THE TRANSFER OF CORPORATE PRACTICES

BETWEEN NATIONAL CULTURES

The Case of Disney Theme Park Assets at Home and Abroad

______________________

A Thesis

Presented to

The Management Systems Department

College of Business

Ohio University

______________________

In Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for Graduation

with Honors in Management and Strategic Leadership

______________________

by

Matthew Dominic Seymour

June 2005
 This thesis has been approved by the Management Systems Department of the

College of Business.

______________________________

John Schermerhorn
O’Bleness Professor of Management
Management Systems Department

______________________________

Robert L. Holbrook, Jr.

Assistant Professor
Honors Coordinator
Management Systems Department

______________________________

Glenn E. Corlett
Dean
College of Business
 Table of Contents

Chapter 1 – Introduction and Purpose.......................................................................1

Hard and Soft Technologies
Corporate Culture and National Culture
Interpretation of Practices
Focus on Disney
Organization of Thesis

Chapter 2 – Semiotic Theory and National Culture

Saussure’s Semiotic Theory
Semiotic Theory in a Transcultural Context
Hofstede’s Dimensions of National Culture
Conclusion

Chapter 3 – Walt Disney World Case Study

Business Practices
Conclusion

Chapter 4 – Tokyo Disneyland Case Study

Business Practices
Conclusion

Chapter 5 – Euro Disney Case Study

Business Practices
Conclusion

Chapter 6 – Analysis and Conclusion

Footnotes

References

Figures

Appendixes

I
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CHAPTER 1
Introduction and Purpose

With the destruction of global barriers that for centuries have kept the world

divided by its continents, the latter part of the 20th century and into the 21st have been

times of accelerated global business expansion. Many firms have expanded

internationally as a way of securing less expensive labor than that which can be found in

the more industrialized countries. Cost driven expansion often relies on the international

expansion of technologically driven physical processes (Brannen, 2004). Companies

who participate in this type of expansion use the resources of the country into which they

expand and adjust their business practices accordingly.

While increasing profit margins are one reason for international expansion, other

companies pursue expansion for other reasons. One such key reason for

internationalization is the opportunity for expansion into new markets. Tyson (1997)

says that this will become the major goal of international expansion in the 21st century.

He argues that international growth strategies will replace the current strategy of

internationalization as a way of cutting costs.

The purpose of this thesis is to examine, through secondary sources, the transfer

of corporate practices between national cultures as a result of market driven expansion.

The theoretical background will be supplemented with the case of Disney’s expansion

into foreign markets, and the interpretations of their corporate practices in different

national cultures. Finally, it will offer an analysis and implications from the data that will

offer transferable recommendations to any company that must transfer soft technologies

during international expansion. It will answer the question “How do differing

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interpretations of corporate practices by different national cultures affect how those

practices will be accepted?”

Hard and Soft Technologies

Companies who are expanding internationally for market based purposes do not

solely transfer physical processes from their home country to the destination country, but

instead transfer their entire business structure to the international asset. Because of the

non-concrete nature of people dependent, “soft” technologies (Hall, 1993), the transfer of

cultural aspects can be subject to varied interpretations. They can also face issues

regarding cultural understanding and acceptance, which are generally not a concern with

“hard” technologies (Brannen, 2004).

Understanding “hard” and “soft” technologies, and the way that they transfer

between national cultures is essential in the comprehension of international expansion of

organizations. Soft, people driven technologies are fundamental for market driven

expansion. Industries such as hospitality and leisure expand internationally in order to

move their market into new territories. An example can be seen in the hotel industry.

When entering a new market, a hotel builds the same, basic room types. They also

generally use the same business practices and guiding principles. In reality, they clone

themselves in the new market, using their existing business structure.

In contrast, hard technologies are often transferred in cost driven

expansion. These technologies are used by companies which send physical processes

abroad, such as those in manufacturing industries. These processes have few specific

cultural implications. Figure 1.1 illustrates the differences in hard and soft technologies.
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An example of the transfer of hard technology can be seen from a manufacturer

off shoring production to China. The company produces widgets in the United States for

$2 apiece. If they have their widgets produced in China, they can be produced for $.10

apiece. They therefore build a factory or subcontract to a company in China to offshore

production of their widgets. They use their technology in the new Chinese factory, but

the factory is run in a Chinese fashion. The technology that they transferred to China is

hard technology (the machinery); the soft technology (the business practices and style) is

not transferred.

The example of Disney’s decision to open Tokyo Disneyland contains the transfer

of both hard and soft technologies. The Oriental Land Company created an exact clone

of the original Disneyland Park. All of the physical processes and amenities were

replicated (the hard technologies), but in addition, the company sent its business

structure. All of the policies and practices that make Disney a market leader and give it a

competitive advantage in its American market were applied in the same way in Japan that

they would have been applied in America. These policies and practices make up the

company’s soft technologies.

The transfer of a company’s soft technologies is essential for a business that is

using international expansion as a way of expanding into a new market. While all

companies will also be transferring some hard technologies, the success of many

multinational enterprises (MNEs) is more dependent on the way that their business

practices transfer between national cultures than their physical processes (Brannen,

2004).

Corporate Culture and National Culture

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One of the challenges for companies engaged in international growth strategies

and soft technology transfer is developing an understanding of how their corporate

practices will be interpreted by the national culture into which they expand. These

practices fall under the broader umbrella of corporate culture, which, defined in its

simplest form, is “The way we do things around here” (Blank, 2003). In order for

effective internationalization of soft technologies, the perception of the soft technology in

the corporate culture must be in synch with the perception of the soft technology in the

national culture into which the company is expanding.

National culture, is similar to the aforementioned definition of corporate culture,

but takes place on a much broader scale. Geert Hofstede defined culture as “the

collective programming of the human mind, obtained in the course of life, which is

common to the members of one group as opposed to another.” By “one group as opposed

to another” one can infer that this can analyze contrasting “collective programming”

between a corporations culture and the culture of the market into which it is expanding.

It is from this definition that the conflict between national and corporate culture begins to

take shape. If the corporate practices are defined as part of a company’s corporate

culture, and are in the context of one national culture, then as they are transferred they

come to be translated into a definition relative to the context of the new national culture.

In cases of highly differing cultures, two sets of distinct values may come into conflict

with one another.

Interpretation of Practices

The idea of conflict becomes further illustrated by the study of semantics.

Saussure (1916) explained that one word or symbol may hold different meanings in
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different cultural contexts. Cultural contexts, therefore, lead different words to have

differently interpreted meanings. This theory was then expanded to symbols, which is

the study of semiotics. A further extension of that theory suggests that whole concepts

could be understood and interpreted differently in different cultural contexts (Brannen,

2004).

If this theory holds true in words, symbols, and concepts, one can infer that

corporate practices could also be interpreted differently within different cultural contexts.

One more magnification of the concept shows that not only could corporate practices be

interpreted differently by the national culture into which they are transferred, but

different interpretations could come from both the employee and the consumer in that

national culture (Figure 1.2).

Differing interpretations can furthermore lead to changes in corporate practices as

they cross national borders. This yields the secondary research question for those

companies which are looking to expand internationally: How are corporate practices

changed due to differing interpretations as they are transferred between national cultures?

Further examination of this theory also presents a model in which corporate

practices are changed in order to meet the needs of the new national culture of which they

are part. Then, these changes are repatriated to the culture of the parent company in the

home country. This repatriating would be subject to the same spectrum of

interpretations. In this way, the international expansion of businesses which rely heavily

on their corporate practices being successfully transferred become subject to continuous

chains of cultural conflict resulting from Hofstede’s definition of culture. While conflict

is one result, another possibility could be the merging of international cultures through
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this continuous feedback loop. This could fit Tyson’s (1997) hypothesis that expansion

of international business in the 21st will lead to weakly defined cultural differences as the

many cultures of the world begin to merge.

To understand how business practices can be interpreted differently, it is

important to understand the dimensions of culture that lead to differing interpretations.

Hofstede (2001) defined five cultural dimensions that are important in helping to

understand cross-cultural relationships. The dimensions are: power distance,

individualism-collectivism, masculinity-femininity, uncertainty avoidance, and long-term

orientation. Hofstede’s study was the first serious, empirical research into culture and

was met with much resistance, especially his article in 1980, “Motivation, leadership, and

organization: Do American theories apply abroad?” (Hofstede, 2004). His research is

the basis for examining how interpretations affect business practices in different national

contexts.

Focus on Disney

To exemplify the interpretations business practices take on in different contexts, it

is essential to look at a company that is well known for its deep-seated corporate

practices. The Walt Disney Company is a corporation which has innovated unique and

powerful corporate practices which are key parts of its culture and competitive

advantage. It has also had experience transferring both soft and hard technologies across

national borders. The company is divided into five business units, one of which is “Parks

and Resorts.” This business unit is in charge of Disney’s two American theme park

resorts, as well a park in Marne-la-Vallée, France. It also guides the management of the

Tokyo Disneyland resort in Tokyo, Japan, which is operated by the Oriental Land
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Company. This business unit’s responsibilities also include the development of future

Disney theme park resorts, including the Hong Kong Disneyland Resort, which is

scheduled to open September 12, 2005. This division has had both unbridled success and

indebted failure when it comes to the transfer of its business practices to Japan and

France respectively (Blank, 2003).

While Disney parks worldwide lead their geographical regions in attendance, this

is not necessarily an indicator of success. Tokyo Disneyland had Disney’s most

successful international opening and has been one of the most profitable parks in terms of

net revenue for the park’s operating company, the Oriental Land Company. Spurred by

its success in Japan, Disney decided to open a European park, Euro Disney. With the

exception of this park, renamed Disneyland Paris, all of Disney’s previous theme parks

have been unqualified successes (Goodman, 1999). The Euro Disney project was met

with marked cultural resistance from the French due both to the company’s choices and

practices (Lainsbury, 2000). While Euro Disney has had success in drawing attendance,

it has consistently been operating at losses.

