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lCM ls commlued Lo Lhe prlnclple LhaL humane and orderly mlgrauon beneLs mlgranLs

and socleLy. As an lnLergovernmenLal organlzauon, lCM acLs wlLh lLs parLners ln Lhe
lnLernauonal communlLy Lo: asslsL ln meeung Lhe operauonal challenges of mlgrauon,
advance undersLandlng of mlgrauon lssues, encourage soclal and economlc developmenL
Lhrough mlgrauon, and uphold Lhe human dlgnlLy and well-belng of mlgranLs.
1he oplnlons expressed ln Lhe book are Lhose of Lhe auLhors and do noL necessarlly reecL
Lhe vlews of Lhe lnLernauonal Crganlzauon for Mlgrauon (lCM). 1he deslgnauons employed
and Lhe presenLauon of maLerlal LhroughouL Lhe book do noL lmply Lhe expresslon of any
oplnlon whaLsoever on Lhe parL of lCM concernlng Lhe legal sLaLus of any counLry, LerrlLory,
clLy or area, or of lLs auLhorlues, or concernlng lLs fronuers or boundarles.
ubllsher: lnLernauonal Crganlzauon for Mlgrauon
17 rouLe des Morlllons
1211 Ceneva 19
SwlLzerland
1el: + 41 22 717 91 11
lax: + 41 22 798 61 30
L-mall: hq[lom.lnL
WebslLe: www.lom.lnL
2014 lnLernauonal Crganlzauon for Mlgrauon (lCM)
All rlghLs reserved. no parL of Lhls publlcauon may be reproduced, sLored ln a reLrleval
sysLem, or Lransmlued ln any form or by any means, elecLronlc, mechanlcal, phoLocopylng,
recordlng, or oLherwlse wlLhouL Lhe prlor wrluen permlsslon of Lhe publlsher.
Fatal Journeys
Tracking Lives Lost
during Migration
International Organization for Migration (IOM)
LdlLed by 1ara 8rlan and lrank Laczko
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
3
Table of Contents
loreword ............................................................................................................. 3
AcknowledgemenLs ............................................................................................ 7
LlsL of 1ables and llgures ..................................................................................... 9
Lxecuuve Summary ........................................................................................... 11
Chapter 1 MlgranL ueaLhs: An lnLernauonal Cvervlew .................................... 13
1.1 lnLroducuon .............................................................................................. 13
1.2 lnLernauonal pollcy conLexL and geography of deaLhs ............................. 16
1.3 Pow many have dled? SLausucs on mlgranL border-relaLed faLallues ...... 18
1.4 Challenges of collecung daLa on mlgranL deaLhs ...................................... 29
1.3 Who collecLs Lhe daLa? .............................................................................. 32
1.6 keeplng counL: Why we need beuer daLa ................................................. 34
1.7 Way forward: 8euer monlLorlng, daLa collecuon and analysls ................. 36
1.8 CuLllne and chapLer overvlews ................................................................. 39
8lbllography ....................................................................................................... 41
Chapter 2 MlgranL ueaLhs ln Lhe Amerlcas (unlLed SLaLes and Mexlco) .......... 43
2.1 lnLroducuon .............................................................................................. 43
2.2 PlsLorlcal and geographlcal overvlew ....................................................... 47
2.3 LsumaLed number of mlgranL faLallues..................................................... 33
2.4 8ecord keeplng and llmlLauons Lo exlsung counLs .................................... 70
2.3 Concluslon and recommendauons ............................................................ 73
8lbllography ....................................................................................................... 73
Chapter 3 1racklng ueaLhs ln Lhe MedlLerranean ............................................. 83
3.1 lnLroducuon .............................................................................................. 83
3.2 8rlef hlsLorlcal and geographlcal overvlew ............................................... 86
3.3 8lsks assoclaLed wlLh unauLhorlzed Lravel ................................................ 90
3.4 Pow many dle? Lxlsung daLa and lLs quallLy ............................................. 92
3.3 MeLhods and sources for a more accuraLe and comprehenslve counL .... 97
3.6 Concluslons and recommendauons ........................................................ 101
8lbllography ..................................................................................................... 104
Crosslng Lhe MedlLerranean ............................................................................ 107
Chapter 4 lrom Sub-Saharan Afrlca Lhrough norLh Afrlca: 1racklng ueaLhs
