENHAM, ATHEL F. Cam i s used i nstead of cr ank trai n i n r adi al ai r plane engi ne. Auto-
motive Industries, vol. 54, no. 21 (May 27, 1926), pp. 891-893, i llus., drgs. The
Fai rchi ld Cami nez engi ne.
DINGER, H. C, CAPT. , USN. The development of the Wr i ght ai r-cooled avi ati on engi ne.
Journal of the American Society of Naval Engineers, vol. 38, no. 4 (November 1926),
pp. 856-878, i llus.
The Fai r chi ld-Cami nez engi ne; an ai r plane engi ne desi gned along new li nes and embodyi ng
enti rely new pri nci ples successf ully tested i n f li ght. Aviation, vol. 20, no. 21 (May 24,
1926), pp. 788-791, i llus., drgs.
JONES, E. T. The development of the Wr i ght Whi r lwi nd, type J - 5, ai rcraf t engi ne.
SAE Transactions, vol. 21, pt. 2, 1926, pp. 847-866, i llus., drgs., gr aph data.
MEAD, GEORGE J. Wasp and Hor net r adi al ai r-cooled aer onauti c engi nes. SAE Trans-
actions, vol. 21, pt. 2 (1926), pp. 867-886, i llus.
NUTT, ARTHUR. Progress i n ai rcraf t engi ne desi gn. SAE Transactions, vol. 21, pt. 2
(1926), pp. 887-910, i llus., gr aph data.
Pr att & Whi tney anni ver sar y; two hi gh powered r adi al engi nes successf ully pr oduced
wi thi n the year. Aviation, vol. 21, no. 6 (August 9, 1926), pp. 246-249.
WILSON, EUGENE E., CDR. , USN. Ai r-cooled engi nes i n naval ai rcraf t. SAE Transac-
tions, vol. 21, pt. 2 (1926), pp. 812-846.
The trend of ai rcraf t engi ne development. Journal of the American Society of Naval Engineers
(Febr uar y 1926), vol. 38, pp. 130-143, i llus.
106
Cam engi ne passes f i f ty hour test; Fai rchi ld-Cami nez Engi ne Corp. Development an-
nounced as an appr oved type. Aviation, vol. 23, no. 1 (July 4, 1927), pp. 20-21,
i llus.
CARTER, B. C. Dynami c f orces i n ai rcraf t engi nes. Journal of the Royal Aeronautical
Society (Apri l 1927), vol. 31, pp. 277-328, i llus., drgs., gr aph data.
The Conti nental si ngle sleeve valve engi ne. Aviation, vol. 22, no. 17 (Apri l 25, 1927),
p. 826.
Engi nes at the Pari s aero show. Aviation, vol. 22, no. 3 (Januar y 17, 1927), pp. 122-129,
i llus., tab. data.
Perf ormance of Fai rchi ld ai rplane engi ne i mproved. Automotive Industries, vol. 57, no. 5
(July 30, 1927), p. 160. Fai rchi ld Cami nez engi ne.
WILSON, EUGENE E., CDR. , USX. Ameri can ai r-cooled ai rcraf t engi nes. Journal of the
American Society of Naval Engineers (August 1927), vol. 39, pp. 533-543, i llus.
BOURDON, M. W. Huge ai r-cooled ai rplane engi ne develops nearly 800 B.H.P. Auto-
motive Industries, vol. 58, no. 24 (June 16, 1928), pp. 920-921, i llus., gr aph data.
Armstrong-Si ddeley radi al, ai r-cooled engi ne.
CLEMENTS, BISHOP. The metallurgy of ai rcraf t engi nes. ASME, Transactions, vol. 50,
1928, pp. 1-2.
FOKKER, A. H. G. Si ngle-engi ne versus multi -engi ne ai rplanes. SAE Transactions, vol.
23, 1928, pp. 223-227.
MEAD, GEORGE J. The "Wasp" seri es B engi ne. Aviation (June 11, 1928), vol. 24, pp.
1678-1679, 1703-1704, i llus.
WOOLSON, L. M. The Packard X , 24-cyli nder 1500 h.p. water-cooled ai rcraf t engi ne.
SAE Transactions, vol. 23, 1928, pp. 493-504, i llus., drgs., di agrs.
Wr i ght "Whi r lwi nd" Engi ne. Journal of the Franklin Institute, vol. 206, no. 5 (November
1928), r epor t 2890, pp. 681-687, i llus.
BROOKS, DONALD B. Horsepower correcti on f or atmospheri c humi di ty. SAE Trans-
actions, vol. 24, 1929, pp. 273-279, gr aph data.
Conti nental 7-cyli nder ai rcraf t engi ne develops 150 H.P. Automotive Industries, vol. 60,
no. 10 (Mar ch 9, 1929), pp. 404-406, i llus., secti onal drg.
HERON, S. D. The i n-li ne ai r-cooled engi ne. SAE Transactions, vol. 24, 1929, pp. 423-
434, i llus., drgs., di agrs. Especi ally the ai r-cooled Li berty vari ant, the Wr i ght
V-1460, among others.
LEIGHTON, BRUCE G. Racesthe test-block for avi ati on. Aviation, vol. 27, no. 8 (Au-
gust 24, 1929), pp. 393-394.
Lycomi ng develops aero engi ne of radi al type i n two models. Automotive Industries, vol.
61, no. 9 (August 31, 1929), pp. 295-297, i llus., tab. data. The 9-cyli nder R-645
and 7-cyli nder R-500.
STOUT, R. CHEYNE. The development of the Ci rrus engi ne. U.S. Air Services, vol. 14,
no. 4 (Apri l 1929), pp. 53-54.
TAYLOR, C. FAYETTE. A study of the engi nes exhi bi ted at the Olympi a aero show.
Aviation (August 31, 1929), vol. 27, pp. 456-463, i llus., tab. data.
PAGE, VICTOR W. Modern Aviation Engines, 1908 pp., 2 vol., i llus. New York: Nor man W.
Henley Publi shi ng Co., 1929.
See also under Hi story and Technology (GEISSE, 1928; "Li ndber gh' s Wr i ght Whi rl-
wi nd . , " 1927; MEAD, 1925 and 1929; RICARDO, 1930; TAYLOR, 1926).
107
Engines 1930-1934
HALL, E. S. Engi nes havi ng the cyli nders parallel to the shaf t. SAE Journal, vol. 46,
no. 4 (October 1930), pp. 408-412, 476. Tr aces hi stori cal development, i ncludi ng
drgs. f rom several patents.
LOTT, E. P., and SMITH, W. L. The oper ator ' s ai r plane and engi ne r equi r ements. SAE
Journal, vol. 46, no. 4 (October 1930), pp. 393-402, 407.
LYON, A. J. Alumi num alloys of ai rcraf t engi ne pi ston and cyli nder heads.
ASME, Transactions, vol. 52, 1930, pp. 257-269, i llus., di agrs.
SETTLE, T. G. W., LT. , USN. Ai rshi p engi nes. U. S. Naval Insti tute, Proceedings, vol. 56,
no. 8 (August 1930), pp. 745-747.
BANKS, F. ROD WELL. The evoluti on of a Schnei der engi ne. The Aeroplane (October 7,
1931), vol. 41, pp. 864, 866, 868, 870, 782, i llus. Rolls-Royce model R.
CHILTON, ROLAND. Ai r-cooled cyli nder-head desi gn. SAE Transactions, vol. 26, 1931, pp.
542-545.
New crankcase reduces wei ght of Conti nental ai rcraf t engi ne. Automotive Industries,
vol. 64, no. 12 (Mar ch 21, 1931), p. 483. Model A-70 r adi al.
Rolls-Royce, Ltd. ; D. Napi er & Son, Ltd. The Aeroplane (September 9, 1931), vol. 41,
pp. 632, 634, 636. Bri ti sh Schnei der r acer s' power plants.
TAYLOR, PHILIP B. Increasi ng the thr ust horsepower f rom r adi al ai r-cooled engi nes.
SAE Transactions, vol. 26, 1931, pp. 531-541, i llus., di agrs. At thi s ti me Taylor
was chi ef engi neer at Wr i ght Aer o.
DIETRICH, OTTO, and LEHR, ERNST. Das Dehnungsli ni enverf ahren ei n Mi ttel zur
Besti mmung der f ur di e Bruchsi cherei t bei Wechselbeanspr uchung massgebenden
Spannungsvertei lung. eitschrift des Vereines Deutscher Ingenieure, vol. 76, no. 41
(October 8, 1932), pp. 973-982, i llus. Thi s arti cle i ntroduced the very i mpor tant
method of explori ng stresses i n engi ne parts by the bri ttle-lacquer techni que. It
has had a prof oundly benef i ci al ef f ect on engi ne development si nce that ti me.
LOWES, J OSEPH E. The Pr att & Whi tney twi n Wasp J r . engi ne. Journal of the American
Society of Naval Engineers, vol. 44, no. 3 (August 1932), pp. 371-373.
ANGLE, GLENN D. Developments i n hi gh-powered ai rcraf t engi nes. Aero Digest, vol. 23,
no. 4 (October 1933), pp. 41-44, and no. 5 (November 1933), pp. 46-47, i llus.
Emphasi s i s upon li qui d-cooled engi nes.
Compari son of r ecent Eur opean and Amer i can mi li tar y ai rcraf t engi nes. Interavia,
no. 41 (August 24, 1933), pp. 1-2, and no. 42 (August 28, 1933), pp. 1-2.
FEDDEN, A. H. R. Next decade' s aer o engi nes wi ll be advanced but not r adi cal. SAE
Transactions, vol. 28, 1933, pp. 377-401, i llus., drgs., di agrs. Dr aws heavi ly upon
Bri stol's experi ence. Fedden was chi ef engi neer for the engi nes of the Bri stol
Aeroplane Company.
Hi gh-output engi nes: A Bri ti sh poi nt of vi ew and an Amer i can one. Aviation, vol. 32,
no. 10 (October 1933), pp. 321-323.
HILL, HENRY C. 400-hour endur ance test of the Wr i ght Whi r lwi nd R-760E-1. Aero
Digest, vol. 23, no. 3 (September 1933), pp. 50-51.
Pr att & Whi tney two-row engi ne development. Aviation Engineering, vol. 8, no. 4 (Apri l
1933), pp. 17-18, 27, i llus.
TAYLOR, E. S. Radi al engi nes: Thei r power and f rontal ar ea. Aviation, vol. 32, no. 7
(July 1933), pp. 201-202.
108
The Hi spano-Sui za aer o engi nes. Interavia, no. 166 (November 8, 1934), pp. 1-6.
TAYLOR, C. FAYETTE. Power plants i n 1933. Aviation, vol. 34, no. 1 (Januar y 1934),
pp. 19-20.
See also under Hi story and Technology (DAVY and RICHARDS, 1930).
Engines 1935-1939
Pr att & Whi tney E Hor net, 750 h. p. engi ne. Aero Digest, vol. 26, no. 1 (Januar y 1935),
pp. 42-43.
CHATFIELD, CHARLES H. Pr att & Whi tney' s development of the two-row r adi al ai r-
craf t engi ne. Aero Digest, vol. 26, no. 4 (Apri l 1935), pp. 32-34, i llus.
Wr i ght seri es F-50 Cyclone engi nes. Aero Digest, vol. 26, no. 6 (June 1935), pp. 30, 32,
36, i llus.
Bri stol Pegasus Engi ne. Automobile Engineer, vol. 26, no. 346 (June 1936), pp. 221-224.
Bri stol poppet-valve engi ne wi th alumi num heads. Successor to the "Jupi ter . "
LURENBAUM, KARL. Vi br ati on of crankshaf t-propeller Systems. SAE Transactions, vol.
31, 1936, pp. 469-472.
TAYLOR, E. S. Eli mi nati ng crankshaf t torsi onal vi br ati on i n r adi al ai rcraf t engi nes.
SAE Transactions, vol. 31, 1936, pp. 81-89. Theor y and practi ce of tuned absorbers.
WOOD, H. Li qui d-cooled aero engi nes. SAE Transactions, vol. 31, 1936, pp. 267-287,
400, 424, i llus., tab. and gr aph data. Relates chi ef ly to the Rolls-Royce Kestral
engi ne.
1,000 h. p. Wr i ght Cyclone. Aero Digest, vol. 29, no. 3 (September 1936), pp. 32, 35, i llus.
YOUNG, RAYMOND W. Ai r-cooled r adi al ai rcraf t engi ne perf ormance possi bi li ti es. SAE
Transactions, vol. 31, 1936, pp. 234256, i llus., drgs., di agrs., gr aph data. Relates
chi ef ly to Wr i ght Aero's models.
Accent on the aspi r ate; some gli mpses of Napi er ' H' -shaped engi nes i n pr oducti on. Flight,
vol. 31, no. 1485 (June 10, 1937), Engi neeri ng Supplement, pp. a, b, c.
Alli son 1,000 h.p. chemi cally-cooled model 1710 engi ne. Aero Digest, vol. 30, no. 6
(June 1937), pp. 50, 88-89. Thi s engi ne was a close copy of the Rolls-Royce
Mer li n.
FEDDEN, ' A. H. R. Tr end of ai r-cooled aero engi nesthe next f i ve years. SAE Trans-
actions, vol. 32, 1937, pp. 437-454, 467, i llus., drgs., gr aph and tab. data. Ref er-
ences ar e mostly to Bri ti sh and Bri stol developments.
GREGORY, A. T. Features of the i n-li ne ai r-cooled ai rcraf t engi ne. SAE Transactions,
vol. 32, 1937, pp. 473-482, i llus., drgs., tab. and gr aph data. Fai r chi ld SGV-770
Ranger engi ne. Gregory was chi ef engi neer of Ranger .
LOMBARD, A. E., Jr . How many engi nes? The questi on of power plant sub-di vi si on
can' t be solved by the old eeni e, meeni e, mei ni e moe f ormula. Aviation, vol. 36,
no. 7 (July 1937), pp. 30-31, 63-64, 67-68. Includes f ootnote ref erences.
MEAD, GEORGE J. Ai rcraf t power plant tr ends. SAE Transactions, vol. 32, 1937, pp. 455-
467, i llus., drgs., gr aph data. Mor e on Pr att and Whi tney engi nes.