The prevailing wisdom concerning the problem at Euro Disney was a breakdown

in cross-cultural communication (Goodman, 1999). While the company had success in

Tokyo, it failed to take into account many of the cultural aspects that made Tokyo

Disneyland successful. By looking at Hofstede’s cultural dimensions in the contexts of

these two distinctly different cultures, and their variation from the home culture of the

Disney Company, it is possible to analyze the cultural communication issues that have

created overwhelming dominance at home, success in Japan, and continued problems in

France.
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By applying a variation on Saussure’s semantic model to the expansion of Disney

into both Japan and France, it can be shown how two similar international expansions,

done in similar ways by the same company, could yield such different results. By

selecting specific business practices, and showing them in the context of the United

States, the home country, as well as in the context of Japan and France, it will be possible

to understand the issues that a company must face when expanding its own cultural

practices into various international markets.

Organization of Thesis

This thesis is organized as follows. First an analysis of theoretical background

will provide the basis for the case study. The theory section of the thesis will focus on

Saussure’s semantic model and its application to corporate business practices. It will also

look at the cultural dimensions developed by Hofstede as a way of creating the context

which will be applied into Saussure’s model. Following the theory section will be three

sections, organized chronologically, detailing the business practices at Disney theme

parks in America, Japan, and France, and applying these practices to the aforementioned

model. The thesis will conclude with an analysis of the cases and transferable

implications for businesses seeking to transfer soft technologies abroad.

For the purpose of analysis, this thesis will focus on four of Disney’s most well

known and unique corporate practices. These practices, which are well ingrained in their

culture, will provide a basis for understanding the changes and effects on the business as

they cross cultural borders. The practices are as follows: the training program, family

orientation, fanatical attention to detail, and their customer service orientation. These
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practices are part of the Disney corporate culture and have helped it to become a

legendary company in America (Collins and Porras, 1994).

It will analyze these four corporate practices and interpret them in the context of

the American, Japanese, and French business. It will evaluate the changes that they

underwent in order to allow them to be accepted by the country into which they were

immigrating, and then analyze any changes that may also occur in the home country

because of the internationalization.

ADD A CONCLUSION TO THE INTRODUCTION

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CHAPTER 2
Semiotic Theory and National Culture

Various explanations have been made to account for the lack of fit as

multinational enterprises transfer soft technologies across national borders. One such

model is the semiotic model, which is based on the linguistic theories developed in the

early 20th century by Ferdinand de Saussure. Saussure developed the concept that

linguistics was made up of two distinct parts, langue and parole; language and speech

respectively. Language, defined by Saussure, was the rules in which speech finds its

context. Speech is what we do with language, putting it into a tangible form (Gordon,

1996). It is through this simple fact that one can derive the semiotic model of

recontextualization.

In examining the theory behind this model, I will first look explain the theory as it

was written for linguistics, and then examine several expansions of the theory, most

importantly Brannen’s (2004) application to business practices. I will then provide

examples and expound upon the theory, by utilizing the cultural dimensions of Hofstede

as the context (language) into which a series of business practices (speech) fit.

Saussure’s Semiotic Theory

Saussure saw the world as being made up of signs. In a technical sense, the word

sign means that one thing stands for something else. For example, when driving, we see

a red light which indicates that we should stop. The red light is not there to make us

think of the color red, it represents to us the concept “stop.” In the same vein, a line on a

graph is not meant to make us think of jagged lines, but instead represents the series of

changes in a dependant variable relative to an independent variable (Gordon, 1996).

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Saussure’s concept was that a sign was made up of two distinct parts. The first

part is the physical image itself. This is called the signifier. In the above examples, the

signifiers would be the red light and the graph. The second part is the signified. This is

the concept which the signifier represents. The signified in the above examples are the

idea “stop” and the changes in variables. Together the image and concept (signifier and

signified respectively) make up the sign (Gordon, 1996).

While this is an easy concept to illustrate with tangible objects, Saussure’s true

breakthrough was in applying it to language. He said that language was made up of a

series of signs, which could either be written or spoken. Written letters, according to

Saussure, are signs that represent certain sounds that are part of a given language. In the

case of written words, the set of letters which make up a word are the signifier for the

concept which the word represents. In spoken language, Saussure said that the sounds

were the signifiers for the concept. The concept can then be either the denotative or

connotative definition, depending on the context. (Saussure, 1966).

One item of particular importance is the arbitrary nature of signs. Saussure

explained that the original choice of the signifier that represents a certain signified is

completely arbitrary. He indicates this by using the example of two different languages.

In French, Saussure’s native language, the word “mouton” means the same thing that

“sheep” means in English. The two words are different signifiers, but they both represent

the same signified. Arbitrarily, the English language decided to signify this animal with

one word, while the French language chose to signify it with another (Saussure, 1966).

Barthes (1967) expanded on the arbitrary nature of signs, saying that in some

cases they are arbitrary, as when they are selected by unilateral decision, but more often
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signs are motivated, meaning that the sign comes in some way from the world in which it

finds its context. The example given by Barthes is those words which are onomatopoeic

(a word representing or mimicking a sound.) He suggests that “ouch” is onomatopoeic

for “it hurts,” where as ouch is motivated, and it hurts is arbitrary. But, he points out;

sometimes even motivated signs can be partly arbitrary. Whereas “ouch” is motivated in

English, the comparable motivated sign in French would be “aïe.”

Semiotic Theory in a Transcultural Context

Saussure’s semiotic theory puts all signs into the context of their own language,

but the theory does not elaborate as to what would happen when one sign is put into the

context of another language. A framework for transnational transfer can be developed

using Saussure’s coin example. Coins are made of metal, usually copper, nickel, or

silver. This metal is the signifier. An un-pressed coin has no value as legal tender. It is

not until the coin has been minted that it has legal value. The impression by the mint is

the signified. If the mint were to stamp another substance, other than the one deemed

legal by the government, it would not be considered legal tender either. Therefore the

sign, the completed coin, is the metal and the impression, the signifier and signified

respectively (Saussure, 1916).

Brannen (2004) suggests that a sign, when transferred to a different context (an

expansion of Saussure’s idea of language), can have a different meaning. Thus the sign

from the previous context becomes the signifier in the new context. The concept which it

represents in the new context becomes the new signified, and the new sign is then

created. The new sign is not arbitrary, but motivated by the old sign (Barthes, 1967).
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An expansion of Saussure’s coin example shows the aforementioned concept of

transfer between contexts. If one were to take the coin into an area deep in the jungle,

that had never seen a coin before, they would have different view of the coin. To them

the coin would become the new signifier. The meaning which they attach to it would

become the new signified, and to them, the coin and its use will become the new sign.

While that example is extreme, one can see a more toned down example when

they take a currency from one country to another. Perhaps the sign’s value in one

country would allow them to buy a candy bar. In another country’s context, the people

will know that it is currency, but the value could be worth two candy bars, or in contrast,

not even enough to purchase one candy bar.

This example illustrates the concept pointed out Brannen (2004) that the more that

communicators’ cultural worlds overlap, the more effective their communication will be.

As languages are similar, their words (signs) can be similar to one another and more

likely understood. In linguistics, this explains the existence of cognates, words that are

very similar across different languages. English and French share many cognates such as

“elephant” and “elephant.” These words can be understood across the two cultures, but

the difference between the English word “elephant” and the Japanese word “象”

(pronounced zō), meaning elephant, is significant. The Japanese version neither sounds

nor looks nor sounds like the English word with which we are familiar. In reality, this is

because the Japanese language system overlaps with the English language much less than

the English and French languages overlap.

Brannen (2004) took this concept and applied it to the Walt Disney case by

interpreting three major aspects of the Disney Company’s culture as Saussure’s parole,
 14

and took the national contexts and used them as the context, or langue. Broken down into

products, practices, and ideologies, Brannen identified specific signifiers and matched

them with the signified that they represented in different cultural contexts. Her

comparisons showed very different signified meanings for the same signifier across

cultures.

Brannen (2004) also gave an example of the reflexive concept of transnational

transfer. That is, when a sign’s signified is changed as it crosses cultures; a new sign is

created, which could take on a new signified in the home culture. She provides the

example of sushi to support this concept. In Japan the word for raw fish is sashimi, and

the pickled rice in which it is stored is called sushi. When transferred to the west, the

sign is the sushi and sashimi together, but has come to be known by the term sushi, with

the underlying concept being the raw fish. Therefore in the United States, the word sushi

means raw fish. This exemplifies a sign changing across cultures to better fit into its new

culture.

Further examination, according to Brannen, shows the following idea. In the

United States, the California Roll is created, which is a type of American sushi with

cooked crabmeat and avocado. The California Roll is then repatriated into the Japanese

context and known as a sushi, even though that word originally meant a pickling agent

for raw fish and the meal is now cooked crabmeat.

What I have up to now presented is “how” changes in corporate practices take

place according to semiotic theory. It is a process that fits into the mechanism described

above. Because signs are made up of signifiers and their signified, and because different

cultures apply different signified to the same signifier, corporate practices can be
 15

interpreted differently in different cultures. What now must be explained is “why” these

changes take place. To do this I will use Hofstede’s cultural dimensions.

I will expand upon Brannen’s (2004) research by defining the three different

national cultures in which Disney resides by way of Hofstede’s cultural dimensions. I

will then take the corporate practices that are core competencies to Disney’s service

based business model, specifically the training program, grooming policy, fanatical

attention to detail, and their customer service orientation. Using this information, I will

then, in the following chapters, apply the theory to the cases of Walt Disney World in

America, Tokyo Disneyland in Japan, and Euro Disney in France.

Hofstede’s Dimensions of National Culture

When Geert Hofstede did his original research on international differences in

work related values, his results indicated four spectrums across which different national

cultures lie. These four spectrums were power distance, individualism-collectivism,

uncertainty avoidance, and masculinity-femininity (Hofstede, 1984). This section will

define Hofstede’s cultural dimensions, and explain his results as they relate to the three

countries in which Disney theme parks reside.