along Lhe Way ................................................................................ 109
4.1 lnLroducuon ............................................................................................ 109
4.2 8rlef hlsLorlcal and geographlcal background: 1he mlgrauon conLexL .... 110
4.3 Calculaung deaLhs .................................................................................. 119
4.4 Concluslons: MeLhodologlcal challenges and lnformauon gaps ............. 132
8lbllography ..................................................................................................... 133
ueaLh ln Lhe deserL.......................................................................................... 137
4
Chapter 5 ueaLhs en 8ouLe from Lhe Porn of Afrlca Lo ?emen
and along Lhe LasLern Corrldor from Lhe Porn of Afrlca
Lo SouLh Afrlca ............................................................................... 139
3.1 lnLroducuon ............................................................................................ 139
3.2 8rlef hlsLorlcal and geographlcal background:
1he mlgrauon conLexL ............................................................................. 140
3.3 Calculaung deaLhs ................................................................................... 147
3.4 MeLhodologlcal challenges and lnformauon gaps .................................. 167
3.3 Concluslons and recommendauons ........................................................ 168
8lbllography ..................................................................................................... 170
!ourney of hope ............................................................................................... 174
Chapter 6 Counung and Accounung for ueaLhs of Asylum-seekers
en 8ouLe Lo AusLralla ..................................................................... 177
6.1 lmporLance of counung mlgranL deaLhs ................................................. 177
6.2 lllegallzed [ourneys Lo AusLralla by boaL ................................................. 178
6.3 uaLa sources and lnformauon gaps ......................................................... 182
6.4 WhaL we know and do noL know abouL deaLhs en rouLe Lo AusLralla .... 186
6.3 A chronology of counung ........................................................................ 191
6.6 lmprovlng daLa and savlng llves .............................................................. 193
8lbllography ..................................................................................................... 199
A slnklng shlp ................................................................................................... 204
Annex .............................................................................................................. 207
Table of Contents
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
3
Foreword
lor many of Lhe 232 mllllon people around Lhe world who llve ouLslde Lhelr
counLry of blrLh Loday, mlgrauon means Lhe opporLunlLy for a beuer llfe for
Lhemselves and Lhelr famllles. ?eL, for many oLhers, Lhe search for such an
opporLunlLy comes aL an exLremely hlgh cosL, as Lhey face unlmaglnable and
oen faLal dangers along Lhelr [ourneys. Some are ready Lo spend Lhelr llfeume
savlngs or Lake on masslve debLs and rlsk Lhelr llves and Lhe llves of Lhelr famllles
for a new sLarL. ueaLh ls a rlsk worLh Laklng ln desperaLe slLuauons of vlolence,
persecuuon, famlne or even absence of prospecLs of a decenL llfe.
Cne year ago, Lhe world waLched ln horror when some 360 mlgranLs losL Lhelr
llves ln Lhe auempL Lo swlm Lo Lhe shores of Lhe lLallan lsland of Lampedusa.
8egreuably, Lhe horror seems endless: up Lo 300 mlgranLs meL Lhelr deaLh aL
sea o MalLa [usL a few weeks before Lhls reporL was publlshed. 1wo survlvors
reporLed LhaL smugglers dellberaLely rammed and sunk Lhelr shlp when mlgranLs
refused Lo board a less seaworLhy vessel, aer havlng been forced Lo swlLch boaLs
aL sea many umes on Lhelr [ourney from LgypL. 1wo weeks aer Lhe lncldenL,
Lhere were only 11 ldenued survlvors, wlLnesses reporLed LhaL as many as 100
chlldren were on board.
1hese Lragedles ln Lhe MedlLerranean are buL Lwo examples of Lhe many mlgranL
Lragedles unfoldlng all over Lhe world. Pundreds perlsh every year on Lhe
[ourney from CenLral Amerlca Lo Lhe unlLed SLaLes Lhrough Mexlco, under Lhe
deserL sun or robbed and beaLen along Lhe way, mlgranLs drown on Lhelr way
from lndonesla Lo AusLralla, or o Lhe coasL of 1halland and ln Lhe 8ay of 8engal,
mlgranLs dle of LhlrsL crosslng Lhe Sahara deserL lnLo norLh Afrlca, or drown ln
Lhe Culf of Aden as Lhey Lry Lo reach Lhe Mlddle LasL. ln many of Lhese cases,
mlgranLs oen dlsappear and dle wlLhouL a Lrace.