The comi ng of the sleeve valve. Aircraft Engineering, vol. 9, no. 102 (August 1937), pp. 203-
204. Bri stol sleeve-valve engi ne.
How the sleeve valve works. The Aeroplane, vol. 52, no. 1362 (June 30, 1937), p. 816, i llus.
Bri stol sleeve-valve engi ne.
109
CARRY, WILLIAM J. Latest twelve cyli nder Ranger engi nes. Aero Digest, vol. 32, no. 4
(Apri l 1938), pp. 46, 48, 90-91, i llus., gr aph data. Ranger verti cal and V, ai r-cooled
engi ne.
A new ai r-cooled motor. The Aeroplane, vol. 54, no. 1413 (June 22, 1938), pp. 776-778,
i llus., drgs., phantom vi ew. DeHavi lland 525-hp Gypsy 4-cyli nder verti cal f or
li ght planes.
DRAPER, C. S. Gas pressure tor que i n r adi al engi nes. Journal of the Aeonautical Sciences,
vol. 6, no. 1 (November 1938), pp. 1-6, gr aph data, f ootnote ref s.
FEDDEN, A. H. R. The si ngle sleeve as a valve mechani sm f or the ai rcraf t engi ne. SAE
Transactions, vol. 33, 1938, pp. 349-365, i llus., drgs., di agrs., gr aph data.
HAZEN, R. M. , and MONTEITH, O. V. Tor si onal vi br ati on of i n-li ne ai rcraf t engi nes.
SAE Transactions, vol. 33, 1938, pp. 335-341, gr aph data. The Alli son V-1710
engi ne.
Seven cyli nder Lycomi ng; new R-530-D seri es supplements establi shed li ne of ni ne
cyli nder engi nes. Aviation, vol. 37, no. 1 (Januar y 1938), P. 38, i llus., specs.
Perseus pr oducti on. The Aeroplane, vol. 44, no. 1412 (June 15, 1938), pp. 751-752, i llus.,
drgs.
The f i rst sleeve valve engi ne i n pr oducti on. The Aeroplane, vol.44, no. 1403 (Apri l 13, 1938),
p. 453, i llus. Bri stol Perseus X II.
TAYLOR, E. S., and BROWNE, K. A. Vi brati on i solati on of ai rcraf t power plants. Journal
of the Aeronautical Sciences, vol. 6, no. 2 (December 1938), pp. 43-49, di agrs., drgs.,
gr aph data, f ootnote ref s.
BENTLEY, G. P. Vi brati on of radi al ai rcraf t engi nes. Journal of the Aeronautical Sciences,
vol. 6, no. 7 (May 1939), pp. 278-283, and no. 8 (June 1939), pp. 333-341, di agrs.,
tab., and gr aph data, f ootnote ref s.
BROWNE, K. A. Dynami c suspensi ona method of ai rcraf t-engi ne mounti ng. SAE
Transactions, vol. 34, 1939, pp. 185-192. Descri bes 6-degree r ubber mounti ng
for radi al engi nes.
KAMPER, CARLTON. Ai rcraf t engi ne research of the Nati onal Adi vsory Commi ttee f or
Aeronauti cs. Journal of the Aeronautical Sciences, vol. 6, no. 12 (October 1939),
pp. 479-484, i llus., di agrs., gr aph data, f ootnote ref s.
See also under Hi story and Technology ("Search of Archi ves Reveals Interesti ng Engi ne
Hi stori es, " 1938).
Piston Engines 1940 and After
COLWELL, A. T. Moder n ai rcraf t valves. SAE Transactions, vol. 35, 1940, pp. 147-152.
Comprehensi ve descri pti on of cur r ent practi ce.
DEFOREST, A. V., and ELLIS, GREER. Bri ttle lacquers as an ai d to stress analysi s. Journal
of the Aeronautical Sciences, vol. 7, no. 5 (Mar ch 1940), pp. 205-208, i llus., f ootnote
ref s. Adaptati on of Di edri ck and Lehr work i n the Uni ted States.
The development of sodi um cooli ng of exhaust valves. Automotive Industries, vol. 82, no. 9
(May 1, 1940), pp. 417-418, di agrs. R.A.E. tri als of water and mercury i n 1913.
Mi dgeley and Ketter i ng patent on causi ng wetti ng of steel surf ace by mercury,
1917. Salt cooli ng by Her on, 1923, f i rst used i n Wr i ght J - 5 engi ne, 1926. Metal-
li c sodi um f ollowed.
110
Lycomi ng geared 75 h.p. engi ne. Aviation, vol. 39, no. 1 (Januar y 1940), p. 50, i llus.,
specs. Four-cyli nder-opposed geared engi ne f or li ght ai rplanes.
Lycomi ng 12-cyli nder hori zontally opposed engi ne. Aviation, vol. 30, no. 6 (June 1940),
p. 114. A very bri ef i tem.
MOREHOUSE, HAROLD E. Li ght ai rcraf t engi ne developments. Journal of the Aeronautical
Sciences, vol. 8, no. 10 (August 1941), pp. 393-400, i llus., di agrs., exploded vi ews,
gr aph data. Includes some very small engi nes, never wi dely used.
BROWNBACK, HENRY L. Development of the radi al engi ne for mi li tary uses. Auto-
motive Industries, vol. 84, no. 4 (Febr uar y 15, 1941), 156-160, i llus., degs. Hi stori cal
account of Anzani f an and r adi al ai r-cooled engi nes. Brownback bui lt small engi nes
i n the Uni ted States, based on Anzani practi ces.
HAZEN, R. M. The Alli son ai rcraf t engi ne development. SAE Transactions, vol. 36,
1941, pp. 488-500, i llus., drgs., di agrs., gr aph and tab. data.
YOUNG, RAYMOND W. Mercedes-Benz DB-601A ai rcraf t engi ne: Desi gn f eatures and
perf ormance characteri sti cs. SAE Transactions, vol. 36, 1941, pp. 409-431, i llus.,
drgs., gr aph data. Thr ee excellent Bri ti sh phantom vi ew drgs. f rom The Aeroplane.
The B.M.W. 801 aero-engi ne. Aircraft Engineering, vol. 14, no. 162 (August 1942), pp.
223-227, i llus., schemati c drgs.
Ger man BMW 801 Engi ne. Automotive Industries, vol. 89, no. 3 (August 1, 1943), p. 44.
Phantom vi ew dr awi ng f rom The Aeroplane.
CAVE, MYLES V. Desi gn detai ls of the BMW-801A engi ne. Aviation, vol. 42, no. 11
(November 1942), pp. 228-229, 291-294, 296, and no. 12 (December 1942), pp.
256-257, 259, i llus. Accompani ed by excellent Bri ti sh drawi ngs f rom Flight
magazi ne.
OLDBERG, SIDNEY, and BALL, THOMAS M. Desi gn f eatures of the Junker s 21 IB ai rcraf t
engi ne. SAE Transactions, vol. 50, 1942, pp. 465-483, i llus., di agrs., gr aph and
extensi ve tab. data.
OVEYS, W. G. Some notes on desi gn f eatures of the Mi tsubi shi Ki nsei engi ne. SAE
Transactions, vol. 50, 1942, pp. 253-266, i llus.
SHEFFIELD, F. C. The B.M.W. 801A; detai ls of Ger many' s latest twi n-row r adi al power
pl ant. Flight, vol. 42, no. 1755 (August 13, 1942), pp. 169-173, and no. 1756
(August 20, 1942), pp. 201-202, i llus., drgs., phantom vi ew, exploded vi ews.
YOSHIKAWA, HARUO. Japan' s Power Uni ts. Flight, vol. 42, no. 1751 (July 16, 1942),
pp. 70-72, i llus. Author was Japanese naval attache, Berli n. Hi s arti cle i s tr ans-
lated f rom Luftwissen.
CARTER, B. C , and FORSHAW, J. R. Tor si ogr aph observati ons on a Mer li n II engi ne,
usi ng a serrated condenser pi ck-up wi th f i ve di f f erent pi tch setti ngs of the propeller
blades. Reports and Memoranda, Aero Resear ch Commi ttee, no. 1983, Jul y 1943.
Lycomi ng "packaged power " uni t. Automotive Industries, vol. 89, no. 10 (November 15,
1943), p. 23, i llus. A 775-lb, 162-hp, hor i zontally opposed model.
ELLOR, J. E. The development of the Mer li n engi ne. SAE Transactions, vol. 52 (1944),
pp. 385-392.
FEDDEN, A. H. R. Ai rcraf t power plantpast and f uture. Journal of the Royal Aeronautical
Society (October 1944), vol. 48, pp. 397-459, i llus., drgs., di agrs., gr aph data.
Thi s was the 32nd Wi lbur Wr i ght memor i al lecture. Also i n Flight, vol. 45, no.
1849 (June 1, 1944), pp. 578-583, and no. 1850 (June 8, 1944), pp. 611-615,
i llus., drgs., phantom vi ews, gr aph data.
I l l
GERDAN, DIMITRIUS. Late developments of the Alli son ai rcraf t engi ne. SAE Transactions,
vol. 53, 1945, pp. 95-102, i llus., drgs., gr aph data.
HERRMANN, KARL L. Cam engi nes for ai rcraf t. Aero Digest, vol. 48, no. 1 (Januar y 1945),
pp. 100-101, i llus.
New Conti nental ai rcraf t engi nes. Automotive Industries, vol. 93, no. 12 (December 15,
1945), pp. 31, 92, 94, i llus., tab. data. Models A-100, C-115, and C-125.
Ranger ai r-cooled, i n-li ne engi ne. Aero Digest, vol. 49, no. 5 (June 1, 1915), pp. 72-76,
136, 138, i llus., drgs., phantom vi ew.
ANDERSON, R. G. Impr ovi ng engi ne parts by di rect measurement of strai n. SAE Trans-
actions, vol. 54, 1946, pp. 466-475. Extensi ve gr aph data.
LOVESAY, A. C. Development of the Rolls-Royce Mer li n f rom 1939 to 1945. Aircraft
Engineering, vol. 18, no. 209 (July 1946), pp. 218-226. Bri lli antly i llustrated wi th
numerous cross-secti ons, schemati cs, and phantom vi ew drawi ngs.
BANKS, F. R. The ar t of the avi ati on engi ne. Flight, vol. 53, no. 2055 (May 13, 1948),
pp. 530-531, 534, i llus. Di scussi on of development ti me of vari ous types of ai r-
craf t engi nes. Summar y of the f i rst Loui s Bleri ot lecture, gi ven bef ore the A. F. I. T. A.
i n Pari s.
Napi er Nomad: An engi ne of outstandi ng ef f i ci ency. Flight, vol. 65, no. 2362 (Apri l 30,
1954), pp. 543-551, i llus., drgs., f old-out phantom vi ew, gr aph data.
See also under Hi story and Technology (ANGLE, ed., Aerosphere, 1939-1943; "The Avi ati on
Industr y, " 1952; BANKS, 1950; HERON, 1961; HOBBS, 1954; SCHLAIFER and HERON,
1950; "The Two R' s Rolls Royce Aero Engi nes, " 1954; WILKINSON, 1944-).
Steam Engines
Flyi ng machi ne work and the % I.H.P. steam motor wei ghi ng 3% lbs. Journal of the
Royal Society of New South Wales, 1892, p. 170.
WILSON, EUGENE E., CDR. , USN. Steam power plants i n ai rcraf t. NACA Technical Note,
no. 239, 1926, 32 pp., f old-out di agr., bi bl. of 4 i tems. Di scusses the general
f i ndi ngs of the Navy's Bureau of Steam Engi neeri ng's Commi ttee on Exper i mental
Power, ca. 1922.
CADDELL, ALFRED M. Steam power for ai rcraf t. Aero News and Mechanics (Junef uly
1930), pp. 26-27, 76, 79, 96, i llus.
POLESINE, JOTTI DA BADIA. II motore a vapore ed il suo i mpi ego i n aer onauti ca. L'Aero-
technica, vol. 11, no. 12 (December 1931), pp. 1555-1564. 19th-century experi -
ments wi th steam engi nes for ai rcraf t.
A steam dri ven ai rplane engi ne. Scientific American, vol. 149, no. 3 (September 1933),
pp. 124125, i llus., di agr. Besler's steam engi ne i n a Tr avelai r ai r plane.
GRUBERG, V. L. Steam i n the ai r ; early attempts to use steam power i n ai rcraf t. Flight,
vol. 42, no. 1753 (July 30, 1942), pp. 115-118, i llus., drgs., di agrs.
MURPHY, FRANK L. Si r Hi r am' s steam-powered wi nged machi nes. The Bee Hive, vol.
33, no. 3 (summer 1958), pp. 7-11, i llus.
Diesel Engines
WOOLSON, L. M. Di esel engi nes f or ai rcraf t. SAE Transactions, vol. 24, 1929, pp. 435-
444. Packar d di esel. Fi rst di esel to f ly i n heavi er -than-ai r craf t.
112
GASTERSTADT, J. Development of the Junker s di esel ai rcraf t engi ne. A paper r ead be-
f ore the Wi ssenschaf tli che Gesellschaf t f ur Luf tf ahrt, trans, f rom Automobiltechnische
Zeitschrift (Januar y 10 and 20, 1930). NACA Technical Memorandum, no. 565,
1930, 25 pp. , i llus., drgs., di agrs. The most successf ul ai rplane di esel.
HEINZE, EDWIN P. A. Junker s develops di esel engi ne f or ai rcraf t use. Automotive Indus-
tries, vol. 62, no. 4 (Januar y 25, 1930), pp. 121-122, i llus.
WARNER, EDWARD P. The Packar d ai rcraf t di esel. Aviation, vol. 28, no. 14 (Apri l 5,
1930), pp. 684-691, i llus.
WOOLSON, L. M. The Packar d di esel ai rcraf t engi ne. SAE Transactions, vol. 25, 1930,
pp. 236-248, i llus. drgs.
Bear dmor e compressi on-i gni ti on engi nes. The Aeroplane (Apri l 29, 1931), vol. 40, p. 792.
Gui berson Di esel Engi ne. Aviation, vol. 31, no. 4 (Apri l 1932), p. 195, drg.
MELCHIOR, FREDERICK. The Junker s "Jumo 4" heavy oi l ai rcraf t engi ne. Journal of
the American Society of Naval Engineers (February 1932), vol. 44, pp. 104-109, i llus.
WEBB, L. D. , LCDR. , USN. The di esels take the ai r. U.S. Air Services, vol. 17, no. 3
(Mar ch 1932), pp. 20-23.