First is power distance; this is how society defines the fact that people are

unequal. High power distance cultures accept the power distribution among leaders and

subordinates as being unequal and therefore develop towering vertical hierarchies (Ohtsu,

2002). In Hofstede’s research, he asked the core question “How frequently, in your

experience, does the following problem occur: employees being afraid to disagree with

their managers?” Hofstede’s (1984) test for power distance found Japan to be very close

to middle-of-the-road. On the scale of 1-100, Japan was given a score of 54, whereas, for
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comparison, the mean was 51 and the United States had a score of 40. France was the

highest of the three, with a Power Distance Index score of 68.

Hofstede also found that countries that had high Power Distance Index scores

often agreed with the following statements: The average human has a dislike of work

(McGregor’s Theory X), and employees lose respect for a consultative manager. These

statements may help us to analyze the differences in acceptance of the same corporate

practice across different national cultures.

The next value is a scale which Hofstede titled individualism-collectivism. In a

collectivist society, there are high bonds between individuals. The individualist society

lacks those connections (Ohtsu, 2002). Hofstede (1984) compares the individualist

society to the solitary nature of the tiger, and the collectivist society to the gregarious

nature of packs of wolves. Collectivism is especially prevalent in cultures where “losing

face” is an important facet of culture. This is true of Japan, in which the individuality

index is relatively collectivist. They are, though, less collectivist than most other Asian

nations that Hofstede studied, including Hong Kong, Singapore, and Thailand.

For a point of reference the United States was the most individualistic country

with a score of 91; Japan scored a 46, and the mean was 51. France lies about half way

between the United States and Japan, with a score of 71 (Hofstede, 1984). This score is

still representative of an individualistic society.

Hofstede says that the amount of individualism in a society will affect the nature

of the relationship between the person and the organization in which they belong.

Particularly, it can affect the person’s reasons for complying with an organization’s

requirements. Using Etzioni’s terminology, Hofstede suggests that in a collectivist

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society there is a more “moral” involvement, and in an individualist society the

involvement is more “calculative”. Moral involvement designates high intensity with a

positive orientation. Calculative involvement can be of either positive or negative

orientation but is always of low intensity (Etzioni, 1961).

A third cultural value identified by Hofstede is the tendency to avoid ambiguous

situations. He called this “uncertainty avoidance.” Societies with low uncertainty

avoidance scores are more apt to take risks and less likely to feel the effects of anxiety

associated with those risks (Ohtsu, 2002). On this scale, Japan and France were very

similar, while the United States differed significantly. Japan had a very high uncertainty

avoidance score of 94, only the fourth highest of those nations surveyed. France

followed the Japanese closely as the sixth highest uncertainty avoidance score, an 86.

These scores show a tendency against risk taking. The United States has an uncertainty

avoidance score of 46, and the mean score for this value was 64 (Hofstede, 1984).

To look at the idea of uncertainty in organizations, Hofstede uses the terms logical

and non-logical as originally used by Pareto. Logical behavior is behavior that relies on

data and facts, or even custom. They are “logically linked to an end, not only in respect

to the person performing them, but also to those people who have more extensive

knowledge” (Pareto, 1966). In contrast, non-logical behavior would be anything that

does not fit into the aforementioned category (Pareto, 1966). Hofstede pointed out that

what is logical behavior in one context might be considered non-logical behavior in a

different context.

Cultures that have high uncertainty avoidance often use ways of making the

uncertain tolerable. Application of strict rules and regulations is one such way of doing
 18

this. Rules, in order to help eliminate uncertainty must account for both logical and non-

logical actions of the group. Rituals are another way or reducing uncertainty. While a

ritual serves a purpose to believers, unbelievers may find ritualistic actions non-logical,

but that point is moot because in the context of the organization they are logical

(Hofstede, 1984).

In the context of Disney, we often find executives asking the question “What

Would Walt Do?” The ritualistic question, referring to company founder Walt Disney,

helps to deal with the uncertainty of the selecting possible options by putting themselves

in the shoes of the founder (Blank, 2003). To an outsider, this may seem non-logical

because Walt has been deceased for over 30 years and the business world has

dramatically changed, but to a Disney Cast member, this ritual helps to guide the

organization on its highly principled path.

The fourth cultural value originally identified by Hofstede was a scale he called

masculinity versus femininity. Masculine societies have distinct value differences

between the roles of males and females in the society. At issue are sex roles (Ohtsu,

2002). In the study done by Hofstede (1984), Japan was by far the most masculine of the

39 countries. Its score was 95, and the next closest was Austria, with a score 16 points

less! The United States scored a 62 and the mean was 51. France was well below the

United States, with a score of 43.

The stereotypical masculine and feminine values play an important part in the

division of labor within societies. This could be particularly true for the Disney

Corporation, which stresses many of both the stereotypically feminine and masculine

values. Hofstede’s research showed that high masculinity countries have orientation
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towards money and things, live to work, are decisive, and believe that big and fast are

beautiful. In low masculinity countries (highly feminine) there is an orientation toward

people, people work to live, decisions are more intuitive, and small and slow are

considered beautiful (Hofstede, 1984). These distinct societal differences will help us to

analyze the success of Disney’s corporate practices as they relate to both the employees

of the amusement park, as well as the consumers.

Conclusion

These four cultural dimensions will become more and more important in

assessing the transfer of corporate practices and appeal to international markets as the

world continues to globalize in the 21st century. Tyson (1997) predicts that in the 21st

century, the most important assets of a successful company will be information,

intelligence, and the concept of perpetual strategy. In addition, he stresses the importance

of global alliances through joint ventures. Hofstede’s cultural dimensions will affect all

of these as companies seek to become more global.

The four aforementioned cultural dimensions will be the context into which the

following case studies will be examined. Each Disney theme park has had distinctly

different results. A major part of the differing results can be seen as a function of how

well key Disney business practices transferred into the culture of the nation in which the

Disney park came to reside. We will examine how the business practices are perceived

by that culture using Hofstede’s cultural dimensions. In most cases, the perception on the

business practice will be the result of a combination of these dimensions. For the sake of

clarity, when examining the practices, I will examine them each in the context of no more
 20

than two interplaying dimensions. In reality, the perception of each practice involves all

of the cultural dimensions, among other concepts.

The following three case studies will examine each of the four previously

mentioned corporate practices. This will be the signifier. We will then use the context of

Hofstede to derive the signified meaning in the culture. This will provide the differences

based on cultural dimensions which provide explanation for the differing successes of the

three Disney parks.

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CHAPTER 3
Walt Disney World Case Study

Walt Disney World (WDW) may not have been the first amusement park

developed by the Disney Company, but it is the most profitable, most visited, and largest

amusement park in the world (Amusement Business, Dec 2004). With a property in

central Florida that is as expansive as the city of San Francisco, the WDW resort holds

four theme parks, nineteen resort hotels, a shopping area, and much more. The property

runs much like any city, but without the residential areas.

WDW is well known for its many unique business practices which make it the

leader in its industry. Guests enter the Disney theme parks with high expectations, and

those expectations are often met. This could be a result of The Disney Company’s core

ideologies. These ideologies, which are the basis on which the practices to be evaluated

have been formed, include:

• fanatical attention to detail,

• continuous progress via creativity, dreams, and imagination,

• fanatical control and preservation of Disney’s “magic” image,

• no cynicism allowed, and

• “To bring happiness to millions” and to celebrate, nurture, and promulgate

“wholesome American Values (Collins et al, 1994)

These core ideologies are the guiding principles of Disney’s tightly-knit corporate

culture. In that the company focuses on strong guest service before anything else, the

corporate culture has often been called cult-like. Collins and Porras (1994) write that

“when examining Disney, it can be hard to keep in mind that it is a corporation, not a

social or religious movement.” They argue that this cult-like culture is a result of Walt
 22

Disney’s relationship with his employees, in which he demanded total dedication and

commitment to the company and its values. He saw his relationship with employees as a

father-child relationship and he viewed the company as his family.

This overzealous dedication to service and the company lead to what could be

considered a hyper-normal culture to the American consumer (Brannen, 2004). A

vacation at WDW is intended to be a magical experience that takes guests away from

reality. Walt Disney World’s mission, vision, and brand essence (appendix 1) truly

reflect this hyper-normal guest experience with statements such as “Here, we can wish

upon a star, experience the impossible and bring our dreams to life,” and “In this magical

world, fantasy is real and reality is fantastic (Disney, 2004).”

The company presents the same image of magic, fantasy, and fun to its employees

as it does to its guests. While the employees are not necessarily always as happy as they

may seem, they are generally content because the company puts the same magical

elements that it presents “onstage” (where the guests are) as it does “backstage” (where

only cast members go). Backstage areas are vibrantly painted with Disney characters,

bulletin boards sharing information are developed in ways that are uniquely Disney,

awards programs are developed with the same magic that Disney uses in its stage shows,

and cast member celebrations, discounts, and giveaways occur regularly. This can be

seen even through the WDW guiding principles. Appendix one includes the Disney-

MGM Studios vision, mission and brand essence, which are written with the same unique

character that WDW writes its park guide maps, advertisements, and all other literature

which has the guest as its end user.

 23

To understand this hyper-normal guest service culture, we will examine the

business practices of WDW which help to create the magical guest experience. We will

also look at how they fit or do not fit into the American cultural values as defined by

Hofstede.

Business Practices

Business practices are part of a company’s corporate culture, which is distinctly

different from the national culture in which it resides. In defining the two, Hofstede

(2001) says that the two are entirely distinct from one another, but they can and should be

complementary. This section will look at aspects of the Walt Disney World corporate

culture, and examine how they are complimented by the national culture of the United

States.