1he paradox ls LhaL aL a ume when one ln seven people around Lhe world are
mlgranLs ln one form or anoLher, we are seelng a harsh response Lo mlgrauon
ln Lhe developed world. LlmlLed opporLunlues for safe and regular mlgrauon
drlves would-be mlgranLs lnLo Lhe hands of smugglers, feedlng an unscrupulous
Lrade LhaL LhreaLens Lhe llves of desperaLe people. We need Lo puL an end Lo
Lhls cycle. undocumenLed mlgranLs are noL crlmlnals, buL human belngs ln need
of proLecuon and asslsLance, enuLled Lo legal asslsLance, and deservlng respecL.
l have repeaLedly emphaslzed Lhe need for smarLer pollcles Lo end Lhe horror of
mlgranL deaLhs, and parucularly pracucal proLecuon" measures Lo guaranLee
safe and regular ways for mlgranLs Lo reach Lhelr desunauons. Collecung and
presenung lnformauon abouL who Lhese mlgranLs are, where Lhey come from
and why Lhey move ls Lhe rsL lndlspensable sLep Lo undersLandlng Lhls global
Lragedy and deslgnlng evldence-based, eecuve pollcy responses and pracucal
6
proLecuon measures Lo prevenL furLher loss of llfe. ln provldlng Lhe rsL global
counL of mlgranL faLallues and recommendauons for beuer daLa collecuon,
Lhls reporL alms Lo caLalyze a prompL and unled response from all parues
concerned wlLh Lhls Lragedy - governmenLs, lnLernauonal organlzauons, clvll
socleLy, companles and Lhe scholarly communlLy. 1he ume ls now, and we are
already laLe .
William Lacy Swing
ulrecLor Ceneral
Foreword
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
7
Acknowledgements
We would llke Lo Lhank all conLrlbuung auLhors for Lhelr dedlcauon Lo Lhls
pro[ecL, and are graLeful Lo many for Lhelr asslsLance ln Lhe producuon of Lhls
publlcauon. We would parucularly llke Lo Lhank Marzla 8ango for her lnvaluable
supporL, as well as uenls klerans and Lmma Lgglnk. We would also llke Lo Lhank
lCM colleagues ln 8ome, parucularly llavlo ul Clacomo and Slmona Moscarelll,
as well as Marune Cassar from lCM MalLa. Much Lhanks Lo Leonard uoyle and
!oel Mlllman and Lhe Medla and Communlcauons ulvlslon ln Ceneva, as well as
colleagues ln lCM PeadquarLers, Mexlco, AusLralla and Calro for Lhelr asslsLance
wlLh Lhe revlslon of Lhe conLenL. Speclal Lhanks are also exLended Lo SLephanle
CranL for her advlce, and ChrlsLopher Porwood and Marg Puuon for Lhelr
conLrlbuuons. 1hls publlcauon would noL have been posslble wlLhouL Lhe hard
work of Lhe lCM ubllcauons Leam, based ln Manlla and Ceneva and headed
by valerle Pagger. llnally, we are graLeful Lo lCM ulrecLor Ceneral, Wllllam Lacy
Swlng, for hls commlLmenL Lo Lhls publlcauon and Lo Lhe lssue of mlgranL deaLhs
more broadly.
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
9
List of Tables and Figures
1able 1.1: 8eglonal esumaLes of mlgranL border-relaLed deaLhs
complled by varlous sources, avallable years
beLween 1996 and 2014 ............................................................. 24
1able 2.1: CCML deaLhs coded as undocumenLed border crossers by
counLry of orlgln among ldenued decedenLs,
scal year 1990-2013 ................................................................. 62
1able 3.1: MlgranLs recorded as dead or mlsslng aL sea,
from 2006 Lo May 2014 ............................................................ 133
1able 6.1: known deaLhs relaLed Lo AusLrallan border conLrols,
!anuary 2000-!uly 2014 ............................................................ 187
llgure 1.1: MlgranL border-relaLed deaLhs around Lhe world,
!anuary-SepLember 2014 .......................................................... 18
llgure 1.2: 8eglons ln whlch mlgranL deaLhs occurred, 2014 ...................... 20
llgure 1.3: ueaLhs by mlgranLs' reglon of orlgln, 2014 ................................ 23
llgure 1.4: ueaLhs ln Lhe MedlLerranean by mlgranLs' reglon of orlgln,
2014 ............................................................................................ 26
llgure 1.3: Avallable lnformauon on sex of deceased
and mlsslng mlgranLs globally, 2014 .......................................... 28
llgure 2.1: MlgraLory ows from and Lhrough Mexlco
Lo Lhe unlLed SLaLes souLh-wesLern border ................................ 48
llgure 2.2: MlgranL deaLhs recorded by Lhe unlLed SLaLes 8order aLrol