The heavy oi l aer o engi ne i n England. Interavia, no. 34 (July 31, 1933), pp. 1-3.
The progress of the heavy oi l engi ne i n Fr ance. Interavia, no. 18 (June 6, 1933), pp. 1-3,
and no. 19 (June 8, 1933), pp. 1-2.
1200 h.p. di esel. Aviation, vol. 33, no. 8 (August 1934), pp. 271-272.
KENNEDY, JOHN B. A hi story of di esel engi nes. Flying and Popular Aviation, vol. 20, no.
3 (Mar ch 1937), pp. 36-38, 65.
Schwerolmotoren i m Ozeanver kehr ; Nordatlanti kf luge der Deutschen Luf thansa.
Junkers-Nachrichten, vol. 9, no. 11 (November 1938), pp. 281-285, i llus. Use of the
Junker s di esel engi ne i n commerci al ai rplanes.
VOGT, RICHARD. A f ami ly of motor mounti ngs. The Aeroplane, vol. 44, no. 1414 (June 29,
1938), pp. 813-815, i llus., drgs. Junker s Jumo di esel.
SAMMONS, HERBERT, and CHATTERTON, ERNEST. Napi er Nomad ai rcraf t di esel engi ne.
SAE Transactions, vol. 63, 1955, pp. 107-131, i llus., drgs., di agrs., gr aph data.
Includes a phantom vi ew of the engi ne. An experi mental 24-cyli nder 2-cycle
tur bo-compound di esel engi ne, the last try at thi s type.
MEYER, ROBERT B., Jr . The f i rst ai r plane di esel engi ne: Packar d model DR-980 of 1928.
Smithsonian Annals of Flight, vol. 1, no. 2, 1964, 48 pp., i llus., drgs., tab. data.
BLACKALL, T. E. Ai rcraf t oi l engi nes. Air Pictorial, vol. 28, no. 8 (August 1966), pp.
282-284, i llus.
See also under Hi story and Technology (WILKINSON, 1940). Under Engines 1930-1934
(SETTLE, 1930). And under NACA Repor ts: 12th, 1926 (GARDINER) ; 14th, 1929
(JOACHIM and KEMPER) ; 17th, 1931 (ROTHROCK) ; 18th, 1932 (ROTHROCK) ; 20th,
1935 (SPANOGLE and WHITNEY) ; 22nd, 1936 (ROTHROCK and WALDRON, FOSTER) ;
23rd, 1937 (MOORE and COLLINS).
Jet, Rocket, and Turbine Engines
KOLEROFF, B. T. Possi bi li ty of reacti ve propulsi on i n ai r. Aviation, vol. 10, no. 21 (May 16,
1921), pp. 624-625.
Jet Propulsi on i n Fr ance. The Aeroplane (Febr uar y 27, 1924), vol. 26, p. 176. The
Melot engi ne.
113
ROY, MAURICE. Propulsi on by reacti on. Tr ansl. f rom La Technique Aeronautique (Jan-
uar y 15, 1930). NACA Technical Memorandum, no. 571, 1930, 22 pp., drgs., gr aph
data. Di scusses soli d and li qui d-f ueled rockets.
An i nternal combusti on tur bi ne. The Aeroplane (May 27, 1931), vol. 40, pp. 980, 982, 984,
i llus. The Fr ench Berti n engi ne.
RICHARDSON, E. G. Jet propulsi on f or ai rcraf t. Journal of the Royal Aeronautical Society
(Januar y 1931), vol. 35, pp. 29-36. Drgs. Emphasi s is on rocket power.
Hei zlof tstrahltri ebwerke. Flugsport, vol. 31, no. 1 (Januar y 4, 1939), pp. 1-5; no. 2
(Januar y 18, 1939), pp. 31-36; no. 3 (Febr uar y 1, 1939), pp. 70-75; no. 4 (Febr uar y
15, 1939), pp. 100-104. Illus., drgs. Jet propulsi on, mostly hi stori cal.
SMITH, G. GEOFFREY. Possi bi li ti es of jet propulsi on. Flight, vol. 40, September 11, 1941,
pp. 155-158; September 25, 1941, pp. 190-192, 201; October 9, 1941, pp. 239-242.
Illus. An excellent hi stori cal survey.
Ther mal-ai r jet-propulsi on. Aircraft Engineering, vol. 14, no. 156 (Febr uar y 1942), pp.
32-39, i llus., drgs. A translati on of the Flugsport (1939) arti cle.
STEMMER, J. The development of jet or rocket propulsi on. Journal of the Royal Aeronautical
Society (December 1943), vol. 47, pp. 500-518.
WHITTLE, SIR FRANK. The early hi story of the Whi ttle jet-propulsi on gas tur bi ne. The
Aeroplane, vol. 69, October 19, 1945, pp. 445-452; November 2, 1945, pp. 503-507;
November 9, 1945, pp. 543-546. Illus. photos, di agrs., tab. data. Whi ttle developed
and pr omoted the f i rst successf ul jet engi ne wi th a centri f ugal compressor. Con-
currently, jets wi th axi al compressors were developed i n Ger many.
FLAGLE, CHARLES D., and GODSEY, FRANK W., J R. Gas turbi ne-propeller, jet dri ve and
reci procati ng engi nes. Aero Digest, vol. 50, no. 3 (August 1, 1945), pp. 60-63,
134, 137, gr aph data.
ZUCROW, M. J. The rocket power plant. SAE Transactions, vol. 54, 1946, pp. 375-388,
i llus., di agrs., drgs., gr aph data. Aerojet's J ATO motors.
The B.M.W. 003 jet propulsi on engi ne. Aircraft Engineering, vol. 18, no. 204 (Febr uar y
1946), pp. 43-49, 62, i llus., di agrs., drgs., gr aph and tab. data, and one large
f old-out drg.
Notes on the Westi nghouse jet engi ne; some parti culars of one of the f i rst successf ul Amer-
i can axi al compressor engi nes. Aircraft Engineering, vol. 18, no. 210 (August 1946),
pp. 254-258, i llus., drgs., di agrs., tab. data.
LUNDQ UIST, W. G., and COLE, R. W. BMW-003 turbo-jet engi ne compar ed wi th the
Jumo 004. SAE Transactions, vol. 54, 1946, pp. 503-510, i llus., gr aph data.
Notes on the Bri stol Theseus heat-exchanger propeller tur bi ne. Aircraft Engineering, vol.
18, no. 213 (November 1946), pp. 366-371, i llus., drgs., di agrs., phantom vi ew,
gr aph and tab. data.
BOXTER, A. D. Ai rcraf t rocket motors, wi th speci al ref erence to Ger man developments
wi th hydrogen peroxi de. Aircraft Engineering, vol. 19, no. 222 (August 1947), pp.
249-257, i llus., di agrs., gr aph data.
MAGUIRE, D. R. Enemy jet hi story. Journal of the Royal Aeronautical Society (Januar y
1948), vol. 52, pp. 75-84, i llus., drgs., di agrs., bi bl.
The development of tur bi ne engi nes i n Fr ance. Aircraft Engineering, vol. 21, no. 246
(August 1949), pp. 244-247; no. 247 (September 1949), pp. 293-296; and no. 248
(October 1949), pp. 328-330. Illus., drgs., di agrs., gr aph data.
114
Proteus and coupled-Proteus turbi nes. The Aeroplane, vol. 77, no. 2009 (December 9,
1949), pp. 783-787, i llus., di agrs., gr aph data, and phantom vi ew dr g.
Jet controversy. Interavia, vol. 7, no. 9, 1952, pp. 502-503. Whi ttle and Hei nkel.
DRIGGS, I. H., and LANCASTER, O. E. Gas tur bi ne development: Avi ati on. ASME,
Transactions, vol. 75 (1953), pp. 217-234, i llus., di agrs., gr aph and tab. data, bi bl.
of 10 i tems.
TAYLOR, P. B. The f i rst 100 years of ai rcraf t powerplants. SAE Journal, vol. 63, no. 2
(Febr uar y 1955), pp. 89-92. Past and f uture "hi stor y" to the year 2005. Includes
mater i al on early jet engi nes.
MARTIN, JAMES A. The record-setti ng research ai rplanes. Aerospace Engineering, vol. 21,
no. 12 (December 1962), pp. 49-54, i llus., tab. and gr aph data, bi bl. Fr om Bell
X - l to Nor th Amer i can X -15, i ncludi ng data on thei r engi nes.
ELTIS, E. M., and MORLEY, F. W. The engi ne's contri buti on to economi c short-haul
jet tr anspor t. SAE Transactions, vol. 73, 1965, pp. 609-620, i llus. char t, gr aph
and tab. data.
See also under Hi story and Technology (DRIGGS and LANCASTER, 1955; GODDARD and
PENDRAY, 1961; LEY, 1961; PRATT, 1965; SMITH, 1942). And under NACA
Repor ts, 9th, 1923 (BUCKINGHAM).
Related Techni cal Developments
For arti cles contai ni ng i nf ormati on on engi ne vi brati on and i ts control see under Hi story
and Technology (HOLZER, 1921). Also under Ai rcraf t Powerplants, Engines 1925-1929
(CARTER, 1927). Engines 1935-1939 (LURENBAUM, 1936; TAYLOR, 1936; DRAPER, 1938;
HAZEN and MONTIETH, 1938; TAYLOR and BROWNE, 1938; BENTLEY, 1939; BROWNE,
1939). Piston Engines 1940 and after (CARTER and FORSHAW, 1943).
For arti cles contai ni ng i nf ormati on on valves see under Ai rcraf t Powerplants, Engines
1920-1924 (HERON, 1922). Engines 1935-1939 ("The Comi ng of the Sleeve Valve" 1937;
How the Sleeve Valve Wor ks, " 1937; FEDDEN, 1938). Piston Engines 1940 and After
(COLWELL, 1940, "The Development of Sodi um Cooli ng of Exhaust Valves, " 1940).
Altitude Performance and Supercharging
Ameri can engi ne tests under hi gh alti tude condi ti ons. The Aeroplane, vol. 17, August 27,
1919, pp. 835-838, and September 3, 1919, pp. 921-924. Gr aph data.
HALLETT, E. A. Super char ger s and superchargi ng engi nes. SAE Journal, vol. 5, no. 5
(November 1919), pp. 371-375. Sherbondy (1918) wi th the U. S. Rateau-Bateau
Smoot Co. ; thr ee examples bui lt (1919); poor cooli ng. G.E. machi ne tested at
Pi ke's Peak (1918); new G.E. type under test i n f li ght (1919).
GAGE, V. R. Some f actors of engi ne perf ormance. SAE Transactions, vol. 15, pt. 1, 1920,
pp. 963-982. Analysi s of Bureau of Standar ds alti tude chamber tests.
SPARROW, S. W. Flyi ng an ai rplane engi ne on the ground. SAE Transactions, vol. 15,
pt. 1, 1920, pp. 608-624. Consi derable gr aph data; relates to laboratory and test
stand work.
DEBOTHEZAT, GEORGE. Ai rplane perf ormance as i nf luenced by the supercharged engi ne.
NACA Technical Note, no. 2, 1920, 7 pp.
115
DEVILLERS, RENE. The problem of the turbo-compressor. NACA Technical Note, no. 11,
1920, 28 pp.
SCHWAGER, OTTO. Notes on the desi gn of supercharged and over-di mensi oned ai rcraf t
motors. Tr ansl. f rom Technische Berichte, vol. 3. NACA Technical Note, no. 7, 1920,
6 pp.
MCCREADY, JOHN A. Functi oni ng of supercharger i n alti tude f li ght. Aviation, vol. 12,
no. 2 (Januar y 9, 1922), p. 51. McCr eady, as pi lot of the LePere ai r plane wi th a
turbo-supercharged Li berty engi ne made the world's hi gh-alti tude record i n 1921.
GREGG, DAVID. Superchargers. Aviation, vol. 19, no. 4 (July 27, 1925), pp. 90-92,
i llus., drgs.
GARDNER, ARTHUR W. A Roots-type engi ne supercharger. SAE Transactions, vol. 21,
pt. 2 (1926), pp. 911-943, i llus., drgs., gr aph data.
SHORT, C. R. Superchargi ng i nternal-combusti on engi nes. SAE Transactions, vol. 21,
pt. 1, 1926, pp. 235-274, i llus., drgs. Hi story as of 1925. Fi rst G.E. model, May
1918, on Li berty engi ne; f i rst f li ght, spri ng of 1919.
FEDDEN, A. H. R. The superchargi ng of ai rcraf t and motor-vehi cle engi nes. Journal
of the Royal Aeronautical Society (September 1927), vol. 31, pp. 933-972, i llus., drgs.,
di agrs., graph data.
KORVIN-KROUKOVSKY, B. V. The hi gh alti tude ai r plane; engi neeri ng problems i n the
desi gn of an ai rplane to navi gate i n the stratosphere. Aviation, vol. 26, no. 16
(Apri l 20, 1929), Aeronauti cal Engi neeri ng Secti on, pp. LIV-LX I; and no. 20
(May 18, 1929), pp. LXXVIII-LXXXIV.
Roots supercharger on Soucek plane proves ef f i ci ency of blower type. Automotive Indus-
tries, vol. 60, no. 24 (June 15, 1929), pp. 911-913, i llus. Comments on the 1929
world's alti tude record wi th thi s equi pment.
JOHNSTON, S. PAUL. The present status of ai rcraf t engi ne superchargers. Aviation, vol.
29, no. 6 (December 1930), pp. 358-359.
BERGER, A. L., and Chenoweth, Opi e. The tur bo supercharger. SAE Transactions, vol.
26, 1931, pp. 592-607, i llus., gr aph data. Emphasi s is hi stori cal.
SCHEY, OSCAR W. Superchargers and superchargi ng. SAE Transactions, vol. 26, 1931,
pp. 581-591, i llus., gr aph data.
CUMMINGS, H. K., and GARLOCK, E. A. Alti tude labor ator y tests of ai rcraf t engi nes.
ASME, Transactions, vol. 54, 1932, pp. 53-60, i llus.
RAGAZZI, PAOLO. The power of ai rcraf t engi nes at alti tude. NACA Technical Memo-
randum, no. 895, 1939, 38 pp. , i llus., di agrs., graph and tab. data, bi bl. of 5 i tems.
GASTERSTADT, J. Junker s di esel motors and superchargi ng. The Aeroplane, vol. 42, no.