Guest Service Orientation

The culture at Walt Disney World revolves solely around the guest. Everyone has

heard the saying “the customer is always right,” and at Disney, that statement is a way of

life. When you are in “the business of fantasy” (Bryman, 1995) it is important that

nothing interrupts the magical experience. Breaking the magic can be grounds for

immediate termination as a Disney employee.

An example of this cultural phenomenon of “keeping the magic” can be seen

through Disney’s merchandise training course. In the cases of shoplifting or

counterfeiting, cast members are instructed not to say anything to the suspect, but just to

go about their normal business. After the guest/suspect has left the cast member is

directed to go back stage to report the illegal activity to Disney security. Anything else
 24

would ruin the magic for those around, and that would not be Disney’s style of customer

service.

The guest service aspect that I will focus on for this research is Disney’s policy of

guest service recovery. This is the Disney policy which empowers all cast members to do

whatever is in there power to make a guest’s experience more enjoyable. It can be in

response to a problem a guest is having, or just a way to brighten the guest’s day. It

involves going beyond the guest’s expectations. If a guest knocks their ice cream off of

its cone and down their shirt, a cast member will offer the guest not only new ice cream,

but a new shirt as well.

A classic story of guest service came from Disney recruiter David Horvath

(2004). As he recruits across the country, he tells the story that he fondly refers to as

“The Yogurt Story.” His story tells of his childhood, when his family stayed at a Disney

resort. His little brother had only eaten strawberry yogurt for breakfast all of his life.

Finding that the resort did not have strawberry yogurt, the boy cried all morning through

breakfast. The cast member working at the restaurant that morning asked the mother if

they would be back there for breakfast the following morning. She nodded her head and

said “Yes, we’ll be doing this all over again, all week.” The next morning, when his

family arrived for breakfast, there was a fresh container of strawberry yogurt for the boy.

Without even receiving a complaint, this employee knew that he should do

something to make the Horvath family’s vacation a little bit more special. These types of

activities happen all day, everyday. Turning a negative experience into a positive

experience is what guest service recovery is about. If a cast member ever needs

suggestions on what can be done to create a guest service recovery, they can just read the
 25

Main Street Diary, Walt Disney World’s weekly newsletter written by Disney World’s

Chief Operating Officer, Lee Cockerel.

Brannen (2004) suggests that this service orientation is beyond the normal for

most American businesses, and indeed this shows true through the research of Hofstede.

The guest service culture can be linked to Hofstede’s values of power distance and

uncertainty avoidance.

From the viewpoint of power distance, the United States scored moderately, but in

order to have such a strong guest service culture, it would be important to have,

theoretically no power distance. The guest service culture at WDW gives front line cast

members the same power as managers, or even executives, in addressing the needs of the

guests. The power to meet these needs is dispersed through the organization, and cast

members rely more on their personal experience than on formal rules or chains of

command to meet these needs. Therefore, what is seen from this aspect of Disney’s

culture is a representation of power distance that could be termed significantly lower than

the American norm.

Walt Disney World’s guest service recovery policy also defies the cultural norm

on the uncertainty avoidance dimension. The United States is seen through Hofstede’s

research as having a moderately weak uncertainty avoidance score. The guest service

recovery policy can be seen by Disney as an attempt to eliminate uncertainty in its parks.

Whereas in many American businesses a “you break it, you buy it” policy exists, Disney

guests never have to worry about such things. They can be certain that they will not have

to buy anything that they did not want, nor will they have to be disappointed by

something that they break or lose. Therefore, the company’s policy eliminates the
 26

uncertainty that is often found in the American society, creating a more pleasurable guest

experience.

Through the interplay of abnormally seen cultural dimensions, WDW has created

a guest service policy that is highly regarded by the theme park’s guests. Internally, the

policy breaks down power barriers to a greater level than which are usually seen in

American companies. Outwardly, the company presents a feeling of safety and certainty

that are also hard to find in a country that thrives on uncertainty. The interactions of

these two dimensions create a positive experience in Disney’s American theme parks.

Training Program

Walt Disney World is also very well known for its training program that all cast

members must attend. This training, called Traditions, is very much an indoctrination

into Disney’s unique corporate culture. The course is taught by the faculty at “Disney

University,” and is designed to introduce cast members to Disney’s “traditions,

philosophies, organization, and the way we do business” (Collins et al.). The rooms in

which Traditions takes place are often decorated with pictures of the Walt Disney, Disney

characters, and Disney products.

This training program deviates from the American norm of being a highly

individualistic society. Hofstede’s research showed that the United States was the most

individualistic society in his research. Where Americans have a desire to be treated as

and act as individuals, the Disney Company is creating a highly collective group of

employees which work for the common good of the organization, not for themselves.

While Disney cast members are still very individualistic when they are off stage, on stage

you could assume that they are all brothers and sisters.
 27

Disney’s policy is to hire for personality and train for skill. This is an aspect that

Hofstede defines as part of a collectivist culture. While Disney does not hire from an in-

group of relatives, as Hofstede defines it, it hires from an in-group of people with the

same personality traits and family centered beliefs. This in-group is very much a group

of individuals who share the same value system that Disney exemplifies. By going

through the Traditions course, employees become part of another in- group, the Disney

Cast Members. This group, which presents an outward appearance of being cult-like, has

its own language (Disneyese, see appendix 2), symbols, and beliefs.

This culture created by Disney’s training program creates a strong bond between

employees, on a level that is seen only in the few American companies with comparable

training programs. It creates a dedication and commitment to Walt Disney World and the

ideals that are represented by it. This collectivist aspect is part of what allows Disney to

have such a powerful and unmatchable corporate culture, which is vital to its success.

Family Orientation

Throughout the history of the Disney Company, there has always been a focus on

the family. It is said that Walt Disney developed Disneyland as a place that he and his

daughter could go to escape reality and just spend some quality time together. That

dedication to the family can be seen in everything that the Disney Company continues to

do. The park is full of attractions that are family oriented. The WDW parks are less

about thrills and excitement than they are about fantasy, magic, and family fun.

Disney theme parks continually have a focus on education. From the rides

originally developed by Walt Disney such as the Carousel of Progress and the Hall of

Presidents (formerly Great Moments with Mr. Lincoln), to the conservation theme of
 28

Disney’s Animal Kingdom and the ever-changing Innoventions pavilion at Epcot (see

appendix 3 for explanations of attractions). These rides, parks, and attractions are all

designed so the family can learn together, in an atmosphere that stimulates creativity and

innovation. If Disney theme parks were to abandon their roots as family based theme

parks, they would be just like any other amusement park. This helps them to carve out

their niche. But having this niche does not explain the overwhelming success of the park.

In relation to Hofstede’s cultural dimensions, we can see how this family

orientation reflects the United States’ position as a highly masculine country. When

examining family values, Hofstede found that countries with higher masculinity ratings

place more importance on the family, while those with lower masculinity ratings are

more apt to place importance on friends and acquaintances. Also, with the aspect of

family, Disney’s advertisements, culture, and themes are always indicative of the

traditional family. Hofstede found that masculine cultures are more dependent on these

traditional family concepts, while feminine cultures generally have more unmarried

cohabitation1 and flexible family concepts.

The high individuality of the United States also compliments the family oriented

culture of WDW. As with masculinity, cultures with high individualism index scores

more often have nuclear families. Also, the child tends to think more in terms of “I”

(Hofstede, 2001). The ways that these aspects are reflected in society help to make

Disney successful. The nuclear family is the market segment to which Disney is

oriented, and it the sales of its product are aimed at making children happy. This is in

response to the children’s understanding of “I.”

 29

The relationship that can be seen is a link between the values of the culture and

the values of the organization. The success of Disney’s culture in being family oriented

is a reflection of the importance the culture places on the family. When I examine this

concept further in chapter six, I will show one aspect of how the internationalization of

Disney theme parks has detracted from that family oriented culture through the Disney

alcohol policy.

Fanatical Attention to Detail

Since the beginning, Walt Disney’s theme parks have been known for their

attention to detail. When walking through the park, a guest rarely finds a piece of trash

on the ground; all cast members are trained to pick up anything that they see. Nightly,

crews touch up paint that has been chipped or scuffed during the day. The attention to

detail is done on levels that guests can both recognize, and that they cannot. For

example, in The Hall of Presidents, each animatronics president’s clothing is made using

the common stitches of the time period. Cinderella’s Golden Carousel is not covered

with gold paint, but adorned with 24 karat gold leaf (Connellan, 1997).

In addition to their attention to detail on the physical structures of the park,

Disney pays fanatical attention to detail concerning their employees. The Disney Look,

as it is called, is the policy consisting of strict guidelines which establish the standards of

appearance for all Disney employees. It regulates things such as hair color and style,

length of fingernails, makeup, jewelry, earring sizes, cleanliness, smell, sunglasses, and

more (Poisant, 2002). Horvath (2004) tells the fictional story of the girl with green hair

who worked outside Disney’s Alien Encounter attraction. He argues that the guests who

went in and watched Alien Encounter would still be thinking about the green hair of their
 30

host instead of their visit to the attraction. Poisant (2002) explains that, while there was

much opposition to his strict dress code (which Walt, himself, did not follow: He had a

mustache, which until the 1990’s was against the policy), Walt fought for it, and it is a

major part of Disney’s current corporate culture. Even cast members who do not work in

the view of guests must conform to the policy.

The attention to detail which permeates the company’s culture shows how a sign

(the policy) can be viewed differently by the consumer than by the employee. To the

employees, the policy is highly controlling and often unpleasant. One Disney employee

with whom I spoke said that half way through a shift his manager directed him to return

to the cast locker rooms to shave. He had already shaved once that morning, but a long

shift left him at work with a 5 o’clock shadow. In low uncertainty avoidance cultures,

like that in the United States, employees, if necessary will try to break the rules

(Hofstede, 2000). Disney’s strict rules are often secretly broken, with cast members

hiding tongue piercing and wearing dirty uniforms. This can create a highly noticeable

conflict between cast members and management, although this conflict is often secretive.

This policy also goes against the highly individualistic personalities that are typical of

American employees at WDW.