relauve Lo apprehenslons on Lhe souL h-wesLern border,
scal year 1998-2013 ................................................................. 34
llgure 2.3: MlgranL deaLhs recorded by Lhe unlLed SLaLes 8order aLrol
per 100,000 apprehenslons on Lhe souLh-wesLern border,
scal year 1998-2013 ................................................................. 33
llgure 2.4: MlgranL deaLhs recorded by Lhe unlLed SLaLes 8order aLrol
by secLor, scal year 1998-2013 ................................................. 36
llgure 2.3: Callfornla mlgranL deaLh esumaLes by daLa source
(excludlng ?uma area), 1993-2013 ............................................. 37
llgure 2.6: ueaLhs recorded by Lhe lma CounLy Cmce
of Lhe Medlcal Lxamlner ln 1ucson, Arlzona ............................... 39
llgure 2.7: Arlzona mlgranL deaLh esumaLes by daLa source
(excludlng ?uma area), 1990-2013 ............................................. 60
llgure 2.8: 1exas mlgranL deaLh esumaLes by daLa source
(lncludlng Ll aso area), 1993-2013 ........................................... 64
llgure 2.9: MlgranL deaLh esumaLes by sLaLe (excludlng ?uma area),
1990-2013 .................................................................................. 67
llgure 2.10: ApproxlmaLe mlgranL deaLh raLe by sLaLe
(excludlng ?uma area), 1990-2013 ............................................. 68
10
llgure 3.1: ueLecuons of lllegal border crosslng along selecLed rouLes
of enLry lnLo souLhern Lu and maln nauonallues
deLecLed on Lhese rouLes, 2013 .................................................. 87
llgure 3.2: llucLuauons ln popularlLy of rouLes Lo Lurope, 2009-2013 ....... 88
llgure 3.3: ueLecuons of lllegal border crosslng along Lu exLernal land
and sea borders by nauonallLy, 2013 .......................................... 89
llgure 3.4: Comparlson of unl1Lu and lorLress Lurope llsLs
of border deaLhs ln Lhe MedlLerranean, 1993-2011 .................. 93
llgure 3.3: 8order deaLhs beLween Afrlca and Spaln - comparlson of
daLaseLs, 1988-2014 ................................................................... 93
llgure 4.1: MlgraLory rouLes from Sub-Saharan Afrlca ............................... 110
llgure 3.1: MlgraLory rouLes ln Lhe Porn of Afrlca...................................... 139
llgure 6.1: number of oshore and onshore vlsas granLed
under AusLralla's humanlLarlan vlsa programme,
2003-2013 ................................................................................ 179
llgure 6.2: number of people arrlvlng ln AusLralla
on unauLhorlzed boaLs, 1 !anuary 1990-30 !une 2013 ............ 179
llgure 6.3: MlgranL smuggllng rouLes Lo AusLralla .................................... 180
llgure 6.4: ?ear-by-year deaLhs durlng lrregular [ourneys Lo AusLralla,
!anuary 2000-!uly 2014 ............................................................ 187
llgure 6.3: nauonallues of asylum-seekers who dled
en rouLe Lo AusLralla, !anuary 2000-!uly 2014 ......................... 188
llgure 6.6: 8eglon of orlgln of asylum-seekers who dled
en rouLe Lo AusLralla, !anuary 2000-!uly 2014 ......................... 189
llgure 6.7: ?ear-by-year deaLhs of asylum-seekers
en rouLe Lo AusLralla by sex, !anuary 2000-May 2014 ............ 190
List of Tables and Figures
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
11
Executive Summary
ln CcLober 2013, 366 mlgranLs dled when Lhelr boaL caughL re and sank o Lhe
coasL of Lampedusa. Less Lhan a year laLer, Lhe lnLernauonal Crganlzauon for
Mlgrauon (lCM) reporLed LhaL 300 mlgranLs were feared dead aer Lhelr shlp
was rammed by anoLher boaL near MalLa. news of Lhls slnklng emerged as an
addluonal shlp carrylng 200 people sank o Lhe coasL of Llbya. Sadly, Lhese are
noL lsolaLed lncldenLs. ln 2014, up Lo 3,072 mlgranLs are belleved Lo have dled
ln Lhe MedlLerranean, compared wlLh an esumaLe of 700 ln 2013. Clobally, lCM
esumaLes LhaL aL leasL 4,077 mlgranLs dled ln 2014, and aL leasL 40,000 slnce Lhe
year 2000. 1he Lrue number of faLallues ls llkely Lo be hlgher, as many deaLhs
occur ln remoLe reglons of Lhe world and are never recorded. Some experLs have
suggesLed LhaL for every dead body dlscovered, Lhere are aL leasL Lwo oLhers
LhaL are never recovered.