1342 (February 10, 1937), pp. 165-169, i llus., drgs., gr aph data. A Li li enthal
Gesellschaf t lecture. Ger man appli cati on of the turbo-supercharger.
SARRACINO, MARCELLO. New method of calculati ng the power at alti tude of ai rcraf t
engi nes equi pped wi th superchargers on the basi s of tests made under sea-
level condi ti ons. NACA Technical Memorandum, no. 981, 1941, 32 pp., gr aph
data, bi bl. of 6 i tems.
KENDRICK, JAMES B. Gr ound versus f li ght tests of ai r plane engi ne i nstallati ons. SAE
Transactions, vol. 50, 1942, pp. 241-251, i llus., di agrs., gr aph data, and a 7-i tem
bi bli ogr aphy.
116
Above the dar k blue weather ; ai rplanes that are to f ly i n the stratosphere. Aviation, vol.
31, no. 5 (May 1932), pp. 225-226, i llus., drgs.
DROEGMULLER, E. A., and HERSEY, D. S. The relati on of i ntake-charge cooli ng to engi ne
perf ormance. SAE Transactions, vol. 52, 1944, pp. 614-620, gr aph data.
CAMPBELL, KENNETH, and TALBERT, JOHN E. Some advantages and li mi tati ons of cen-
tri f ugal and axi al ai rcraf t superchargers. SAE Transactions, vol. 53, 1945, pp.
607-618, i llus., gr aph data.
A pi oneer passes. The Aeroplane (November 22, 1946), vol. 71, p. 611. Obi tuar y, Dr .
Sanf ord Moss.
Also see arti cles i n the f ollowi ng NACA Repor ts: 1st, 1915; 3d, 1917; 4th, 1918; 6th, 1920;
11th, 1925; 13th, 1927; 14th, 1928; 16th, 1930; 17th, 1931.
Cooling, Cowling, and Radiators
BLACK, ARCHIBALD. Ai rcraf t r adi ator s. SAE Transactions, vol. 14, pt. 1, 1919, pp. 534
577. Complete and well documented, f rom early Wr i ght machi ne to date; i n-
cludes a 43-i tem bi bl.
PARSONS, SAMUEL R. Desi gn f actors f or ai r plane r adi ator s. SAE Transactions, vol. 15,
pt. 1, 1920, pp. 591-608.
The Lambli n Radi ator . The Aeroplane (Januar y 19, 1921), vol. 20, p. 66, i llus.
Clark plane and Low-Dr ag Cowl. Aviation, vol. 26, no. 12 (Mar ch 23, 1929), p. 898.
Anti ci pati on of NACA cowli ng i n 1921.
WEICK, FRED E. The new NACA low dr ag cowli ng. Aviation, vol. 25, no. 21 (November
17, 1928), pp. 1556-1557, 1586, 1588, 1590, i llus.
BRIDGMAN, LEONARD, and JAMES, THURSTAN. The cowli ng of ai r-cooled engi nes. The
Aeroplane (Januar y 30, 1929), vol. 36, pp. 160A- 164A, i llus.
ANGLE, GLENN D. Radi al vs. i n-li ne engi nes. ASME, Transactions, vol. 51, 1929, pp.
189-196. Par t of the ai r- versus li qui d-cooli ng controversy.
FRANK, G. W. Hi gh temper atur e li qui d cooli ng. SAE Transactions, vol. 24, 1929, pp.
445^ -59. i llus., gr aph data. Relates to use of engi ne coolants other than water.
Mor e about the cowli ng of ai r-cooled engi nes. The Aeroplane (Apri l 24, 1929), vol. 36,
pp. 653-654, 656, i llus.
SWAN, ANDREW. Recent developments i n cooli ng aero-engi nes. Journal of the Royal
Aeronautical Society (Mar ch 1931), vol. 35, pp. 179-206. Summar i zed i n The
Aeroplane (November 26, 1930), vol. 34, pp. 1240-1244.
TOWNEND, H. C. H. The Townend ri ng. Journal of the Royal Aeronautical Society (October
1930), vol. 34, pp. 813-848, i llus., drgs., di agrs., gr aph data.
BOYD, PAUL M. Engi ne cowl ri ngs. ASME, Transactions, vol. 54, 1932, pp. 93-101.
Hi stori cal poi nt of vi ew.
HIGGINBOTHAM, R. R. Engi ne cooli ng problems wi th venturi cowli ng. SAE, Trans-
actions, vol. 27, 1932, 84-92, i llus., di agrs., tab. data. Cowli ng of r adi al engi nes;
experi nce of Stear man Ai rcraf t Co.
BEISEL, REX B., MACCLAIN, A. L., and THOMAS, F. M. The cowli ng and cooli ng of r adi al
engi nes. Journal of the Royal Aeronautical Society (July 1934), vol. 38, pp. 613-650,
i llus., di agrs., gr aph data. Or gi nally gi ven as a paper bef ore ASME 1934 annual
meeti ng.
117
KEMPER, C. Fi n and baf f le desi gn f or ai r-cooled engi nes. SAE Transactions, vol. 29,
1934, pp. 370-376. Summar y of work by NACA.
NORTH, J. D. Engi ne cowli ng. Journal of the Royal Aeronautical Society (July 1934), vol . 38,
pp. 566-612, i llus., di agrs., gr aph data. Broad hi stori cal tr eatment.
SHOEMAKER, J. M. , RHINES, T. B., and SARGENT, H. H., J R. Fur ther progress i n controlled
cooli ng of r adi al engi nes. SAE Transactions, vol. 30, 1935, pp. 349-360, i llus.,
di agrs., gr aph data. Relates to cowl f laps.
Ducted radi ators f or aero-engi nes. Interavia, no. 357 (September 3, 1936), pp. 1-3.
ANDERSON, P. A. Ai r-cooled r adi al ai rcraf t engi ne i nstallati on. SAE Transactions, vol.
31, 1936, pp. 341-350, i llus., drgs., di agr s.
WOOD, DONALD H. Engi ne nacelles and propellers and ai r plane perf ormance. SAE
Transactions, vol. 38, 1936, pp. 148-160, i llus., drgs., di agrs., tab. and gr aph data.
BEISEL, REX B. Why use cowl f laps? Journal of the Aeronautical Sciences, vol. 4, no. 5 (May
1937), pp. 185-191, i llus.
CAMPBELL, KENNETH. Cyli nder cooli ng and dr ag of r adi al engi ne i nstallati ons. SAE
Transactions, vol. 33, 1938, pp. 515-528, i llus., dr gs., gr aph data. Relates to
cowli ngs, cowl f laps, and baf f le desi gns.
LEE, JOHN G. Ai r-cooled vs. li qui d-cooled ai rcraf t. Journal of the Aeronautical Sciences,
vol. 8, no. 6 (Apri l 1941), pp. 219-229, i llus., di agrs., gr aph data.
RICKERT, P., and HELD, A. Heat transf er i n geometri cally si mi lar cyli nders. NACA
Technical Memorandum, no. 977, 1941, 11 pp., gr aph data, bi bl. of 3 i tems.
Also see arti cles i n the f ollowi ng NACA Repor ts: 4th, 1918; 5th, 1919; 6th, 1920; 13th,
1927; 15th, 1929; 21st, 1935; 23rd, 1937; 24th, 1938; 25th, 1939.
Carburetors, Carburetion, and Fuel Injection
Development of Stromberg carburetors. Aviation, vol. 23, no. 5 (August 1, 1927), p. 247.
WILLGOOS, A. V. D. Pr att and Whi tney f uel i njecti on system. U.S. Air Services, vol.
17, No. 2 (Febr uar y 1932), pp. 35-36.
CLOTHIER, W. C. Ice f ormati on i n carburetors. Journal of the Royal Aeronautical Society
(September 1935), vol. 39, pp. 761-806, di agrs., gr aph data.
Pr att & Whi tney automati c power and mi xtur e control. Aero Digest, vol. 26, no. 1
(July 1935), pp. 38-40, 42.
Automati c mi xtur e: New Pr att & Whi tney car bur etor control gets long workout on f i rst
Pan Ameri can f li ght. Aviation, vol. 34, no. 6 (June 1935), pp. 35-36.
BEARDSLEY, GUY E. An automati c power and mi xtur e control f or ai rcraf t engi nes.
SAE Transactions, vol. 37, 1935, pp. 301-306, i llus., di agrs., gr aph data.
Automati c power and mi xtur e control. TheAeroplane,\o\. 52 (May 5, 1937), pp. 540-541,
di agrs.
KITTLER, M. J. A non-i ci ng f ully maneuver able ai rcraf t car bur etor . SAE Transactions,
vol. 34, 1939, pp. 357-364, i llus., gr aph data.
The Str omber g i njecti on type ai rcraf t car bur etor . Automotive Industries, vol. 84, no. 12
(June 15, 1941), pp. 620-624.
Thr ee Ger man engi ne f uel systems. Aircraft Engineering, vol. 15, no. 175 (September
1943), pp. 248-253, and no. 176 (October 1943), pp. 293-302. Bri lli antly i llus-
tr ated. These f uel-i njecti on systems are f rom the BMW 132, the Bramo-Faf hi r
323P, and the BMW 801.
118
WEIGAND, F. J. Car bur eti on f or the ai rcraf t engi ne. SAE Transactions, vol. 51 (1943),
pp. 294-303, i llus., drgs., di agrs., gr aph data.
THORNER, ROBERT H. Aircraft carburetion. New Yor k: John Wi ley, 1946. 393 pp. ,
i llus., di agr s. The book i s an outgr owth of a seri es of lectures gi ven at the Uni -
versi ty of Mi chi gan dur i ng 1942.
LANGE, GEORGE M. Fuel i njecti on for low-horsepower ai rcraf t engi nes. SAE Journal
(Apri l 1947), vol. 55, pp. 48-52, i llus., drgs.
REID, R. A. S. Aero-engi ne i njecti on car bur etor s. Aircraft Engineering, vol. 19, no. 216
(Febr uar y 1947), pp. 38-42, di agrs. and phantom vi ew.
Impr oved f uel-i njecti on system f or Mercedes-Benz engi ne. Automotive Industries, vol. 119,
no. 8 (October 15, 1958), p. 63, i llus., di agrs.
WISEMAN, Wi lli am A. Conti nental' s f uel i njecti on f or busi ness ai rcraf t. Automotive
Industries, vol. 118, no. 8 (Apri l 15, 1958), pp. 55-60, 154155, di agrs.
Also see arti cles i n the f ollowi ng NACA Repor ts: 2d, 1916; 4th, 1920; 19th, 1933.
Instruments and Accessories
MACHOL, MORRIS R. Spar k gaps i n seri es wi th spark plugs. Aviation, vol. 2, no. 11
(July 1, 1917), p. 498. Condensati on of a paper gi ven at 10th annual conventi on
of the Nati onal Gas Engi ne Assn., June 7, 1917.
BLACK, ARCHIBALD. Exhaust headers and muf f lers f or ai rplane engi nes. SAE Transac-
tions, vol. 13, pt. 2, 1918, pp. 292-306, i llus., drgs., bi bl.
HEALD, R. H. Perf ormance of a vane-dri ven gear pump. NACA Technical Note, no. 61,
1921, 20 pp. , di agrs., gr aph data.
The aer omar i ne starter. Aviation, vol. 19, no. 13 (September 28, 1925), pp. 391-392.
Fi rst i nerti a type.
The Heywood i njector starter. Aviation, vol. 23, no. 24 (December 12, 1927), pp. 1408-
1409. A combi ned ai r and gasoli ne type.
ROBERTSON, E. A., and HULL, L. M. Suppressi ng i gni ti on-i nterf erence on radi o-equi pped
ai rcraf t. SAE Transactions, vol. 25, 1930, pp. 260-266, i llus., di agrs.
Hi story of the sci nti lla magneto. Aviation Engineering, vol. 8, no. 1 (Januar y 1933), p. 27.
STUNKEL, REAGAN C. Ai rcraf t accessori es: Spark plugs. Southwestern Aviation, vol. 2,
no. 3 (September 1934), pp. 14-15.
BOYNTON, H. G. Autosyn r emote i ndi cati ng system. Aero Digest, vol. 28, no. 5 (May
1936), pp. 48, 50. Remote-r eadi ng i nstruments f or engi nes i n very large ai rcraf t.
GRAY, HAROLD E. Radi o shi eldi ng on ai r transports. SAE Transactions, vol. 32, 1937,
pp. 527-530. At thi s date Gr ay was a captai n wi th Pan Amer i can Ai rways;
later became presi dent of the organi zati on.
Hydr auli c starter f or ai rcraf t engi ne. Automotive Industries, vol. 76, no. 17 (Apri l 24,
1937), p. 622, i llus., di agr.
CRONSTEDT, VAL. Shortcomi ngs of mi ca i nsulati on f or avi ati on spark plugs. SAE
Journal, vol. 46, no. 6 (June 1940), pp. 233-235.
RIDDLE, FRANK H. Cer ami c i nsulators f or spark plugs. SAE Journal, vol. 46, no. 6
(June 1940), pp. 236-242.
HOLLIDAY, T. B., LT. COL. , USAAF. Ai rcraf t accessory systems. SAE Transactions, vol.
51, 1943, pp. 234-240, 247, i llus., di agrs., gr aph data.
119
Spark plugs f or i nternal-combusti on engi nes. Lubrication, vol. 35, no. 6 (June 1949),
pp. 61-72, i llus., drgs. Tr aces some hi stori cal development.
Also see arti cles i n the f ollowi ng NACA Repor ts: 2d, 1916; 5th, 1919; 7th, 1921; 10th,
1924; 12th, 1926; 16th, 1930; 19th, 1933.
Fuels and Combustion, Lubrication
KETTERING, CHARLES F. Mor e ef f i ci ent uti li zati on of f uel. SAE Transactions, vol. 14,
pt. 1, 1919, pp. 201-219. Di scussi on of engi ne "knocki ng" and' i ts relati on to
fuel str uctur e; i ndi cator cards f rom opti cal i ndi cator. Cyclohexane di d not
knock i n Li berty cyli nder wi th 200-lb compressi on; "best" gasoli ne 125 lb.
MIDGLEY, THOMAS, J R. The combusti on of fuels i n the i nternal-combusti on engi ne.