From the perspective of the consumer, the grooming policy is perceived as an

attempt at perfection and adds to the overall experience at WDW. Often guests comment

that Disney employees have a certain look about them (Poisant, 2002). The positive

experience caused by the Disney grooming policy can be correlated to Hofstede’s power

distance index. His research found that in low power distance countries like the United

States, subordinates and superiors have the understanding that they are alike one another.
 31

Disney’s policy reflects this, treating each the same. As viewed from the customer’s

perspective, this creates a constructed similarity between the guest and the cast member

that plays on the low power distance of the American culture. The typical cast member

looks like what Walt Disney felt the “typical American” should look like. By creating

this policy, it further breaks down the distance between employee and guest, improving

the overall guest experience.

The example of Disney’s grooming policy provides an opportunity to look at the

corporate practices in the context of Saussure’s semantic theory. The sign, in this case, is

the Disney grooming policy and its effect on the employee. The signifier is the physical

grooming policy, while the signified is the cast member’s internal stress, but outward

appearance. This outward appearance becomes the signifier for the guest. The

understanding of attention to detail and the breaking down of power distance are what is

signified by the outward appearance of the cast member. This is the second sign, but is

defined the same as the first sign. Figure 3.1 illustrates this concept.

Conclusion

In the context of the American national culture, Disney’s corporate culture is

complimented by the cultural dimensions of the national culture in which is lays. This

helps to create a product that is appreciated by both customers and employees. While not

all is perfect as may seem from the external appearance, the negative effects of the

interplay between national and corporate culture are much less than the positive effects.

Disney’s corporate culture is unique in that it is strongly exemplified in the parks.

If this were not the case, it is likely that the consumers would not be as likely to be

effected by it.
 32

In the following chapters, I will examine the same business practices in the

contexts of the Japanese and French national cultures. By continuing to examine these

practices in the context of Hofstede’s cultural dimensions, and by adding the dynamics of

Saussure’s semiotic theory, I will identify the clash in cultures that lead to the success in

Tokyo Disneyland and the “cultural Chernobyl” of Euro Disneyland.

 33

CHAPTER 4
Tokyo Disneyland Case Study

The Oriental Land Company was developed as a partnership between Mitsui Real

Estate Development and the Keisei Electric Railway. In the 1960’s the company asked

the government for the rights to fill in part of Tokyo Bay for developing the land for

housing use. The company granted them the right to use the land (in the case that they

could persuade fishermen to give up the fishing rights), but they could not use the land

for housing. Instead, it was decided that the land must be used for a major recreational

facility. Oriental Land was not too happy that this was the case, but they chose to go

ahead with the filling. They decided the most profitable recreational facility that they

could produce would be a theme park (Koren, 1990).

Over the next eight years (1966 – 1974), the Oriental Land Company traveled the

world in search of the best theme park experience. They decided upon the idea of

modeling a Disneyland park for their property. In 1974, Oriental Land approached the

Walt Disney Company with their proposal, but at the same time, Mitsubishi proposed a

Disney Park near Mount Fuji. Mitsubishi soon dropped out of negotiations; speculation

was that they were pressured by the government in a “you’ll get your turn” fashion

(Koren, 1990).

The eventual agreement by Oriental Land and Disney gave licensing rights to the

Disneyland name to Oriental Land. In exchange, Disney would receive 10% of

admissions profits and 5% of food and souvenir sales (Koren, 1990). According to Pete

Blank (2003), teacher at Disney University, this small cut of the profits for Disney, which

served as a management fee, was one of the company’s biggest blunders in its history.

There was early speculation that the Japanese would not be able to hold the park to
 34

Disney’s high standards. In other words, they thought that there may be problems

transferring the company’s soft technologies. This was proven false. The Japanese

attention to detail was superb at keeping the squeaky-clean Disney image (Koren, 1990).

Amusement Business Magazine (2004) consistently ranks Tokyo Disneyland as

one of the most attended amusement parks in the world, and the top amusement park in

Asia. The success spurned the opening of a second gate, Tokyo DisneySea, in September

2001. This park has been just a successful as Tokyo Disneyland. In addition it operates

under the same licensing agreement as the Tokyo Disneyland Park.

The goal of the Tokyo Disneyland Resort is to present the image of a vacation to

America, while still actually being in Japan. While the Walt Disney Company would

have liked to include more traditional Japanese lands, this was not the goal of the Oriental

Land Company (Tobin, 1992). The park was, therefore, developed to be a nearly exact

replica of Walt Disney’s original Disneyland Park.

There were, however a few changes made in the hard technologies of Disney in

creating Tokyo Disneyland. The entrance to the park, which in the American parks is

called Main Street USA, has been replaced by a covered area called the World Bazaar. A

glass covering was added to the area in an attempt to deal with the climate driven issues

of opening a park in Tokyo harbor. Frontierland was renamed Westernland as a way of

further appealing to the Japanese people (Tobin, 1992).

Outside of these changes, much of Tokyo Disneyland was run the same as Walt

Disney World. We will, therefore, look at the same business practices that were analyzed

in the previous case study, but see how they fit into the cultural context of Japan. By
 35

using semiotic theory, the differing interpretations of the business practices will be

analyzed in their different contexts.

Business Practices

Brannen (2004) suggests that the more two countries national cultures overlap, the

less likely it becomes that there will be changing interpretations as business practices

cross cultures. Thus, one could hypothesize that the cultural differences between the

United States and Japan would cause misinterpretation of the business practices. In fact,

this section will present evidence that Disney’s business practices are easily understood

by the Oriental Land Company, employees, and consumers in Japan. The is a result of

the fact that Disney’s business practices fit better into Japan’s national culture than in

America’s.

Guest Service Orientation

The Tokyo Disneyland culture focuses on guest satisfaction in the same way that

Walt Disney World does, through service and magic. They hear the same stories that are

heard at Disney parks around the world, of children dropping their box of popcorn, and a

cast member refilling it for them. But there are differences in the ways that the strong

guest service culture is perceived by the different national cultures.

Brannen (2004) suggests that while the strong orientation toward guest service

may be considered hypernormal in the United States, it is more of a cultural norm in

Japan. This can be seen in the stories of Tokyo Disneyland employees as well. In fact,

evidence is presented by Raz (1999) that guest service is generally more important in

Japanese culture than it is at Disney. The example that follows shows an occasion when

keeping the magic was more important than meeting the needs of the guest.
 36

The example cited by a Tokyo Disneyland cast member dealt with park safety.

The cast member indicated that he was told not to tell guests that the park has a park-

wide public address system, because it was only to be used in the case of an emergency.

Excessive use would destroy the magic, so even when a mother is missing her child, it is

not appropriate to use the system. The cast member suggested that bottom line is “the

atmosphere is more important than actually helping people” (Raz, 1999)

Other Tokyo Disneyland cast members point out that Disney’s stories of guest

service always revolve around children. Rarely is the story told of a cast member

refilling the popcorn box of an adult who has dropped it. This suggests that the Disney

idea of guest service is motivated by creating magic rather than a genuine interest in

serving the guest. Another example in which Disney’s policies in guest service are

questioned by the Japanese deals with their policy following personal accidents. Cast

members are instructed first to call their supervisor, then to call first aid, then to write

down any admissions of self-carelessness by the guest (Raz, 1999).

The aforementioned examples show the differences in the way the policies of

Disney are interpreted differently in the two different cultures. Both Walt Disney World

and Tokyo Disneyland have the same guest service policies in place, but in the former

they are considered as going above and beyond what is necessary, while in the latter, they

are merely adequate.

To analyze this change in interpretation between the two cultures, we will again

use Hofstede’s cultural dimensions. In Japan Hofstede’s dimension of power distance is

higher than it was in the United States, but they are both relatively close. Disney, a

mentioned earlier, creates a culture where everyone is on the same level, where power
 37

distance is minimized. Therefore, there is a contradiction, between the somewhat higher

power distance of Japan and the low power distance of Disney (Hofstede, 2001).

From a guest service perspective, they see higher power distances between

themselves and the guest, and therefore it is their duty to serve the guest in the best way

that they can. From an internal organization perspective, the higher power distance

culture says that cast members follow the rules of the organization, even though they may

feel that they are not in the best interest of the guest. Formal rules are important in this

culture and subordinates are expected to be told what to do, and to do what they are told.

This is also reflective of the country’s relatively collective culture.

The combined effects of this create a successful business. Cast members do as

they are told, but are empowered to do more. They follow the rules of the organization;

in so much as it helps the guests. While they feel that they could go further with service,

they organizations rules send them just far enough, which keeps the guests happy. In

summary, the business model of Disney is slightly below par with guest service ideals of

the Japanese culture, but is interpreted at a level which keeps guests satisfied none-the-

less (Brannen, 2004).

Also, we suggested that Disney’s guest service orientation is a function of the

uncertainty avoidance index. In the United States we inferred that the customer was

appreciative of the low level of uncertainty associated with Walt Disney World’s policy

of guest service recovery. While the United States is associated with weak uncertainty

avoidance, Japan ranks very high on the uncertainty avoidance index (Hofstede, 2001).

By looking at this, we can suggest that Disney’s guest service policy is more in line with

the Japanese cultural dimensions than the American cultural values. The difference that
 38

causes the hypernormal perception by WDW guests is virtually eliminated. In short, such

a guest service policy fits perfectly into the high uncertainty avoidance culture in which

Tokyo Disneyland resides.

The interplay of the higher power distance and stronger uncertainty avoidance

allow for a different interpretation of Disney’s guest service policies at Tokyo Disneyland

than at Walt Disney World. What is considered an excellent policy at WDW fits

perfectly into the Japanese culture as an acceptable policy.