1hls reporL examlnes how daLa on mlgranL deaLhs ls collecLed and shared ln
dlerenL parLs of Lhe world. 1he sLudy shows LhaL no organlzauon aL Lhe global
level ls currenLly responslble for sysLemaucally monlLorlng Lhe number of deaLhs
LhaL occur. uaLa Lends Lo be scauered, wlLh a range of organlzauons lnvolved
ln Lracklng faLallues and oen employlng dlerenL denluons of border-
relaLed deaLh. MosL avallable lnformauon comes from medla reporLs and
non-governmenLal organlzauons (nCCs), buL Lhls daLa can be lncompleLe. lor
example, Lhe medla Lend Lo cover larger-scale lncldenLs, whlle cases lnvolvlng
smaller numbers of mlgranL deaLhs mlghL noL be consldered newsworLhy. 1here
are few deLalled sLausucs, because collecung daLa on mlgranL deaLhs has noL
been a prlorlLy for mosL governmenLs around Lhe world. AlLhough vasL sums
of money are spenL collecung mlgrauon and border conLrol daLa, very few
governmenLs collecL and publlsh daLa on mlgranL deaLhs.
1he sLudy carefully revlews exlsung sources of daLa and shows LhaL Lhere are
huge gaps ln our knowledge. 8elauvely llule ls known abouL Lhe mlgranLs who
perlsh. ln Lhe case of Lragedles aL sea, Lhe ma[orlLy of bodles are oen never
found. As many mlgranLs are undocumenLed, oen relauvely llule ls known
abouL Lhelr ldenuues, even for Lhose whose bodles are recovered. ln 2014,
nearly 70 per cenL of deaLhs recorded by lCM refer Lo mlgranLs who are mlsslng,
usually aL sea. ln Lhe ma[orlLy of faLallues occurrlng ln 2014, lL was noL posslble
Lo esLabllsh wheLher Lhe deceased were male or female. lnformauon on reglon
of orlgln suggesLs LhaL Lhe ma[orlLy of mlgranLs who losL Lhelr llves ln 2014 were
from Afrlca and Lhe Mlddle LasL. 1he reporL also shows LhaL for some reglons of
Lhe world, such as sub-Saharan Afrlca, rellable lnformauon ls oen exLremely
scarce, as nCCs, medla and governmenLs are noL Lracklng mlgranL deaLhs.
Addluonally, Lhe sLudy nds lmporLanL dlerences ln deaLh Lrends across reglons.
AlLhough meLhods of counung vary, over Lhe lasL 20 years Lurope appears Lo
12
have Lhe hlghesL gures for reporLed deaLhs. Slnce Lhe year 2000, over 22,000
mlgranLs have losL Lhelr llves Lrylng Lo reach Lurope. 8eLween 1996 and 2013, aL
leasL 1,790 mlgranLs dled whlle auempung Lo cross Lhe Sahara. Slnce 1998, more
Lhan 6,000 mlgranLs have dled Lrylng Lo cross Lhe unlLed SLaLes-Mexlco border,
accordlng Lo Lhe unlLed SLaLes 8order aLrol. ln AusLralla, Lhe 8order Crosslng
CbservaLory of Monash unlverslLy suggesLs LhaL nearly 1,300 mlgranLs dled on
Lhelr [ourney Lo AusLralla beLween 2000 and 2014.
Cver Lhe lasL year, Lhe lncrease ln deaLhs has largely been drlven by a surge ln
Lhe number of faLallues ln Lhe MedlLerranean reglon. Why Lhls ls occurrlng ls noL
enurely clear, buL llkely reecLs a dramauc lncrease ln Lhe number of mlgranLs
Lrylng Lo reach Lurope. Cver 112,000 lrregular mlgranLs were deLecLed by lLallan
auLhorlues ln Lhe rsL elghL monLhs of 2014, almosL Lhree umes as many as ln all
of 2013. Many are eelng conlcL, persecuuon and poverLy, wlLh LrlLreans and
Syrlans consuLuung Lhe largesL share of arrlvals ln lLaly Lhls year. 1he deLerloraung
securlLy slLuauon ln Llbya, where many mlgranLs reslde prlor Lo Lhelr deparLure
for Lurope, has also lncreased mlgrauon pressures. ln response Lo Lhe hlgh ows
across Lhe MedlLerranean, pollcy has prlorluzed search and rescue, wlLh Lens of
Lhousands of llves saved Lhls year. ln conLrasL Lo Lhe MedlLerranean, some parLs
of Lhe world have acLually seen a decrease ln Lhe number of deaLhs over Lhe
lasL year. lor lnsLance, along Lhe unlLed SLaLes-Mexlco border, lL appears LhaL
deaLhs have decllned beLween 2013 and 2014.