SAE Transactions, vol. 15, pt. 2, 1920, pp. 659-696. Di scussi on of f uel structure
and i ts relati on to engi ne behavi or; opti cal i ndi cator shows pressure waves due to
detonati on; theory of "knock"; menti ons i odi ne and anali n as knock suppressors.
KUTZBACH, K. The pr oblem of fuel for avi ati on engi nes. NACA Technical Note, no.
62, 1921, 22 pp. , gr aph and tab. data. A lecture gi ven at the Aldershof Aero
Lab., Ger many.
WYMAN, W. W. Ef f ect of low grade gasoli ne on engi nes. Aviation, vol. 11, no. 20 (No-
vember 14, 1921), pp. 575-576.
CAUTLEY, R. B. Fuel and oi l consumpti on i mpor tant f actors i n long di stance f li ghts;
good results obtai ned by Charles A. Li ndber gh wi th a Whi r lwi nd ai r-cooled
engi ne. Aviation, vol. 22, no. 23 (June 6, 1927), pp. 1214-1215, 1243.
JONES, E. T. Fuel f or the Wr i ght "Whi r lwi nd." Aviation, vol. 23, no. "20 (November
14, 1927), pp. 1170-1172.
STALEY, F. R. Some perti nent f acts about avi ati on engi ne oi ls. Aviation, vol. 27, no. 6
(August 10, 1929), pp. 304-305, i llus.
CUMMINGS, H. K. Gasoli ne requi rements of commerci al ai rcraf t engi nes. SAE Trans-
actions, vol. 25, 1930, pp. 161-163.
DOOLITTLE, JAMES H. Volati li ty requi rements of ai rcraf t f uels. SAE Transactions, vol.
25, 1930, pp. 170-172.
HERON, S. D. Fuel r equi r ements of the gasoli ne ai rcraf t engi ne. SAE Transactions, vol. 25,
1930, pp. 164-169.
. Hi gh perf ormance gasoli ne ai rcraf t engi ne: Its problems of f uel, oi l, and mater i als
of cyli nder constructi on. ASME, Transactions, vol. 52 (1930), pp. 233-253.
NEVILLE, LESLIE E. The S.A.E. di scusses f uel. Aviation, vol. 29, no. 5 (November 1930),
pp. 273-277, di agrs., tab. data.
BANKS, F. R. Fuels for ai rcraf t engi nes Journal of the Royal Aeronautical Society (Febr uar y
1932), vol. 36, pp. 127-140, gr aph data.
WARD, B. P., and SINCLAIR, W. P. Testi ng of naval avi ati on gasoli ne. Journal of the
American Society of Naval Engineers, vol. 44, no. 3 (August 1932), pp. 285-297.
What is an octane number ? The Aeroplane (Mar ch 9, 1932), vol. 42, pp. 436-437.
BANKS, F. R. Ethyl: Some i nf ormati on on the use and advantages gai ned by the Employ-
ment of tetraethyl lead i n fuels f or avi ati on engi nes. Journal of the Royal Aeronautical
Society (Apri l 1934), vol. 38, pp. 309-372, gr aph data.
KLEIN, F. D. Ai rcraf t engi ne perf ormance wi th 100 octane f uel. Journal of the American
Institute of Aeronautical Sciences (Mar ch 1935), vol. 2, pp. 43-47.
120
NuTT, ARTHUR. Ai rcraf t engi nes and thei r lubri cati on. SAE Transactions, vol. 34, 1939,
pp. 501-512, i llus., drgs., di agrs.
Syntheti c oi ls for ai rcraf t gas tur bi ne lubri cati on. Lubrication, vol. 40, no. 4 (Apri l 1954),
pp. 45-56, i llus., di agrs., schemati c vi ews.
Also see arti cles i n the f ollowi ng NACA Repor ts: 11th, 1925; 13th, 1927; 15th, 1929; 20th,
1934; 21st, 1935; 24th, 1938; 25th, 1939.
Propellers and Propeller Gearing
PILLET, L. Experi ences practi ques sur le r endi ment de di f f erentes heli ces aeri enne.
VAeronaute, vol. 3, no. 3 (Mar ch 1870), pp. 33-43, tabular data.
FROUDE, W. On the Elementar y Relati on Between Pi tch, Sli p, and Propulsi ve Ef f i ci ency.
Transactions, Insti tuti on of Naval Archi tects [Bri ti sh], vol. 19, 1878, pp. 47-65.
ARSON, . Etude sur le Propulseur pour 1'Avi ati on. Soci ete des Ingeni eurs Ci vi ls de
Fr ance, Memoires, vol. 32, 1879, pp. 342-365.
AMANS, P. C. Perf ecti onnement des heli ces aeri ennes. L'Aeronaute, vol. 25, no. 10 (Octo-
ber 1892), pp. 219-231, di agrs.
CALDWELL, F. W. Conventi onal propeller calculati ons. SAE Transactions, vol. 13, pt. 2,
1918, pp. 307-333, i llus., drgs., di agrs., gr aph data.
EIFFEL, GUSTAVE. Etudes sur I'helice aerienne fades au laboratoire d'Aureil; les nouvelles recherches
sur les helices aerienne. Par i s: E. Chi r on, 1921. 304 pp., i llus.
Descri pti on of the Curti ss-Reed metal propeller. Aviation, vol. 15, no. 21 (November 19,
1923), p. 630.
The Paragon adjustable and reversi ble propeller. Aviation, vol. 14, no. 1 (Januar y 1,
1923), p. 19.
The Lei tner-Watts metal propeller; uses hollow steel blades set i n adjustable hub. Aviation,
vol. 19, no. 9 (August 31, 1925), pp. 244-245, i llus.
WRIGHT, THEODORE P. The durabi li ty of metal propellers. Aviation, vol. 21, no. 17
(October 25, 1926), p. 706; no. 22 (November 29, 1926), pp. 913-914; and no. 26
(December 27, 1926), pp. 1082-1083.
MCCAULEY, E. G. Metal propeller development; extensi ve test work responsi ble f or
present ef f i ci ency. Aviation, vol. 22, no. 22 (May 30, 1927), pp. 1127-1130, 1444,
i llus.
MOCK, RICHARD M. Gear ed down propellers and the ef f i ci ency of commerci al ai rplanes.
Aviation, vol. 22, no. 22 (May 30, 1927), pp. 1137-1140, i llus., graphs and tab.
data.
HAVILL, CLINTON H., LCDR. , USN. Development of ai rcraf t propellers. Aviation, vol.
25, no. 16 (October 13, 1928), pp. 1190, 1206-1208. An excellent survey.
Success of new vari able pi tch propeller i ndi cated by Bri ti sh company' s experi ments.
Aviation, vol. 24, no. 26 (June 25, 1928), p. 1856. Gloster's Dr . Hele-Shaw and
T. E. Beacham.
The Tur nbull vari able pi tch propeller. Aviation, vol. 24, no. 8 (February 20, .1928), pp
446-448, i llus.
HELE-SHAW, H. S., and BEACHAM, T. E. The vari able pi tch ai rscrew. Journal of the
Royal Aeronautical Society (July 1928), vol. 32, pp. 525-554, i llus., drgs., di agrs.
121
CALDWELL, FRANK W. Var i able pi tch propellers. SAE Transactions, vol. 24 (1929),
pp. 467-477, drgs., di agrs., gr aph data. Caldwell was chi ef engi neer of the Stand-
ar d Propeller Co.
WRIGHT, THEODORE P., and TURNBULL, W. R. Controllable pi tch propeller. SAE
Transactions, vol. 24, 1929, pp. 478-485, 497, gr aph data.
, and JOHNSON, R. E. Gear i ng of ai rcraf t propellers. SAE Transactions, vol. 24,
1929, pp. 486-491.
WARNER, EDWARD P. The S.A.E. propeller and power plant sessi ons. Aviation, vol. 27,
no. 9 (August 31, 1929), pp. 469-473, i llus.
DICKY, D. A., and COOK, O. R. Controllable and automati c ai rcraf t propellers. SAE
Transactions, vol. 27, 1932, pp. 105-111, i llus. Descri pti ons of early types.
CHATFIELD, CHARLES HUGH. Controllable pi tch propellers i n tr anspor t servi ce. Avia-
tion, vol. 32, no. 6 (June 1933), pp. 180-181.
Ef f ect of controllable pi tch on ai rplane perf ormance. Aviation Engineering, vol. 8, no. 3
(Mar ch 1933), pp. 14-15, 25, i llus., di agrs.
LOMBARD, A. E., and WRIGHT, THEODORE P. Pi tch control. Aviation, vol. 32, no 12
(December 1933), pp. 376-378, i llus., graphs, and tab. data.
CALDWELL, F. W. Ai rcraf t propeller development and testi ng summari zed. SAE
Transactions, vol. 29, 1934, pp. 297-303 (par t 2) and 349-354 (par t 2).
CARROLL, GEORGE. Not too techni cal: The f uncti on of propellers. Southwestern Avia-
tion, vol. 2, no. 4 (October 1934), pp. 21-22, and no. 5 (November 1934), pp. 17,
29. Di agrs.
Oper ati ng pri nci ples of the constant speed propeller. Aero Digest, vol. 29, no. 3 (Sep-
tember 1936), pp. 36-37, 84, i llus.
Propeller governor. Aviation, vol. 35, no. 9 (September 1936), pp. 36-37, i llus. Hami lton-
Standar d constant speed model.
CALDWELL, F. W., MARTIN, E., and RHINES, T. B. The constant speed propeller: Per-
f ormance and control. SAE Transactions, vol. 32, 1937, pp. 28-44, i llus., drgs.,
di agrs., gr aph data.
Curti ss controllable: An electri c constant speed, f ull-f eatheri ng propeller. Aviation, vol.
36, no. 5 (May 1937), pp. 38-39, 73, i llus.
Curti ss electri c constant speed propeller. Aero Digest, vol. 30, no. 5 (May 1937), pp. 48,
50, i llus.
A f ully f eatheri ng ai rscrew; detai ls of the Curti ss-Wri ght 120-degree angular r ange elec-
tri cal operati on. Flight, vol. 14, no. 5 (May 27, 1937), Engi neeri ng Supplement,
pp. 29-31, i llus.
JABLONSKY, BRUNO. Ai rscrews at the Pari s aero show. The Aeroplane, vol. 52 (Febr uar y 3,
1937), pp. 139-141, and vol. 52 (Febr uar y 17, 1937), pp. 193-195, i llus., di agrs.
BAKER, CARL F. Propeller problems i mposed by substratosphere f li ght. SAE Trans-
actions, vol. 33, 1938, pp. 285-288, 300.
LAMPTON, G. T. Propeller f actors tendi ng to li mi t ai rcraf t engi ne powers. SAE Trans-
actions, vol. 33, 1938, pp. 289-292, gr aph data.
MCSURELY, ALEXANDER. The Wri ghts and the propeller. The Bee Hive, vol. 28, no. 2
(Spri ng 1953), pp. 20-24, i llus.
MOLSON, K. M. Some hi stori al notes on the development of the vari able pi tch propeller.
Canadian Aeronautics and Space Journal (June 1965), vol. 11, pp. 177-183, i llus., bi bli -
ography of 25 i tems.
122
Nati onal Advi sory Commi ttee for Aeronauti cs
Annual Reports, 1915-1939
1st Annual Report, 1915
MARVIN, CHARLES F. Preli mi nary r epor t on the problem of the atmospher e i n r elati on
to aeronauti cs. Repor t 4 i n First Annual Report of the National Advisory Committee for
Aeronautics, 1915 (Washi ngton: Gover nment Pr i nti ng Of f i ce, 1916), * pp. 129-130.
LUCKE, CHARLES E. Ther modynami c ef f i ci ency of present types of i nternal combusti on
engi nes f or ai rcraf t: Par t I, Revi ew of the development of engi nes sui table f or
Aer onauti c servi ce; Par t II, Aero engi nes analyzed wi th ref erence to elements of
Process or f uncti on. Repor t 7 i n NACA, 1st Annual Report, 1915 (1916), pp.
186-303. Extensi ve tab. data. An excellent source of i nf ormati on about engi nes
of that ti me.
2d Annual Report, 1916
General speci f i cati ons coveri ng r equi r ements of aer onauti c i nstruments. Repor t 8 i n
NACA, 2d Annual Report, 1916 (1917), pp. 25-28.
Nomenclatur e f or aeronauti cs. Repor t 9 i n NACA, 2d Annual Report, 1916 (1917), pp.
31-37.
DIEDERICHS, H., and UPTON, G. B., Muf f lers f or aer onauti c engi nes. Repor t 10 i n
NACA, 2d Annual Report, 1916 (1917), pp. 41-49, drgs., tab. data. In spi te of
such work, muf f lers have seldom been used on ai rcraf t engi nes.
LUCKE, CHARLES EDWARD, and WILLHOFFT, FRIEDRICH OTTO. Car bur etor desi gn
a pr eli mi nar y study of the state of the ar t. Repor t 11 i n NACA, 2d Annual Report,
1916 (1917), pp. 53-552. Str uctur ed i n seven chapter s, thi s r epor t i s prof usely
i llustrated wi th drgs. f rom patents, accompani ed by extensi ve di scussi ons. An
outstandi ng source of i nf ormati on on car bur etor desi gn i n 1916.
3d Annual Report, 1917
DICKINSON, H. C. Aer onauti c power plant i nvesti gati ons: 1. Perf ormance of aer onauti c
engi nes at hi gh alti tudes; 2, Radi ator desi gn; 3, Spar k plugs. Repor t 23 i n NACA,
3d Annual Report, 1917 (1918), pp. 479-495, drgs., di agrs.
4th Annual Report, 1918
PARIS, AUGUST J EAN, J R. , and PARIS, W. FRANCKLYN. A new process f or the pr oducti on
of ai rcraf t engi ne f uels. Repor t 42 i n NACA, 4th Annual Report (1918), pp. 473-476.
Gr aph data.
DICKINSON, H. C, and KLEINSCHMIDT, R. V. Synopsi s of Aer onauti c Radi ator Investi ga-
ti ons f or Years 1917 and 1918. Repor t 43 i n NACA, 4th Annual Report, 1918
(1920), pp. 477-482.
, and BOUTELL, H. G. The alti tude labor ator y f or the testi ng of ai rcraf t engi nes.
Repor t 44 i n NACA, 4th Annual Report, 1918 (1920), pp. 483-498, drgs., di agrs.