Training Program

Tokyo Disneyland’s training and orientation programs are not unlike those at

Walt Disney World. The training consists of two parts, the first being an orientation

similar to the aforementioned “Traditions” which indoctrinates the new cast member into

the ways of the Disney Company. The second day part is training in the new hire’s line

of business, such as merchandise, food and beverage, or attractions. The cast members

are also instructed to read the Tokyo Disneyland manual entitled “Tips on Magic,” which

is a direct translation of the original Disneyland manual. (Raz, 1999).

The training program promotes and understanding and dedication to the Disney

company and its brand. Raz (1999) suggests that this indoctrination into such a strong

culture is “not that out-of-the-ordinary in Japanese terms.” Whereas in the American

culture it could be considered hypernormal (Brannen, 2004) for employees to go through

a preliminary interview in which they are explained the culture of the organization and

judged for fit, in Japan employees already have an understanding of and are used to strict

cultures, such as that of Disney (Raz, 1999).

 39

This can be seen in terms of Hofstede’s individualism/collectivism dimension.

Japan is a much more collectivist than the United States (although it is the most

individualistic of the Asian nations (Hofstede, 2001)). Whereas in the United States the

collectivist culture of Disney is an anomaly, in Japanese culture, it is the standard.

Therefore, the Disney training is not perceived as hypernormal, but is instead perceived

as normal.

This is a perfect example of the Saussure’s semiotic model of signs at work. The

Disney Company has the same policy as the Oriental Land Company, and the policy is

exemplified through the same training programs (signifier). But, the programs are

perceived differently (signified) in the two contextually different cultures. In this case,

both signified meanings still promote the success of the company instead of countering it.

Family Orientation

While Tokyo Disneyland is not technically owned or run by the Walt Disney

Company, it is guided by the Company’s core beliefs and values (by both tradition and a

strict contract). One of those beliefs is that Disney should be a family friendly place. In

Japan, Disney is more than just a children’s world, it makes magic for parents and

children alike. The Japanese Mickey Kids television station shows many of Disney’s

original television shows, which were hosted by Walt himself.

In regards to Tokyo Disneyland’s alcohol policy, an aspect of its family friendly

culture, the park had no alcohol. When the park opened in 1983, the only Disney theme

park which allowed alcohol was EPCOT Center, which had opened a year earlier. In that

case, alcohol was allowed because it was an important part of the World Showcase
 40

theme. Currently, alcohol is not allowed at Tokyo Disneyland, but is allowed at Tokyo

DisneySea, the second park on the property (Mishma, 2005).

The cultural dimension of lower individualism also plays well toward the

Japanese audience. Having a family orientation in a collectivist culture such as Japan fits

well with many of the key points Hofstede (2001) found with collectivist family values.

In collectivist cultures, a marriage is not complete without children. Families are larger

because they are generally more extended, and responsibility of children to their parents

is important. But there are also negative effects of the collectivist culture. In such

cultures happiness is discouraged. Also, the focus on “we” in a collectivist culture can be

seen as a positive or a negative. While children may be less demanding of the souvenirs

purchased for them, there is more of an emphasis on giving and sharing (Raz, 1999).

Japan, being a collectivist society, proves as an adequate match to Disney’s

family oriented culture. While the Japanese may be known for their saké, they

understand that alcohol does not belong at a place with such a family orientation. The

masculine traits of the culture lead it to be a very successful place for Disney’s focus on

the family. Being only slightly collectivist, the country’s culture has some aspects the

clash and some that match with the Disney ideal of being a location for the whole family

to enjoy.

Fanatical Attention to Detail

Disney’s attention to detail, exemplified by its Disney Look policy, is not

something new to the Japanese. The Japanese term “midashinami” refers to appearance

management, a concept that the Japanese are very familiar with. As early as elementary

school, Japanese children are taught to follow appearance management regulations. An

 41

example of this policy follows: All hair should be uniformly cut, straight, and for boys,

should not touch the ears, eyebrows, or back collar. If a student’s hair is naturally curly,

they must inform the school and carry around a certificate showing such. When asked

about the strictness of Disney’s grooming policy, a Tokyo Disneyland employee

responded that it is “not that strict” (Raz, 1999).

Once again, this is an example of how Disney’s policies are interpreted by the

more collectivist Japanese culture. In the context of the worker, whereas in the United

States the grooming policy could be seen as an affront to one’s individual identity, in

Japan it is seen as highly accepted, if not expected. Identity is based on the social system

as opposed to the individual, which in this context would be the company. Also, in the

United States individualism is important; in Japan individualistic is not an important

personality trait (Hofstede, 2001).

The grooming policy, when examined from the guest perspective, deals with the

trait of uncertainty avoidance. By implementing this policy, Disney play to the idea that

guests come to Disney theme parks expecting a certain experience, and the attention to

detail that Disney exudes makes sure that the guests’ expectations are met. Japan’s high

uncertainty avoidance makes Disney fit well into that nation’s culture. In the United

States, the uncertainty eliminated by Disney’s attention to detail was an added benefit, in

Japan it is part of typical Japanese business practices (Hofstede, 2001).

Conclusion

Tokyo Disneyland, Disney’s first attempt expanding to an international market

proved to be a success for cultural reasons. Disney’s business practices transferred well

into the Japanese national culture because the Disney culture and the Japanese culture
 42

had natural fit with one another. Based on Hofstede’s cultural dimensions, the practices

of the Disney Company were actually more suited for business in Japan than for business

in the United States.

In the context of Tokyo Disneyland the idea is often expressed that there was a

“Japanization” of Disneyland. While this may be partly true, it seems to only have had a

prevalent effect on Disney’s hard technologies, such as the renaming of certain areas, and

changing of the main shopping area as earlier mentioned. In reality, Disney’s soft

technologies, such as the aforementioned business practices, went through very minor

changes in their transfer across the Pacific Ocean.

As Brannen (2004) mentioned, the closer two countries’ cultures are, the less

reinterpretation the business practices will have as they cross cultures. In this case, the

Disney practices transferred well because the business cultures of Japan and the United

States are similar. But more importantly, the practices transferred well because they were

more representative of the Japanese business culture than American business culture.
 43

CHAPTER 5
Disneyland Paris Case Study

On the coattails of the success of Tokyo Disneyland, The Walt Disney Company

turned its focus to Europe. Determined not to make the mistake that it did with Tokyo

Disneyland, Disney took a much greater stake in the development of its European park.

Throughout the 1980’s, the company negotiated with both the French and Spanish

governments, trying to decide between a site in Marne-la-Vallée, just outside of Paris,

and a site on the Mediterranean coast just outside of Barcelona. The Spanish site had the

advantage of a more amiable climate, but the relatively central location and government

incentives offered by the French eventually led to the selection of the 5,000 acre site in

the French countryside (Lovelock, 1996).

As with the Tokyo Disneyland resort, many of the hard technologies were

changed slightly. Tomorrowland was re-themed Discoveryland in an attempt to appeal to

the European tradition of looking discovery and innovation (Lainsbury, 2000). Along the

same vein, the Space Mountain rollercoaster, which is themed as a space transport system

at the Walt Disney World result, was reinterpreted and merged with the storyline of Jules

Verne’s classic From the Earth to the Moon. Also, The Walt Disney Company, returned

Sleeping Beauty’s Castle to its French name, Le Château de la Belle au Bois Dormant,

and developed it into a more fantasy based attraction than those which are found in the

other parks. This was in attempt to appeal to the Europeans, who are used to seeing

magnificent, real castles.

The park opened on April 12, 1992 and reviews were scathing. Euro Disney had

attendance rates lower than expected and a considerable debt due to Disney CEO Michael

Eisner’s disregard for the soaring costs of the project. One journalist called the park a
 44

“cultural Chernobyl” and an Economist writer said that “Investors in Euro Disney might

as well have climbed aboard Indiana Jones and the Temple of Peril. Jitters about the

theme park’s popularity are giving them a ride every bit as stomach-churning as Euro

Disney’s famous roller-coaster.” This unsuccessful start led to a change of strategy

(Lainsbury, 2000).

In September of 1994 the park was renamed Disneyland Paris. As explained by

Michael Eisner, the word “Euro” may have sounded glamorous to Americans, but to the

European market, the word was associated with business, currency, and commerce. This

changed the marketing plan of the park, associating it more with Disney’s original vision,

and differentiated the park from its first two years of bad press (Lainsbury, 2000).

To examine Disneyland Paris is to examine the failures that can occur in cross

cultural communications. By examination of Disney business practices in the context of

Hofstede’s cultural dimensions and in the context of Saussure’s semiotic theory, I will

show the different outcomes that can occur from the different signified meanings of these

business practices in the French cultures. Whereas in the American cultural context these

practices led to a hypernormal success, and in the Japanese context the result was a

business that fit well within the cultural norms, the French example will show significant

cultural discrepancies that lead the Disney business culture to not fit well within the

French national culture.

Business Practices

Upon the opening of Euro Disney, it was apparent that the French were not going

to warm to the American management style being offered by the parent company and by

Robert Fitzpatrick, the American executive in charge of Euro Disney who spoke French
 45

and was married to a French woman. In April 1993, Philippe Bourguignon took the

reigns of the park with the specific goal of trying to make the park more European, but

still holding onto its American roots (Lovelock, 1996). This section will analyze the

business practices that Disney brought to France in its creation of Euro Disney, and the

way that these policies were interpreted by their French recipients. In addition, this

section will address changes made by Bourguignon which helped to eliminate the

dissonance between American and French perceptions of these business practices.

Guest Service Orientation

Brannen (2004) suggests that the service orientation of Disney is contrary to

French cultural norms. The idea of greeting each guest with a smile is something that is

abnormal and unfamiliar to French culture. In describing the French, Brown (2004)

suggests that their personalities can be compared to a coconut, hard on the outside but

sweet on the inside. Disney’s management philosophy was to present an outward

appearance of friendliness, something unfamiliar to the French.

Because of this cultural difference, both the Euro Disney cast member and guest

clashed with the guest service policy. To the French guest, the policy was considered

intrusive and annoying, to the employee it was uncomfortable and uncalled-for. While at

Disney’s American parks, this dissonance was considered a competitive advantage of the

park; at Euro Disney it was considered a weakness.