ueLermlnlng Lhe llnk beLween changes ln border enforcemenL pollcles and
Lhe number of mlgranL deaLhs ls noL sLralghuorward. A 2006 uS CovernmenL
AccounLablllLy Cmce reporL found LhaL a range of facLors may aecL Lhe number
of deaLhs, lncludlng changes ln Lhe volume of border crosslngs, varlauons ln
Lhe locauons where mlgranLs auempL Lo cross Lhe border, and ucLuauons ln
weaLher pauerns.
Pow can we address Lhe challenge of mlgranL border-relaLed deaLhs? Many
dlerenL pollcy opuons have been dlscussed over Lhe years, from Lougher
sancuons agalnsL smugglers and Lramckers, Lo Lhe creauon of more safe and
orderly channels for mlgrauon, lncludlng lncreaslng refugee reseulemenL quoLas.
8euer daLa on mlgranL deaLhs ls a cruclal elemenL Lo boLh lnform and monlLor
Lhe lmpacLs of any pollcy response. When deaLh occurs on such a masslve scale,
Lhere ls a responslblllLy Lo fully lnvesugaLe Lhe causes of such Lragedles. 1here
have been many calls ln recenL years for beuer daLa Lo help ldenufy and accounL
for Lhe Lhousands of mlsslng mlgranLs," buL relauvely llule acuon has been
Laken Lo address Lhls problem.
1hls reporL concludes wlLh a serles of key recommendauons on ways ln whlch
daLa can be lmproved ln Lhe fuLure. 1hls ls a noL only a prlmary sLep ln eorLs Lo
reduce Lhe number of mlgranL deaLhs, buL ls essenual Lo allow famllles Lo know
Lhe faLe of Lhelr mlsslng relauves.
Lxecunve Summary
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
13
key recommendauons:
An lndependenL monlLorlng body should be esLabllshed wlLh represenLauves
of governmenLs, clvll socleLy and lnLernauonal organlzauons Lo promoLe Lhe
collecuon, harmonlzauon and analysls of daLa on mlgranL deaLhs globally.
CurrenLly, varylng meLhodologles and denluons hlnder comparablllLy
beLween reglons and even wlLhln nauonal conLexLs. lCM's Mlsslng MlgranLs
ro[ecL, whlch collecLs daLa on mlgranL deaLhs globally, could acL Lo coordlnaLe
Lhls new lnluauve.
AL Lhe nauonal level, governmenLs should be encouraged Lo Lake greaLer
responslblllLy for collecung daLa on mlgranL deaLhs, ln parLnershlp wlLh
clvll socleLy organlzauons Lo ensure Lransparency and accounLablllLy. Whlle
meLhods of daLa collecuon should be lmproved, governmenLs may also uullze
exlsung daLa, such as LhaL conLalned ln deaLh records and coroners' reporLs.
Survlvors, who oen have a greaL deal of lnformauon abouL smuggllng
operauons, as well as relauves of Lhe deceased should also be encouraged
Lo speak ouL and share lnformauon wlLhouL fear of sancuons ln order Lo help
prevenL furLher Lragedles.
lnnovauve daLa lnluauves should be promoLed and shared more wldely.
lor example, a parLnershlp beLween medlcal examlners' omces and human
rlghLs groups ln Arlzona has resulLed ln Lhe creauon of Lhe Arlzona CpenClS
lnluauve for ueceased MlgranLs, an onllne mapplng Lool LhaL allows anyone
Lo search Lhe hundreds of known deaLhs of mlgranLs ln parLs of Lhe SLaLe
slnce 2001. Such a Lool allows for changes ln mlgranL rouLes Lo be Lracked
over ume, and can help humanlLarlan asslsLance along rouLes Lo be beuer
LargeLed.