, JAMES, W. S., and ANDERSON, G. V. Ef f ect of compressi on r ati o, pressure,
temper atur e, and humi di ty on power. Repor t 45 i n NACA, 4th Annual Report,
1918 (1920), pp. 499-524, gTaph data.
*Hereaf ter, ti tle abbr evi ated as i n next entry.
123
GAGE, VICTOR R. A study of ai r plane engi ne tests. Repor t 46 i n NACA, 4th Annual
Report, 1918 (1920), pp. 525-559, extensi ve gr aph and tab. data.
DICKINSON, H. C , and others. Power characteri sti cs of f uels f or ai rcraf t engi nes. Repor t
47, pts. 1, 2, and 3, i n NACA, 4th Annual Report, 1918 (1920), pp. 560-589, gr aph
and tab. data.
TICE, PERCIVAL S. Car bur eti ng condi ti ons characteri sti c of ai rcraf t engi nes. Repor t
48 i n NACA, 4th Annual Report, 1918 (1920), pp. 590-595.
. Meter i ng characteri sti cs of car bur etor s. Repor t 49, i n NACA, 4th Annual Report,
1918 (1920), pp. 596-643, drgs., di agrs., gr aph and tab. data.
KEMBLE, E. C. Calculati on of low-pressure i ndi cator di agr ams. Repor t 50, i n NACA,
4th Annual Report, 1918 (1920), pp. 644-654, gr aph data.
5th Annual Report, 1919
SILSBEE, F. B. Causes of f ai lure of spark plugs. Repor t 51, pt. 1, i n NACA, 5th Annual
Report, 1919 (1920), pp. 43-52, i llus.
LOEB, L. B., SAWYER. L. G., and FONESCA, E. L. Gas leakage i n spark plugs. Repor t
51, pt. 2, i n NACA, 5th Annual Report, 1919 (1920), pp. 53-62, di agr., gr aph and
tab. data.
DICKINSON, H. C, SILSBEE, F. B., and AGNEW, A. G. Methods for testi ng spar k plugs.
Repor t 51, pt. 3, i n NACA, 5th Annual Report, 1919 (1920), pp. 63-70, di agr s.
CRAGOE, C. S. Temper atur es i n spark plugs havi ng steel and brass shells. Repor t 52 i n
NACA, 5th Annual Report, 1919 (1920), pp. 73-76, di agrs., gr aph data.
SILSBEE, F. B., and others. Properti es and pr epar ati on of cer ami c i nsulators f or spark
plugs. Repor t 53, pts. 1-4, i n NACA, 5th Annual Report, 1919 (1920), pp. 79-111,
drgs., di agrs., gr aph and tab. data.
LOEB, L. B., and SILSBEE, F. B. Ef f ect of temper atur e and pressure on the spar ki ng
voltage. Repor t 54 i n NACA, 5th Annual Report, 1919 (1920), pp. 115-121, di agrs.,
gr aph data.
UPTON, G. B., and GAGE, V. R. Investi gati on of the muf f li ng pr oblem f or ai r plane engi nes.
Repor t 55 i n NACA, 5th Annual Report, 1919 (1920), pp. 125-160, i llus., drgs.,
gr aph and tab. data.
SILSBEE, F. B., LOEB, L. B., and FONESCA, E. L. Method of measur i ng heat energy of
i gni ti on sparks. Repor t 56 i n NACA, 5th Annual Report, 1919 (1920), pp. 163-176,
di agrs., gr aph data.
GORTON, W. S. The subsi di ary gap as a means f or i mpr ovi ng i gni ti on. Repor t 57 i n
NACA, 5th Annual Report, 1919 (1920), pp. 179-190.
SILSBEE, F. B. Characteri sti cs of hi gh-tensi on magnetos. Repor t 58 i n NACA, 5th
Annual Report, 1919 (1920), pp. 193-213, di agrs., gr aph data.
DICKINSON, H. C, JAMES, W. S., and KLEINSCHMIDT, R. V. Gener al analysi s of ai r plane
r adi ator problems. Repor t 59 i n NACA, 5th Annual Report, 1919 (1920), pp. 217
221.
, JAMES, W. S., and BROWN, W. B. Gener al di scussi on of test methods f or r adi ator s.
Repor t 60 i n NACA, 5th Annual Report, 1919 (1920), pp. 225-244, di agrs, tab. data.
KLEINSCHMIDT, R. B., and PARSONS, S. R. Head resi stance due to r adi ator s. Repor t
61 i n NACA, 5th Annual Report, 1919 (1920), pp. 247-264, gr aph data.
JAMES, W. S., and PARSONS, S. R. Ef f ect of alti tude on r adi ator perf ormance. Repor t
62 i n NACA, 5th Annual Report, 1919 (1920), pp. 267-275, gr aph data.
124
DICKINSON, H. O, JAMES, W. C , and KLEINSCHMTOT, R. V. Results of tests on r adi ator s
f or ai rcraf t engi nes. Repor t 63 i n NACA, 5th Annual Report, 1919 (1920), pp.
279-316, i llus., drgs., tab. data.
6th Annual Report, 1920
PARSONS, S. R. Properti es of speci al types of r adi ator s. Repor t 86 i n NACA, 6th Annual
Report, 1920 (1921), pp. 133-147, i llus., gr aph and tab. data.
, and KLEINSCHMIDT, R. V. Ef f ects of natur e of cooli ng surf ace on r adi ator per -
f ormance. Repor t 87 i n NACA, 6th Annual Report, 1920 (1921), pp. 151-159,
gr aph data.
. Pressure dr op i n r adi ator ai r tubes. Repor t 88 i n NACA, 6th Annual Report,
1920 (1921), pp. 163-169, gr aph and tab. data.
GAGE, VICTOR R., SPARROW, STANWOOD W., and HARPER, D. R. Compar i son of AlcoGas
avi ati on f uel wi th expor t avi ati on gasoli ne. Repor t 89 i n NACA, 6th Annual Report,
1920 (1921), pp 173-184, extensi ve gr aph data.
DICKINSON, H. C, GAGE, Vi ctor R., and SPARROW, STANWOOD W. Compar i son of
hecter f uel wi th expor t avi ati on gasoli ne. Repor t 90 i n NACA, 6th Annual Report,
1920 (1921), pp. 187-194, gr aph data.
SPARROW, STANWOOD W., and WHITE, H. S. Perf ormance of a Li ber ty 12 ai r plane
engi ne. Repor t 102 i n NACA, 6th Annual Report, 1920 (1921), pp. 561-578,
extensi ve gr aph and tab. data on tests i n the Bureau of Standar ds alti tude chamber ,
the f i rst f aci li ty of i ts ki nd.
, and WHITE, H. S. Perf ormance of a 300-horsepower Hi spano-Sui za ai r plane
engi ne. Repor t 103 i n NACA, 6th Annual Report, 1920 (1921), pp. 581-600,
extensi ve gr aph and tab. data. Tests i n Bureau of Standar ds alti tude chamber .
PARSONS, S. R. Tur bulence i n the ai r tubes of r adi ator s f or ai rcraf t engi nes. Repor t
106 i n NACA, 6th Annual Report, 1920 (1921), pp. 623-633, di agrs., gr aph and tab.
data.
DICKINSON, H. C , and NEWELL, F. B. A hi gh-speed engi ne pressure i ndi cator of the
balanced di aphr agm type. Repor t 107 i n NACA, 6th Annual Report, 1920 (1921),
pp. 637-648, i llus., dr gs. di agrs., gr aph and tab. data. The development of the
i ndi cator by the Bureau of Standar ds was an i mpor tant contr i buti on to the f uture
development of ai rcraf t engi nes.
GAGE, Vi ctor R. Some f actors of ai r plane engi ne per f or mance. Repor t 108 i n NACA,
6th Annual Report, 1920 (1921), pp 651-677, extensi ve gr aph and tab. data.
7th Annual Report, 1921
SILSBEE, F. B. Si mpli f i ed theory of the magneto. Repor t 123 i n NACA, 1th Annual Report,
1921 (1923), pp. 405-419, di agrs., gr aph data.
WASHBURN, G. E., SYLVANDER, R. C, MUELLER, E. F., WILHELM, R. M. , EATON, H. N.,
and WARNER, John A. C. Power plant i nstr uments. Repor t 129 i n NACA,
7th Annual Report, 1921 (1923), pp. 667-637, i llus., drgs., di agrs., gr aph and tab.
data; i ncludes "keyed" photogr aphs. A very i nf ormati ve i tem.
8th Annual Report, 1922
SPARROW, STANWOOD W. Perf ormance of Maybach 300-horsepower ai r plane engi ne.
Repor t 132 i n NACA, 8th Annual Report, 1922 (1923), pp. 91-99, gr aph data. Sea-
level and alti tude tests.
125
. Perf ormance of B.M.W. 185-horsepower ai r plane engi ne. Repor t 135 i n
NACA, 8th Annual Report, 1922 (1923), pp. 103-110, gr aph data. Sea-level and
alti tude tests.
HARPER, D. R., and BROWN, W. B. Mathemati cal equati ons f or heat conducti on i n the
f i ns of ai r-cooled engi nes. Repor t 158 i n NACA, 8th Annual Report, 1922 (1923),
pp. 679-708.
9th Annual Report, 1923
BUCKINGHAM, EDGAR. Jet propulsi on f or ai r planes. Repor t 159 i n NACA, 9th Annual
Report, 1923 (1924), pp. 75-90. Gr aph and tab. data. It i s not very opti mi sti c.
10th Annual Report, 1924
RANDOLPH, D. W., and SILSBEE, F. B. Flame speed and spark i ntensi ty. Repor t 187 i n
NACA, 10th Annual Report, 1924 (1925), pp. 81-92, i llus., dr gs., tab. data.
SPARROW, STANWOOD W. Relati on of f uel-ai r r ati o to engi ne per f or mance. Repor t
189 i n NACA, 10th Annual Report, 1924 (1925), pp. 109-122, gr aph data and bi bl.
of 14 i tems.
. Correcti ng horsepower measur ements to standar d temper atur e. Repor t 190 i n
NACA, 10th Annual Report, 1924 (1925), pp. 125-138, gr aph data and bi bl. of 13
i tems.
SILSBEE, FRANCIS B. The sparki ng voltage of spark plugs. Repor t 202 i n NACA, 10th
Annual Report, 1924 (1925), pp. 357-370, gr aph data and bi bl. of 71 i tems.
SPARROW, STANWOOD W. The ef f ect of changes i n compressi on r ati o upon engi ne
perf ormance. Repor t 205 i n NACA, 10th Annual Report, 1924 (1925), pp. 399-518,
gr aph data; bi bl. of 12 i tems.
MILLER, HAROLD E., and BEARDSLEY, EDWARD G. Spr ay penetr ati on wi th a si mple fuel
i njecti on nozzle. Repor t 222 i n NACA, 11th Annual Report, 1925 (1926), pp. 321-
326, di agrs., gr aph data.
JOACHIM, W. F. An i nvesti gati on of the coef f i ci ent of di scharge of li qui ds thr ough small
round ori f i ces. Repor t 224 i n NACA, 11th Annual Report, 1925 (1926), pp. 371-378,
i llus., gr aph data.
11th Annual Report, 1925
WARE, MARSDEN. Descri pti on and laboratory tests of a Roots type ai rcraf t engi ne super-
charger. Repor t 230 i n NACA, 11th Annual Report, 1925 (1926), pp. 451-561, i llus.,
di agrs., gr aph data.
SPARROW, STANWOOD W. Fuels f or hi gh-compressi on engi nes. Repor t 232 i n NACA,
11th Annual Report, 1925 (1926), pp. 483-500, gr aph data. Partly hi stori cal,
very descri pti ve; i ncludes bi bl. of 36 i tems.
12th Annual Report, 1926
PATON, C. R., and KEMPER, CARLTON. Power output and ai r requi rements of a two-
stroke cycle engi ne for aeronauti cal use. Repor t 239 i n NACA, 12th Annual Report,
1926 (1927), pp 181-189, gr aph data, bi bl. of 8 i tems.
BRODE, R. B., RANDOLPH, D. W., and SILSBEE, F. B. Electri cal characteri sti cs of spark
generators f or automoti ve i gni ti on. Repor t 241 i n NACA, 12th Annual Report,
1926 (1927), pp. 269-293, gr aph data, bi bl. of 17 i tems.
126
GARDINER, ARTHUR W. A pr eli mi nar y study of f uel i njecti on and compressi on i gni ti on
as appli ed to an ai rcraf t cyli nder. Repor t 243 i n NACA, 12th Annual Report
1926 (1927), pp. 313-326, i llus., drgs., di agrs., gr aph data, bi bl. of 4 i tems.
WARE, MARSDEN. Descri pti on of the N.A.C.A. uni versal test engi ne and some test results.
Repor t 250 i n NACA, 12th Antdial Report, 1926(1927), pp. 469-481, i llus., drgs., gr aph
data, bi bl. of 4 i tems. Equi pment f or si ngle-cyli nder research.
GOVE, W. D. , and GREEN, M. W. The di rect measur ement of engi ne power on an ai r-
plane i n f li ght wi th a hug-type dynamometer . Repor t 252 i n NACA, 12th Annual
Report, 1926 (1927), pp. 505-513, i llus., drgs., gr aph data, bi bl. of 4 i tems.
Ear ly attempt to measur e engi ne tor que i n f li ght. Some late r adi al engi nes have
tor que meter s i ncor por ated i n thei r r educti on gear.
13th Annual Report, 1927
SMITH, R. H. Resi stance and cooli ng power of vari ous radi ators. Repor t 261 i n NACA,
13th Annual Report, 1927 (1928), pp. 163-176, i llus., gr aph and tab. data. bi bl. of
4 i tems.
JOACHIM, W. F., and BEARDSLEY, E. G. Factors i n the desi gn of centri f ugal type i njecti on
valves f or oi l engi nes. Repor t 268 i n NACA, 13th Annual Report, 1927 (1928), pp.
267-279, i llus., gr aph data, bi bl. of 8 i tems.
GARDINER, ARTHUR W., and WHEDON, WILLIAM E. The relati ve perf ormance obtai ned
wi th several methods of control of an over-compressed engi ne usi ng gasoli ne.