In the context of Saussure’s semantic theory, the sign is the guest service

orientation and what it means to the employee or guest. The signifier is constant; the

policy is enacted in the same way both at Walt Disney World as at Euro Disney. What is

changed is the signified. In the American culture the strong guest service orientation
 46

represents a hypernormal service policy that is in the best interest of the guests. In

contrast, the French see the policy as intrusive and uncomfortable. The same policy is

being interpreted differently as a result of differences in culture. Figure 5.1 shows this

concept in Saussure’s semantic model.

To examine the reason for this dissonance between the American and French

signified meanings for this sign, we will once again refer to Hofstede’s cultural

dimensions. In our previous two examples, we examined the acceptance of the guest

service culture in the context of power distance and uncertainty avoidance. To keep the

analysis constant, we will use these same cultural dimensions.

France’s power distance score is significantly higher than either Japan or the

United States. This indicates a stronger tendency towards a work culture that focuses on

higher authority and a more tiered hierarchy. The French power distance dimension

would also focus on a centralized decision making structure with expressed formal rules

(Hofstede, 2000).

The reality is that the Disney guest service policies do not fit this cultural

dimension at all. As earlier mentioned, the policy of guest service recovery (in which the

cast member is empowered to fix the problem) is really an example of low power

distance. At Tokyo Disneyland, because the power distance was only moderate, it was

able to reinforce the Disney corporate culture. At Euro Disney, the difference in power

distances between Disney and France are significant and therefore create a dissonance

that makes Disney’s service culture seem abnormal. This is an example of Brannen’s

(2004) suggestion that the closer cultures are, the more easily their policies will mesh. In

this case, the difference between the American and French culture is greater than the
 47

difference between the American and Japanese. It is due to that that we see greater

dissonance.

In regards to the dimension of uncertainty avoidance, French culture lies between

Japan and the United States, but is closer to the Japanese score than the American. It

would appear, therefore, that the guest service polices, which eliminate uncertainty,

would fit well into the French culture as the do in the Japanese culture. In fact, the

interplay of both of these two cultural dimensions is very similar to the scores given to

the Japanese. Yet, the results and interpretation are very different.

The deeper analysis of the uncertainty avoidance dimension provides a reason for

this intuitive dissonance. Hofstede found that the French agreed with the uncertainty

avoidance statement “I only follow the instructions of superiors when my reason is

convinced.” This indicates that the French must be convinced to follow the procedures of

the company, and it is clear that the French are not convinced that high levels of service

are what the guests or cast members want. Lovelock (1996) cites one Euro Disney

executive as saying that “the French are not known for their hospitality. But Disney is.”

This creates a dissonance that is an important manifestation of the aforementioned

uncertainty avoidance statement. Therefore, there is an animosity toward the policies,

even though they eliminate uncertainty avoidance. Figure 5.2 shows this concept in the

context of Saussure’s semantic theory.

While Hofstede’s values of power distance and uncertainty avoidance are similar

in Japan and France, the transfer of corporate policies between the national cultures

yields significantly different results. Deeper analysis shows that the nuances of these
 48

cultural dimensions seem to project the reasoning for such distinct differences in

interpretation of the signified meanings of the guest service polices in Japan and France.

Training Program

According to Brannen (2004), the training policies of The Disney Company,

which include such courses as “traditions,” are viewed as totalitarian in the context of

French national culture. The Disney Company did little to soften that image during the

development of Euro Disney, and in fact, seemed to cultivate the feeling with its

American attitude. In the 1990 Annual Report the company made it “a leading priority to

indoctrinate all employees into the Disney service philosophy, in addition to training

them in operational policies and procedures” (Lovelock, 1996). Those who were

suggesting a Disney cultural imperialism seem to be vindicated by Disney’s policy

statements and goals.

Looking at this policy of indoctrination from the perspective of Hofstede’s

individualism and collectivism spectrum, we can see differences that lead to the signified

meaning (totalitarian) of Disney’s training policies. On this scale, France falls about half

way between the highly individual American culture and slightly collective Japanese

culture. In the context of the American culture, we suggested that the training program

was hypernormal because it lay outside the norm in a positive way. In France, it is

apparent that the policy is not considered positive. Hofstede (2001) explains this as an

example of the interplay between France’s high individuality and large power distance.

He calls this dependent individualism. He suggests that the French (as well as other

cultures that fit into this group) have a need for authority, but they reject the collectivity

of the company.
 49

To exemplify this concept we look can look at the idea of Disney’s “traditions”

course. The French have a moderately large power distance rating. This allows them to

understand and ultimately thrive on the importance of such programs as the training

program offered by Disney. While they understand the importance, they are in conflict

because Disney’s training indoctrinates them into a highly collective organization. The

signifier in this model is the training course itself. The signified is the feeling of

totalitarian leadership, which is a result of the dependent individualism. This, as

Hofstede (2001) explains is an intrinsically contradictory attitude. This creates the

negative attitude toward the policies.

Family Orientation

To look at family orientation at Euro Disney, we see that some concepts of family

orientation are different than in the United States, creating one of the most prevalent and

detailed examples of Saussure’s concept of recontextualization. First we will examine

the effects of Hofstede’s cultural values in the acceptance of the family oriented business

practices, then we will look at Disney’s alcohol policy and the reason that it did not

transfer into the French culture.

First, we analyzed the family orientation of Walt Disney World in the context of

masculinity. The French culture values femininity more than masculinity, according to

Hofstede (2001), though not by much. Therefore, we still see an acceptance and

cohesiveness of the family orientation aspect of Disney with the masculinity-femininity

index.

Where Euro Disney did not mesh was with the sales of souvenirs. I look at this in

terms of family orientation because souvenirs, according to the American paradigm,

 50

represent the memory of the vacation and are often mementos for children (Brannen,

2004). Euro Disney’s sales of souvenirs were significantly lower than anticipated in its

early financial projections (Hartley, 1997). Because the French are less individualistic

than Americans, children are less subject to the idea of “I” (Hofstede, 2001). This caused

reduced sales to the customers, while still showing an acceptance of the family oriented

culture.

In the example of Disney’s alcohol policy, a more detailed analysis is needed. In

the terms of American culture, we analyzed the Disney policy banning alcohol from its

park as a reflection of its family orientation. The reason that Walt Disney banned alcohol

from Disneyland was “to create a safe, family haven, free of drunken, boisterous

behavior” (Lainsbury, 2000). At Euro Disney, that analysis does not hold true. The

French consume alcoholic beverages such as wine on a daily basis, and to remove it from

their daily regimen can be seen as stepping on their personal liberties (Lainsbury, 2000).

In June 1993, Euro Disney changed its alcohol policy, allowing the sale of wine

and beer at four of its restaurants (Lovelock, 1996). Some analysts say that this decision

showed deference to French and European culture over the typical American attitude of

Euro Disney (Lainsbury, 2000).

Applying Saussure’s semantic theory, we see a distinct change in the policy as it

crosses national borders. The sign at Walt Disney World was the concept of being family

oriented, represented by the prohibition on alcohol. The signifier was the prohibition on

alcohol, and the signified was the family atmosphere. When transferred to France the

sign needed to be changed because it clashed with French culture. The signifier to the
 51

French was the prohibition on alcohol. This signified an out-of-touch company, not

family orientation. Therefore at Euro Disney, a policy shift reconciled this difference.

Further, since the opening of Euro Disney, all new Disney parks have been built

with policies that allow the sale of alcohol. This represents the reciprocal model

provided by Brannen (2004). Figure 5.4 shows the reciprocal model as it relates to

Disney’s alcohol policy. Note that while The Disney Company has changed their alcohol

policy to allow alcohol at their new parks, they have not lost their family orientation. The

concept of being family oriented is a function of numerous policies, not this one alone,

therefore the company can change this and still be seen as family oriented.

Disney’s family orientation shows that in some cases the cultural transfer of

business practices is hard to predict because it can rely on both cultural practices and

cultural dimensions. While Euro Disney supports a family oriented philosophy (which is

in step with its cultural dimensions), its standard cultural practices show that a family

oriented philosophy is represented by different signifying practices. Understanding this

difference has caused Disney to change its policy not only at Euro Disney, but at its new

parks around the world.

Fanatical Attention to Detail

As earlier identified, The Disney Company is known for its attention to detail. It

is an important part in the guest experience. Euro Disney is no exception to this concept.

The “Euro Disney Look” manual says that “Euro Disney is a show… an immense, three-

dimensional show in which our guests are the audience… and in which our cast members

are the actors” (Lainsbury, 2000). This statement exemplifies the concept that Disney
 52

takes an ordinary activity such as shopping, and turns it into an event through its attention

to detail.

“The Euro Disney Look” is the policy guidebook that sets the guidelines for

personal grooming at Euro Disney. It is comparable to the policies mentioned earlier at

Walt Disney World and Tokyo Disneyland. Whereas in the United States and Japan the

“Disney Look” is accepted, it met stiff resistance at Euro Disneyland. A representative

from one of France’s largest unions attacked the policy saying that it impeded upon the

employee’s personal liberties. It was understood the companies may need to impose

guidelines to strengthen the image of their firm, but it was seen that Disney took those

guidelines too far. Regulations were imposed on such things as fingernail length and

skirt length, and makeup such as eyeliner and lipstick were banned (Lainsbury, 2000).