llnally, behlnd Lhe sLausucs we should noL forgeL LhaL Lhese are sLorles of human
Lragedy lnvolvlng very vulnerable people. Cne example remlnds of Lhe rlsks LhaL
mlgranLs face:
Afet otoooJ ooe week of wolkloq lo tbe Jesett, Jotloq wblcb some people
JleJ of stotvouoo, we teocbeJ 1ojoot Moootolo, wbete we stoppeJ lo otJet
to bove o test. l wos lookloq otoooJ me, l foooJ some people Jyloq, some
wete sleeploq, ooJ otbets wete ctyloq ooJ oskloq fot wotet ot fooJ. l wos
wolkloq omooq people loyloq Jowo, lookloq ot tbem ooJ tblokloq tbey wete
stotloq ot me, bot oo ooswet ftom tbelt slJe. 1beo l teollzeJ tbot tbey wete
JeoJ. At tbot polot, l koew tbot l wos oo o jootoey of Jeotb.
1
1
1esumony of a 13-year-old LLhloplan boy ln 2012.
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
13
1ara 8rlan and lrank Laczko
1
1.1 Introduction
Cn 3 CcLober 2013, over 360 people losL Lhelr llves Lravelllng from Llbya Lo
Lampedusa, lLaly, when Lhelr boaL sank [usL a quarLer-mlle from lLs desunauon.
WlLh roughly 300 passengers [ammed lnLo a 20-meLre-long boaL, eorLs Lo auracL
auenuon followlng englne Lrouble led Lo a re LhaL engulfed Lhe shlp ln ames.
Survlvors Lell horrlfylng sLorles of hours spenL ln Lhe sea as Lhelr companlons
dled around Lhem. A second shlpwreck near Lampedusa laLer ln Lhe monLh
resulLed ln a furLher 34 deaLhs. Whlle Lhese evenLs are Lraglc and alarmlng, Lhey
are noL lsolaLed lncldenLs. lCM esumaLes LhaL beLween !anuary and SepLember
2014, aL leasL 4,077 mlgranLs dled auempung Lo reach desunauons around Lhe
world. 1hls gure ls nearly 70 per cenL hlgher Lhan Lhe 2,400 deaLhs recorded
for Lhe whole of 2013, largely drlven by lncreases ln Lhe MedlLerranean reglon.
2

Slnce year 2000, lCM esumaLes LhaL aL leasL 40,000 mlgranLs have dled.
Whlle slgnlcanL, Lhese global gures sull fall Lo capLure Lhe Lrue number of
faLallues. Many mlgranL deaLhs occur ln remoLe reglons of Lhe world and are
never recorded. ln some cases boaLs and all Lhelr passengers dlsappear aL sea
and no deaLhs are reporLed. Some experLs esumaLe LhaL for every dead body
found on Lhe shores of Lhe developed world Lhere are aL leasL Lwo oLhers LhaL
are never recovered (Weber and lckerlng, 2011).
uesplLe Lhe recognluon among SLaLes, lnLernauonal organlzauons and clvll socleLy
organlzauons LhaL acuon musL be Laken Lo sLop more unnecessary deaLhs, as yeL
Lhere remalns llule lnformauon on Lhe scale of Lhe problem, and no organlzauon
*

1he vlews expressed ln Lhls chapLer are Lhose of Lhe auLhors and do noL necessarlly represenL Lhose of Lhe
lnLernauonal Crganlzauon for Mlgrauon (lCM).
1
1ara 8rlan ls a 8esearch Cmcer wlLh Lhe lnLernauonal Crganlzauon for Mlgrauon (lCM) and lrank Laczko ls
Lhe Pead of Lhe Mlgrauon 8esearch ulvlslon of lCM based ln Ceneva, SwlLzerland.
2
llgures correspond Lo deaLhs LhaL occurred aL Lhe physlcal borders of SLaLes or durlng mlgrauon Lowards an
lnLernauonal desunauon. 1hey exclude deaLhs LhaL occur once ln a desunauon counLry LhaL can be lndlrecLly
aurlbuLable Lo lmmlgrauon pollcles, such Lhose occurrlng ln deLenuon faclllues, durlng deporLauon, or
on forced reLurn Lo a mlgranL's homeland. llgures lnclude boLh conrmed dead and people mlsslng and
presumed dead, generally aL sea. Cen numbers of mlsslng are esumaLes, someumes rough ones, as LoLal
passenger counLs are rarely known. 1hese gures lnclude only deaLhs LhaL are reporLed, counLless oLhers
occur ln remoLe areas and are slmply noL known of. 1hus, esumaLes represenL a base mlnlmum of Lhe Lrue
global counL. ln some cases, esumaLes were complled based on exLrapolauon from parual daLa. lor 2014,
unlLed SLaLes-Mexlco border deaLhs are esumaLed based on avallable daLa for lma CounLy, Arlzona and
8rooks CounLy, 1exas, whlch cover Lhe ma[orlLy of Lhe 1ucson and Laredo secLors, respecuvely.