Repor t 272 i n NACA, 13th Annual Report, 1927 (1928), pp. 329-339, drgs., di agrs.,
gr aph data, bi bl. of 10 i tems. The Ger man BMW and Maybach engi nes of 1917
wer e overcompressed engi nes, that i s, the compressi on r ati o was too hi gh f or f ull-
thr ottle oper ati on at sea level.
MARVIN, CHARLES F., J R. Combusti on ti me i n the engi ne cyli nder and i ts ef f ect on engi ne
perf ormance. Repor t 276 i n NACA, 13th Annual Report, 1927 (1928), pp. 393-406,
gr aph data.
GARDINER, ARTHUR W., and SCHEY, OSCAR W. The compar ati ve perf ormance of an
avi ati on engi ne at nor mal and hi gh i nlet ai r temper atur es. Repor t 277 i n NACA,
13th Annual Report, 1927 (1928), pp. 409^ -25, gr aph data, bi bl. of 15 i tems.
JOACHIM, WILLIAM F., and BEARDSLEY, EDWARD G. The ef f ects of f uel and cyli nder gas
densi ti es on the characteri sti cs of f uel sprays f or oi l engi nes. Repor t 281 i n NACA,
13th Annual Report, 1927 (1928), pp. 491-497, gr aph data, bi bl. of 8 i tems.
14th Annual Report, 1928
JOACHIM, WILLIAM F., and KEMPER, CARLETON. The perf ormance of several combusti on
chamber s desi gned f or ai rcraf t oi l engi nes. Repor t 282 i n NACA, 14th Annual
Report, 1927 (1928), pp. 501-510, i llus., drgs., gr aph data, bi bl. of 8 i tems.
WARE, MARSDEN, and SCHEY, OSCAR W. A Pr eli mi nar y i nvesti gati on of superchargi ng
an ai r-cooled engi ne i n f li ght. Repor t 283 i n NACA, 14th Annual Report, 1928
(1929), pp. 83-91, i llus., gr aph and tab. data, bi bl. of 5 i tems. Ai rcraf t used was
a Navy Vought VO-1 wi th a W
r
ri ght Aero J - 4 engi ne.
, and WILSON, ERNEST E. The compar ati ve perf ormance of Roots type ai rcraf t
engi ne superchargers as af f ected by char ge i n i mpeller speed and di splacement.
Repor t 284 i n NACA, 14th Annual Report, 1928 (1929), pp. 95-106, gr aph and tab.
data.
127
HICKS, CHESTER W. The measur ement of maxi mum cyli nder pressures. Repor t 294
i n NACA, 14th Annual Report, 1928 (1929), pp. 311-319, drgs., di agrs., gr aph data,
bi bl. of 11 i tems.
SCHEY, OSCAR W., and WILSON, ERNEST E. On i nvesti gati on of the-use of di scharge
valves and an i ntake control f or i mprovi ng the perf ormance of N.A.C.A. Roots
type supercharger. Repor t 303 i n NACA, 14th Annual Report, 1928 (1929), pp. 479-
485, drgs., gr aph data, bi bl. of 4 i tems.
STEVENS, F. W. The gaseous explosi ve reacti onA study of the ki neti cs of composi te
f uels. Repor t 305 i n NACA, 14th Annual Report, 1928 (1929), pp. 503-518, gr aph
and tab. data, bi bl. of 18 i tems.
15th Annual Report, 1929
WEICK, FRED E. Dr ag and cooli ng wi th vari ous f orms of cowli ng f or a "Whi r l wi nd"
r adi al ai r-cooled engi ne. Reports 313 and 314 i n NACA, 15th Annual Report,
1929 (1930), pp. 165-210, i llus., drgs., di agrs., gr aph and tab. data, bi bl. of 5 i tems.
Basi c data about the development of the NACA cowli ng.
JOACHIM, WILLIAM F., and ROTHROCK, A. M. Fuel vapor pressures and the relati on of
vapor pressure to the pr epar ati on of f uel for combusti on i n f uel i njecti on engi nes.
Repor t 321 i n NACA, 15th Annual Report, 1929 (1930), pp. 385-395, i llus., drgs.,
gr aph and tab. data, bi bl. of 11 i tems.
SCHEY, O. W., and GOVE, W. D. The ef f ect of supercharger capaci ty on engi ne and
ai rplane perf ormance. Repor t 327 i n NACA, 15th Annual Report, 1929 (1930),
pp. 519-529, gr aph data.
GELALLES, A. G., and ROTHROCK, A. M. Exper i mental and analyti cal deter mi nati on
of the moti on of hydrauli cally operated valve stems i n oi l engi ne i njecti on systems.
Repor t 330 i n NACA, 15th Annual Report, 1929 (1930), pp. 571-588, di agrs., gr aph
data, bi bl. of 5 i tems.
SCHEY, OSCAR W., and BIERMANN, ARNOLD E. The ef f ect of cowli ng on cyli nder tempera-
tures and perf ormance of a Wr i ght J - 5 engi ne. Repor t 332 i n NACA, 15th Annual
Report, 1929 (1930), pp. 637-656, i llus., drgs., gr aph and tab. data, bi bl. of 9 i tems.
16th Annual Report, 1930
STEVENS, F. W. The gaseous explosi ve reacti on at constant pressurethe reacti on order
and reacti on r ate. Repor t 337 i n NACA, 16th Annual Report, 1930 (1931), pp. 67-
82, extensi ve gr aph and tab. data.
JOACHIM, WILLIAM F., HICKS, CHESTER W., and FOSTER, HAMPTON H. The desi gn and
development of an automati c i njecti on valve wi th an annular ori f i ce of varyi ng
area. Repor t 341 i n NACA, 16th Annual Report, 1930 (1931), pp. 137-144, di agrs.,
bi bl. of 9 i tems.
SCHEY, OSCAR W., and YOUNG, ALFRED W. Compar ati ve f li ght perf ormance wi th a
N.A.C.A. Roots supercharger and a turbo-centri f ugal supercharger. Repor t 355
i n NACA, 16th Annual Report, 1930 (1931), pp. 503-514, i llus., gr aph and tab. data,
bi bl. of 8 i tems. Fli ght tests wi th a DH-4M2.
PETERS, MELVILLE F., SUMMERVILLE, WAYNE L., and DAVIS, MERLIN. An i nvesti gati on
of the ef f ecti veness of i gni ti on sparks. Repor t 359 i n NACA, 16th Annual Report,
1930 (1931), pp. 575-585, di agrs., gr aph and tab. data, bi bl. of 10 i tems.
128
ROTHROCK, A. M. Pressure f luctuati ons i n a common-rai l f uel i njecti on system. Repor t
363 i n NACA, 16th Annual Report, 1930 (1931), pp. 671-684, di agrs., gr aph data,
bi bl. of 9 i tems.
17th Annual Report, 1931
STEVENS, F. W. The gaseous explosi ve r eacti onThe ef f ect of pressure on the r ate of
pr opagati on of the reacti on zone and upon the r ate of molecular transf ormati on.
Repor t 372 i n NACA, 17th Annual Report, 1931 (1932), pp. 175-191, i llus., di agrs.,
gr aph data, bi bl. of 27 i tems.
GELALLES, A. G. Coef f i ci ents of di scharge of f uel i njecti on nozzles f or compressi on-
i gni ti on engi nes. Repor t 373 i n NACA, 17th Annual Report, 1931 (1932), pp. 193-
209, di agrs., gr aph data, bi bl. of 9 i tems.
DARNELL, T. H. The automoti ve i gni ti on coi l. Repor t 374 i n NACA, 17th Annual
Report, 1931 (1932), pp. 211-236, di agrs., extensi ve gr aph data, bi bl. of 12 i tems.
SCHEY, OSCAR W. The compar ati ve perf ormance of superchargers. Repor t 384 i n
NACA, 17th Annual Report, 1931 (1932), pp. 425-437, gr aph and tab. data, bi bl. of
10 i tems. Lobe, vane, and centri f ugal type compressors.
, and BIERMANN, ARNOLD E. The ef f ect of valve ti mi ng upon the perf ormance of a
supercharged engi ne at alti tude and an unsupercharged engi ne at sea level. Repor t
390 i n NACA, 17th Annual Report, 1931 (1932), pp. 533-543, i llus., gr aph data,
bi bl. of 8 i tems.
ROTHROCK, A. M. Hydr auli cs of f uel i njecti on pumps f or compressi on-i gni ti on engi nes.
Repor t 396 i n NACA, 17th Annual Report, 1931 (1932), pp. 621-664, di agrs., ex-
tensi ve gr aph and tab. data, bi bl. of 33 i tems. Early analysi s of i njecti on-pump
characteri sti cs.
MARVIN, CHARLES F., J R. , and BEST, ROBERT D. Flame movement and pressure develop-
ment i n an engi ne cyli nder. Repor t 399 i n NACA, 17th Annual Report, 1931
(1932), pp. 697-706, di agrs., gr aph data, bi bl. of 5 i tems. Observati on of f lame
moti on by means of multi ple small wi ndows i n a cyli nder head.
18th Annual Report, 1932
ROTHROCK, A. M. Combusti on i n a hi gh-speed compressi on-i gni ti on engi ne. Repor t
401 i n NACA, 18th Annual Report, 1932, (1933), pp. 63-77, gr aph data, bi bl. of 27
i tems.
GELALLES, A. G. Ef f ect of ori f i ce length-di ameter rati o on f uel sprays f or compressi on-
i gni ti on engi nes. Repor t 402 i n NACA, 18th Annual Report, 1932 (1933), pp.
79-90, i llus., di agr., gr aph data, bi bl. of 19 i tems.
SCHEY, OSCAR W., and ROLLIN, VERN G. The ef f ect of i ncreased car bur etor pressure on
engi ne perf ormance at several compressi on rati os. Repor t 404 i n NACA, 18th
Annual Report, 1932 (1933), pp. 113-122, i llus., gr aph data, bi bl. of 10 i tems.
THEODORSEN, THEODORE, and FREEMAN, IRA M. The eli mi nati on of f i re hazar d due to
back f i res. Repor t 409 i n NACA, 18th Annual Report, 1932 (1933), pp. 211-217,
i llus., gr aph data, bi bl. of 10 i tems.
MCAVOY, WILLIAM H., SCHEY, OSCAR W., and YOUNG, ALFRED W. The ef f ect on ai r plane
perf ormance of the f actors that must be consi dered i n applyi ng low-drag cowli ng
129
to radi al engi nes. Repor t 414 i n NACA, 18th Annual Report, 1932 (1933), pp.
259-275, many photos and di agrs., gr aph and tab. data, bi bl. of 10 i tems. Tests
usi ng a Curti ss X F7C- 1; di scussi on of other types.
WOOD, DONALD H. Tests of nacelle-propeller combi nati ons i n vari ous posi ti ons wi th
ref erence to wi ngs: Thi ck wi ng, N.A.C.A. cowled nacelle, tractor propeller. Re-
ports 415 and 436 i n NACA, 18th Annual Report, 1932 (1933), pp. 277-304, 653-
692, i llus., di agrs., extensi ve gr aph and tab. data., bi bl. of 5 i tems.
LEE, DANA W. The effect of nozzle desi gn and oper ati ng condi ti ons on the. atomi zati on
and di stri buti on of fuel sprays. Repor t 425 i n NACA, 18th Annual Report, 1932
(1933), pp. 505-521, di agrs., gr aph and tab. data, bi bl. of 20 i tems.
ROTHROCK, A. M. The N.A.C.A. appar atus f or studyi ng the f ormati on and combusti on
of f uel sprays and the results f rom preli mi nary tests. Repor t 429 i n NACA, 18th
Annual Report, 1932 (1933), pp. 549-565, i llus., di agrs., drgs., gr aph and tab. data,
bi bl. of 19 i tems. Thi s appar atus provi des a wealth of basi c i nf ormati on r egar di ng
i njecti on and combusti on i n di esel engi nes. See NACA Index f or the large number
of test results obtai ned wi th i t.
GELALLES, A. G., and MARSH, E. T. Rates of f uel di scharge as af f ected by the desi gn of
f uel-i gni ti on systems f or i nternal-combusti on engi nes. Repor t 433 i n NACA, 18th
Annual Report, 1932 (1933), pp. 607-619, di agrs., gr aph data, bi bl. of 10 i tems.
ROTHROCK, A. M., and WALDRON, C. D. Fuel vapori zati on and i ts ef f ect on combusti on
i n a hi gh-speed compressi on-i gni ti on engi ne. Repor t 435 i n NACA, 18th Annual
Report, 1932 (1933), pp. 629-651, i llus., dr g., gr aph data, bi bl. of 14 i tems.
LEE, DANA W. Experi ments on the di stri buti on of f uel i n f uel sprays. Repor t 438 i n
NACA, 18th Annual Report, 1932 (1933), pp. 703-717, i llus., bi bl. of 10 i tems.
CASTLEMAN, R. A., J R. The mechani sm of atomi zati on accompanyi ng soli d i njecti on.
Repor t 440 i n NACA, 18th Annual Report, 1932 (1933), pp. 735-744, i llus., bi bl. of
22 i tems.
19th Annual Report, 1933
LEE, DANA W., and SPENCER, ROBERT C. Photomi crographi c studi es of f uel sprays.
Repor t 454 i n NACA, 19th Annual Report, 1933 (1934), pp. 215-239, i llus., bi bl. of
12 i tems.
ROTHROCK, A. M., and MARSH, E. T. Penetrati on and dur ati on of f uel sprays f rom a
pump i njecti on system. Repor t 455 i n NACA, 19th Annual Report, 1933 (1934),
pp. 241-248, i llus., gr aph data, bi bl. of 5 i tems.
SONTAG, HARCOURT, and BROMBACHER, W. G. Ai rcraf t power plant i nstruments. Repor t
466 i n NACA, 19th Annual Report, 1933 (1934), pp. 447-499, numer ous photos,
drgs., and di agrs., bi bl. of 59 i tems.
SPANOGLE, J. A., HICKS, C. W., and FOSTER, H. H. Increasi ng the ai r charge and
scavengi ng the clearance volume of a compressi on-i gni ti on engi ne. Repor t 469
i n NACA, 19th Annual Report, 1933 (1934), pp. 525-534. di agrs., gr aph data,
bi bl. of 11 i tems.
SCHEY, OSCAR W., and YOUNG, ALFRED W. Perf ormance of a f uel-i njecti on, spark-
i gni ti on engi ne, usi ng a hydr ogenated saf ety f uel. Repor t 471 i n NACA, 19th
Annual Report, 1933 (1934), pp. 557-565, di agrs., gr aph and tab. data, bi bl. of 5
i tems.