As with other Disney policies, what was strong at Walt Disney World and Tokyo

Disneyland was considered problematic at Euro Disney. The French saw the personnel

management detail issues as invasive into the private nature of the individual (Brannen,

2004). This dissatisfaction with the grooming policy can be seen as a reflection of

Hofstede’s (2001) individualism dynamic. France, as mentioned earlier, places a high

level of emphasis on the individual over the collective. In fact, it is rated in Hofstede’s

top ten individualistic countries. As with the Walt Disney World case study, we see that

Euro Disney cast members feel that the policy can be thoroughly annoying. Whereas the

American customer seems to appreciate the attention to detail shown by the Disney Look

(refer to Figure 3.1), the more collective nature of the French in relation to America gives

them the “we” consciousness (Hofstede, 2001) that causes the union leaders and society

in general to feel for the plight of the Euro Disney cast member.
 53

The sign for this policy was that the Disney grooming guidelines, which were a

function of attention to detail, and how they were interpreted by the culture. The signifier

therefore was the grooming policy itself, and it signified an attack on individualism. The

original concept would have been for the signified to be “attention to detail to present the

best guest experience.”

Because of the way the policy was signified in France, external forces such as the

union leader earlier mentioned attempted to defend the rights of the individual. The

urgings of these external forces (who due to all of the previous problems, were already at

odds with Disney) led the changing of this policy to make it more in tune with the French

national culture. The “Euro Disney Look” was changed because “what is considered

classic beauty in Europe was not considered classic beauty in America” and vice-versa

(Lovelock, 1996). Included in these policy changes were the allowance of red lipstick

and pink and red hued nail polishes.

Further, in a similar way as the change in alcohol policy ultimately resulted in a

company-wide policy change, the same result can be seen in the case of the “Disney

Look.” Currently at the Walt Disney World resort, the grooming policy has been

changed to indicate an acceptance of lipsticks and colored fingernail polishes. More

recent changes have allowed corn-row hairstyles and hoop-earrings (Disney, 2005).

Therefore, we see that there is an overall change in policy as a result of the dissonance

between the intended signified and the actual signified related to the grooming policy in

France.

Conclusion
 54

The differences between the cultures of France and Japan lead to the differences

in the way that the Disney corporate practices were interpreted in each case. Whereas

Disney’s practices transferred well into Japan, they had much less success transferring to

France. This is because of the interplay of Hofstede’s cultural dimensions.

While intuitively, many of the aspects of French culture appear to be similar to

American culture leading on to assume that the practices would be transferred similarly,

Deeper analysis shows that there are key differences in the individual cultural

dimensions, and the way that they interact with one another, that caused the relative

failure of Euro Disney in its early years. I would be remiss if I did not also point out that

anti-American sentiment played a role in its early failures. While this chapter suggests

that Hofstede’s cultural dimensions are essential in determining the success of the

transfer of business practices, in the case of France, the negative sentiment toward the

Disney Company caused a spotlight to be put on those differences, accenting them to a

greater extent.

In addition to the idea that we must fully analyze the data to get past the intuitive, this

chapter also showed the reflexive concept of reinterpretation of signs. With the alcohol

and grooming guideline examples, we showed that the modifications in a policy for the

improvement of that policy’s acceptance in one culture can lead to a change in the parent

company’s policy. This is something of which companies with a centralized decision

making process should be aware. In making regional, cultural decisions, they may, in the

long term, be setting strategic policy decisions.

Overall, Euro Disney had its problems due to a clash between the Disney culture

and the French culture. While the park had problems in its first few years, the company
 55

took the steps necessary to reconcile many of the differences between the intended

signified meanings of their policies, and the actual signified meanings of their policies.

This, along with the renaming of the park Disneyland Paris, has helped the park remain

the top amusement park in Europe.

 56

CHAPTER 6
Analysis and Conclusion

The example of The Walt Disney Company provides model from which we can

see how business practices are transferred across cultures. The Disney Company has a

strong corporate culture that it has developed over the past fifty years of theme park

operation. This culture is highly effective in creating a sustainable business in the United

States, the nation in which it was founded. When transferred to the foreign cultures of

Japan and France, the business practices which are imbedded in this culture produce

variably different results.

Using Saussure’s (1966) semiotic theory, and the further expansions on it by

Barthes (1967) and Brannen (2004), we are able to view business practices as a system of

signs, in the same way that words and objects can be seen a signs. These signs maintain

the same signifier across cultures, but can have numerous different signified meanings.

Just as words have meanings in different contexts; the business practices can have

different meanings in different cultural contexts.

In order to understand how different cultures will interpret the business practices,

it is essential to have a way of distinguishing differences in cultural norms. This can be

done by establishing various degrees of foreignness from the culture in which the

business practices were formed. Greater degrees of foreignness create greater likelihood

that the practices will not be accepted by the new culture (Brannen, 2004).

The most accepted and widespread research on cultural differences is the work

done by Hofstede (1984) in which he identified four spectrums2 of cultural dimensions.

This is the system that I used in identifying the differences between the American,

Japanese, and French cultures, in which Disney theme parks reside. By using these four
 57

original dimensions, it is possible to see the reasons that Disney had problems

transferring their business practices from Walt Disney World to Euro Disney, and success

transferring those same practices to Tokyo Disneyland.

In reality, more than one gauge is needed to fully examine the degree of

foreignness. For this research, I used no more than two of Hofstede’s cultural dimensions

to analyze the foreignness, except in the case of Euro Disney, in which I took into

consideration some established cultural norms. Therefore, future research into the

examination of business practice transfer by way of semiotics should examine each

practice in terms of all five of Hofstede’s dimensions, as well as cultural norms and other

aspects of the country’s national cultures. This would provide for a more detailed insight

into the reasons for the changes in signified as signifiers cross international cultural

boundaries.

This concept could be used further to predict the acceptance of soft technologies

as they cross national borders. Companies which are considering international expansion

can use this model to analyze the culture of the company into which they would like to

expand. By applying a detailed analysis to the semiotic model, they can analyze the

future acceptance of their business practices and use this as one of the criterion on which

they base their decision to internationalize.

The case of Disney shows the need for such a detailed analysis. Had Disney

examined the culture into which it moved, they would have found several items of great

interest. In regards to Tokyo Disneyland, they would have found that, while externally it

appears that Walt Disney World and Japanese culture have little in common, internally,

the company’s business practices are very similar to standard cultural practices in Japan.
 58

In fact, there is little foreignness between the Walt Disney World corporate culture and

the culture of Japan. Knowing this may have convinced Disney to increase their

investment in the original development of Tokyo Disneyland, and therefore reaped the

financial rewards of having the most successful park in the Pacific Rim (Amusement

Business, 2004).

In the case of Euro Disney, using this examination would have shown that there

were significant differences between implementing the company’s soft technologies in

Japan and in France. Whereas the business practices fit well into Japan’s national

culture, they created a serious dissonance with the French culture. This caused the

French not to accept policies such as the Disney look.

Further, it is important to note that by using more measures of foreignness, better

results can be provided. France and Japan had some cultural dimensions that were very

similar to one another, but further examination showed cultural differences which, when

taken into consideration showed that there was a likelihood that the two cultures would

have different signified meanings of the business practices.

Additionally, we see that when a signified clashes with a country’s culture, an

improvement in employee or customer acceptance can be made by changing the signifier

to one that has a more desirable signified. This can be seen by the case of the Disney

Look. The Disney Look policy in France was seen as overbearing and an attack on

individuality. This signified showed that the signifier had a negative connotation within

the French culture. To alleviate this problem, Disney edited its personnel grooming

policy to create one that was more acceptable to the French. By analyzing the acceptance

of a certain signifier, particularly in the context of Hofstede’s cultural dynamics and other
 59

measures of foreignness, an organization can best tailor their policies to be accepted by

the culture of the country into which they are entering.

One interesting phenomenon that was identified was the ability for one of the

aforementioned changes to penetrate the whole organization. For example, the change in

the Disney Look policy that was made for the Euro Disney is now standard Disney Look

policy at Walt Disney World. Also, the company’s policy on allowing alcohol at Euro

Disney seems to be common policy at Disney parks. All parks opened since then now

have locations to purchase alcohol.

Therefore, it appears that as Tyson (1997) indicates, international expansion may

lead to loosely defined cultural differences in the 21st century. If the trend indicated in

this thesis is true on a large scale, as companies expand internationally, they will take

their soft technologies with them, and as needed, these technologies will adapt first

locally, then disseminate into the organization at large.

Hong Kong Disneyland

In September 2005, the Walt Disney Company will open Hong Kong Disneyland

as its flagship park in China. It will take an ownership stake similar to Euro Disney than

to Tokyo Disneyland. Thus far, the company seems to be imitating their expansion into

France by directly replicating the company’s soft technologies. Disney is currently

issuing on-the-job training for 500 Hong Kong Disneyland employees at the Walt Disney

World Resort. This opportunity to learn about the culture of Disney is important, but

some of the Chinese feel that cultural differences will be lost on the people in their home

country.
 60

My recommendation to a company such as Disney, who is continuing to pursue

international expansion, is not to take a one-size-fits-all view of the corporate business

practices, but instead to look at the culture of the country into which you are moving, and

develop a compromise between corporate culture and national culture. That is what has

made Disney a success in the United States and Japan. In the United States, cultural

differences between the business and nation create a better than average company. In

Japan, the compromise creates a uniquely American experience, while still meeting the

needs of employees and customers. In France, the failure to compromise early created an

impression of arrogance and the lower-than-anticipated attendance that punctuated the

first two years of the park’s existence.

In conclusion, the success of the transfer of a company’s business practices as the

company expands internationally is best understood by how that practice will be

interpreted by the employees and customers who will be affected by the practice. Using

Saussure’s semiotic theory as the mechanism for analyzing this, and measures of

foreignness such as Hofstede’s cultural dimensions as the context, a company can better

predict the acceptance that their soft technologies will have in the new national culture.
61
1
In regards to cohabitation, Hofstede’s research shows that cohabitation in low masculinity cultures is often a long term
commitment which involves the decision not to marry. This is different than the cohabitation that is taking place in the
United States, where couples are more often moving in together as a sign of commitment or for convenience, with the
ultimate goal of being married.
2
Hofstede and Bond later collaborated to develop the “Confucian Dynamic” later called long-term orientation, a value that
was not used in this research due to the complexity and restraints of adding this fifth value.