130
20th Annual Report, 1934
GERRISH, HAROLD C , and TESSMANN, ARTHUR M. Relati on of hydrogen and methane
to car bon monoxi de i n exhaust gases f rom i nternal combusti on engi nes. Repor t
476 i n NACA, 20th Annual Report, 1934 (1935), pp. 53-61, gr aph data, bi bl. of 23
i tems.
ROTHROCK, A. M. , and MARSH, E. G. Ef f ect of vi scosi ty on f uel leakage between lapped
plungers and sleeves, and on the di scharge f rom a pump-i njecti on system. Repor t
477 i n NACA, 20th Annual Report, 1934 (1935), pp. 63-77, di agrs., gr aph and tab.
data, bi bl. of 8 i tems.
, and SPENCER, R. C. Ef f ect of moder ate ai r f low on the di stri buti on of fuel sprays
af ter i njecti on cut-of f . Repor t 483 i n NACA, 20th Annual Report, 1934 (1935),
pp. 163-183, i llus., gr aph data, bi bl. of 17 i tems.
MARVIN, CHARLES F., J R. , CALDWELL, FRANK R., and STEELE, SYDNEY. Inf ra-red
r adi ati on f rom explosi ons i n a spark-i gni ti on engi ne. Repor t 486 i n NACA,
20th Annual Report, 1934 (1935), pp. 223-234, di agrs., gr aph data, bi bl. of 23 i tems.
BIERMANN, ARNOLD E., and PINKEL, BENJAMIN. Heat transf er f rom f i nned metal cyli nders
i n an ai r stream. Repor t 488 i n NACA, 20th Annual Report, 1934 (1935), pp. 251-
270, i llus., extensi ve gr aph data, bi bl. of 18 i tems.
THEODORSEN, THEODORE, and GALALLES, A. G. Vi br ati on response of ai r plane structures.
Repor t 491 i n NACA, 20th Annual Report, 1934 (1935), pp. 319-337, i llus., di agrs.,
gr aph and tab. data, bi bl. of 6 i tems. Curti ss PW-9 and Consoli dated N2Y
bi planes wer e used i n the tests.
DRAPER, C. S. The physi cal ef f ects of detonati on i n a closed cyli ndri cal chamber . Repor t
493 i n NACA, 20th Annual Report, 1934 (1935), pp. 361-379, di agrs., gr aph data,
bi bl. of 20 i tems. Pi oneer basi c research at Massachusetts Insti tute of Technology
on the phenomenon of detonati on i n spark-i gni ti on engi nes.
SPANOGLE, J. A., and WHITNEY, E. G. A descri pti on and test results of a spark-i gni ti on
and a compressi on-i gni ti on 2-stroke-cycle engi ne. Repor t 495 i n NACA, 20th
Annual Report, 1934 (1935), pp. 395-411, i llus., drgs., di agrs., gr aph data, bi bl. of
6 i tems. Si ngle-cyli nder compar ati ve tests.
CLAY, WILLIAM C. Impr oved ai rplane wi ndshi elds to pr ovi de vi si on i n stormy weather.
Repor t 498 i n NACA, 20th Annual Report, 1934 (1935), pp. 445-461, i llus., drgs.,
di agrs., bi bl. of 5 i tems.
21st Annual Report, 1935
SCHEY, OSCAR W., and ROLLIN, VERN G. The ef f ect of baffles on the temper atur e di stri bu-
ti on and heat-transf er coef f i ci ents of f i nned cyli nders. Repor t 511 i n NACA,
21st Annual Report, 1935 (1936), pp. 111-123, drgs., di agrs., bi bl. of 5 i tems.
ROTHROCK, A. M. , and COHN, MILDRED. Some f actors af f ecti ng combusti on i n an
i nternal-combusti on engi ne. Repor t 512 i n NACA, 21st Annual Report, 1935
(1936), pp. 125-141, gr aph and tab. data, bi bl. of 15 i tems.
LEE, DANA, W. A compari son of f uel sprays f rom several types of i njecti on nozzles.
Repor t 520 i n NACA, 21st Annual Report, 1935 (1936), pp. 251-288, extensi ve seri es
of photos and di agrs., bi bl. of 35 i tems.
131
ROTHROCK, A. M., and WALDRON, C. D. Some ef f ects of i njecti on advance angle, engi ne
jacket temper atur e, and speed on combusti on i n a compressi on-i gni ti on engi ne.
Repor t 525 i n NACA, 21st Annual Report, 1935 (1936), pp. 343-357, i llus., di agrs.,
gr aph data, bi bl. of 13 i tems.
FIOCK, ERNEST F., and KING, H. KENDALL. The effect of water vapor on f lame veloci ty
i n equi valent CO- O
z
mi xtures. Repor t 531 i n NACA, 21st Annual Report, 1935
(1936), pp. 445-450, bi bl. of 4 i tems.
, and ROEDER, Carl H. The soap-bubble method of studyi ng the combusti on of
mi xtures of CO and 0
2
. Repor t 532 i n NACA, 21st Annual Report, 1935 (1936),
pp. 451-464, i llus., gr aph and tab. data, bi bl. of 4 i tems.
ROTHROCK, A. M., and MARSH, E. T. Di stri buti on and regulari ty of i njecti on f rom a
multi -cyli nder f uel-i njecti on pump. Repor t 533 i n NACA, 21st Annual Report,
1935 (1936), pp. 465-476, drgs., di agrs., gr aph data, bi bl. of 10 i tems.
GERRISH, HAROLD C, and FOSTER, HAMPTON H. Hydrogen as an auxi li ary f uel i n com-
pressi on-i gni ti on engi nes. Repor t 535 i n NACA, 21st Annual Report, 7935(1936),
pp. 495-510, i llus., drgs., gr aph data, bi bl. of 8 i tems.
22nd Annual Report, 1936
COHN, MILDREN, and SPENCER, ROBERT C. Combusti on i n a bomb wi th a f uel-i njecti on
system. Repor t 544 i n NACA, 22nd Annual Report, 1936 (1937), pp. 107-118, i llus.,
di agrs., gr aph and tab. data, bi bl. of 19 i tems.
ROTHROCK, A. M., and WALDRON, C. D. Ef f ects of ai r-f uel rati o on f uel spray and
f lame f ormati on i n a compressi on-i gni ti on engi ne. Repor t 545 i n NACA, 22nd
Annual Report, 1936 (1937), pp. 119-127, i llus., di agrs., gr aph data, bi bl. of 9 i tems.
SCHEY, OSCAR W., and ROLLIN, VERN G. Cooli ng characteri sti cs of a 2-row radi al engi ne.
Repor t 550 i n NACA, 22nd Annual Report, 1936 (1937), pp. 177-186, i llus., di agrs.,
gr aph data, bi bl. of 3 i tems.
FIOCK, ERNEST F., and ROEDER, CARL H. Some ef f ects of argon and heli um upon ex-
plosi ons of carbon monoxi de and oxygen. Repor t 553 i n NACA, 22nd Annual
Report, 1936 (1937), pp. 213-222, gr aph data, bi bl. of 4 i tems.
BREVOORT, M. J., and ROLLIN, VERN G. Ai r f low ar ound f i nned cyli nders. Repor t
555 i n NACA, 22nd Annual Report, 1936 (1937), pp 237-249, i llus., drgs., gr aph and
tab. data, bi bl. of 10 i tems.
MARVIN, CHARLES F., J R. , WHARTON, ARMISTEAD, and ROEDER, CARL H. Fur ther
studi es of f lame movement and pressure development i n an engi ne cyli nder. Repor t
556 i n NACA, 22nd Annual Report, 1936 (1937), pp. 251-263, i llus., di agrs., gr aph
data, bi bl. of 11 i tems.
ROTHROCK, A. M., and WALDRON, C. D. Ef f ect of nozzle desi gn on f uel spray and f lame
f ormati on i n a hi gh-speed compressi on-i gni ti on engi ne. Repor t 561 i n NACA,
22nd Annual Report, 1936 (1937), pp. 327-338, i llus., di agrs, , gr aph data, bi bl. of
12 i tems.
LEE, DANA W. Measur ements of f uel di stri buti on wi thi n sprays f or f uel-i njecti on
engi nes. Repor t 565 i n NACA, 22nd Annual Report, 1936 (1937), pp. 389-403,
di agrs., gr aph and tab. data, bi bl. of 13 i tems.
FOSTER, H. H. The qui escent-chamber type compressi on-i gni ti on engi ne. Repor t 568
i n NACA, 22nd Annual Report, 1936 (1937), pp. 429-448, i llus., drgs., di agrs.,
gr aph and tab. data, bi bl. of 16 i tems.
132
23rd Annual Report, 1937
MOORE, CHARLES S., and COLLINS, J OHN H., J R. Pr e-chamber compressi on-i gni ti on en-
gi ne perf ormance. Repor t 577 i n NACA, 23rd Annual Report, 1937 (1938), pp. 49-68,
gr aph and tab. data, bi bl. of 18 i tems.
SELDEN, ROBERT F., and SPENCER, ROBERT C. Heat transf er to fuel sprays i nto heated
gases. Repor t 580 i n NACA, 23rd Annual Report, 1937 (1938), pp. 91-107, i llus.,
di agrs., extensi ve gr aph and tab. data, bi bl. of 30 i tems.
SCHEY, OSCAR W., and ELLERBROCK, HERMAN H., J R. Blower cooli ng of f i nned cyli nders.
Repor t 587 i n NACA, 23rd Annual Report, 1937 (1938), pp. 269-280, drgs., di agr .,
gr aph and tab. data, bi bl. of 8 i tems.
ROTHROCK, A. M. , and WALDRON, C. D. Fuel spray and f lame f ormati on i n a compressi on-
i gni ti on engi ne employi ng ai r f low. Repor t 588 i n NACA, 23rd Annual Report,
1937 (1938), pp. 281-295, i llus., drgs., di agrs., bi bl. of 14 i tems.
THEODORSEN, THEODORE, BREVOORT, M. J., and STICKLE, GEORGE W. Full-scale tests of
N.A.C.A. cowli ngs. Repor t 592 i n NACA, 23rd Annual Report, 1937 (1938),
pp. 361-390, i llus., di agrs., gr aph and tab. data, bi bl. of 10 i tems.
, , and Cooli ng of ai rplane engi nes at low ai r speeds. Repor t
593 i n NACA, 23rd Annual Report, 1937 (1938), pp. 391-400, i llus., di agrs., gr aph
and tab. data, bi bl. of 3 i tems.
, , , and GOUGH, M. N. Full-scale tests of a new type i n N.A.C.A.
nose-slot cowli ng. Repor t 595 i n NACA, 23rd Annual Report, 1937 (1938), pp.
439-447, i llus., drgs., di agrs., gr aph and tab. data, bi bl. of 3 i tems. Ai r plane used
was a Curti ss BFC-l f i ghter wi th a Wr i ght SGR-1510 twi n-row, 14-cyli nder
engi ne.
BREVOORT, M. J. , STICKLE, GEORGE W., and ELLERBROCK, HERMAN H. , J R. Cooli ng
tests of a si ngle-row r adi al engi ne wi th several N.A.C.A. cowli ngs. Repor t 596
i n NACA, 23rd Annual Report, 1937 (1938), pp. 449-458, i llus., di agrs., gr aph and
tab. data, bi bl. of 6 i tems.
24th Annual Report, 1938
PINKEL, BENJAMIN. Heat-transf er processes i n ai r-cooled engi ne cyli nders. Repor t 612
i n NACA, 24th Annual Report, 1938 (1939), pp. 49-64, di agrs., gr aph data, bi bl. of 7
i tems.
GERRISH, HAROLD C , and Voss, FRED. Inter -r elati on of exhaust-gas consti tuents.
Repor t 616 i n NACA, 24th Annual Report, 1938 (1939), pp. 139-146, gr aph data,
bi bl. of 9 i tems.
SELDEN, ROBERT F. Auto-i gni ti on and combusti on of di esel fuel i n a constant-volume
bomb. Repor t 617 i n NACA, 24th Annual Report, 1938 (1939), pp. 147-159,
i llus., dr gs., gr aph and tab. data, bi bl. of 30 i tems.
ROTHROCK, A. M. , and SPENCER, R. C. A photogr aphi c study of combusti on and knock
i n a spark-i gni ti on engi ne. Repor t 622 i n NACA, 24th Annual Report, 1938 (1939),
pp. 213-233, many photos, di agrs., bi bl. of 22 i tems. Based on very hi gh speed
movi ng pi ctures thr ough tr anspar ent wi ndows i n cyli nder head. A pi oneeri ng work.
25th Annual Report, 1939
SCHEY, OSCAR W., PINKEL, BENJAMIN, and ELLERBROCK, HERMAN H., J R. Correcti on of
temper atur es of ai r-cooled engi ne cyli nders f or vari ati on i n engi ne and cooli ng
133
condi ti ons. Repor t 645 i n NACA, 25th Annual Report, 1939 (1940), pp. 49-72,
i llus., di agrs., gr aph and tab. data, bi bl. of 7 i tems.
LEE, DANA W. A study of ai r f low i n an engi ne cyli nder. Repor t 653 i n NACA, 25th
Annual Report, 1939 (1940), pp. 227-239, i llus., drgs., di agrs., gr aph data, bi bl. of
3 i tems.
ROTHROCK, A. M. , and BIERMANN, ARNOLD E. The knocki ng characteri sti cs of f uels i n
relati on to maxi mum permi ssi ble perf ormance of ai rcraf t engi nes. Repor t 655
i n NACA, 25th Annual Report, 1939 (1940), pp. 267-288, gr aph data, bi bl. of 20
i tems. Impor tant contr i buti on.
, and SPENCER, R. C. The i nf luence of di rected ai r f low on combusti on i n a
spark-i gni ti on engi ne. Repor t 657 i n NACA, 25th Annual Report, 1939 (1940),
pp. 313-326, i llus., di agrs., bi bl. of 15 i tems.
STICKLE, GEORGE W. Desi gn of N.A.C.A. cowli ngs f or r adi al ai r-cooled engi nes.
Repor t 662 i n NACA, 25th Annual Report, 1939 (1940), pp. 383-393, i llus., drgs.,
di agrs., bi bl. of 8 i tems,
134
U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1970 0- 31S- 338
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