Migrant Deaths: An
International Overview Chapter 1
Chapter 1 M|grant Deaths: An Internanona| Cverv|ew
16
ls Lasked wlLh monlLorlng deaLhs globally. uaLa on Lhe number of mlgranL deaLhs ls
scauered, and ln some areas almosL non-exlsLenL. 1he vasL ma[orlLy of governmenLs
do noL publlsh numbers of deaLhs, and counung Lhe llves losL ls largely le Lo clvll
socleLy and Lhe medla.
urawlng on a wlde range of sources from dlerenL reglons of Lhe world, Lhls reporL
lnvesugaLes how border-relaLed deaLhs are documenLed, who ls documenung
Lhem and whaL can be done Lo lmprove Lhe evldence-base Lo encourage lnformed
pollcy and pracuce. noL only can beuer record keeplng draw greaLer auenuon
Lo Lhls lssue, buL obLalnlng rellable daLa on border-relaLed deaLhs ls an essenual
sLarung polnL for any dlscusslon on how Lo prevenL such Lragedles from occurrlng
ln Lhe fuLure.
1.2 International policy context and geography
of deaths
1he lssue of border-relaLed deaLhs ls currenLly aL Lhe cenLre of heaLed pollucal
and humanlLarlan debaLes. Many argue LhaL Lhere ls a hlgh human cosL"
assoclaLed wlLh Lhe border conLrol pollcles of many SLaLes. lL ls asserLed LhaL
deaLhs have lncreased as mlgranLs seek Lo move clandesunely and along
more Lreacherous rouLes ln response Lo ughLer lmmlgrauon conLrols.
3
ln Lurn,
mlgranLs are compelled Lo use Lhe servlces of smugglers Lo help faclllLaLe
Lhese more Lreacherous [ourneys and bypass sLrlcL enLry requlremenLs, a Lrend
whlch creaLes a new seL of rlsks and oen leaves mlgranLs vulnerable Lo abuse,
exLoruon, and even deaLh (unCuC, 2011).
4
1he lrregularlLy of Lhls mlgrauon
means processes are largely hldden from Lhe ausplces of, and Lhus proLecuon
aorded by, Lhe SLaLe, creaung a space for Lhe lnvolvemenL of oLher crlmlnal
acLors seeklng Lo proL from an lncreaslngly commerclallzed mlgraLory process.
AnoLher perspecuve, however, conLends LhaL sLrlcL lmmlgrauon pollcles acLually
reduce deaLhs by dlscouraglng mlgranLs from rlsklng Lhelr llves on dangerous
[ourneys ln Lhe rsL place. Maklng poLenual mlgranLs aware of Lhe rlsks of Lhe
[ourney and reallues once reachlng Lhelr desunauon ls seen as a way Lo curb
lrregular ows LhaL can resulL ln deaLh. Powever, Lhe lssue of mlgranL deaLhs
exLends deeper, ralslng quesuons concernlng Lhe responslblllLy of SLaLes Lo
accommodaLe Lhose eelng poverLy and persecuuon ln Lhelr homelands.
erspecuves also dler wlLh respecL Lo whaL measures should be Laken Lo reduce
Lhe rlsk of loss of llfe. Some belleve LhaL Lhe slLuauon should be seen from a
humanlLarlan perspecuve, wlLh Lhe Lop concern Lo respecL Lhe rlghL Lo llfe of
3
See, for lnsLance: 1. Spl[kerboer, 1he human cosLs of border conLrol, otopeoo Iootool of Mlqtouoo ooJ
low (2007); 8ublo-ColdsmlLh eL al., 1be loooel [ect ooJ kecoveteJ 8oJles of uoootbotlzeJ Mlqtoots
ltocesseJ by tbe llmo coooty O[ce of tbe MeJlcol xomloet, 1990-2005 (2006), M. !lmenez, nomooltotloo
ctlsls. Mlqtoot ueotbs ot tbe u.5.-Mexlco 8otJet (2009), among many oLhers.
4
lor lnsLance, for a dlscusslon on Lhe unlLed SLaLes-Mexlco border, see . Andreas, 1he Lransformauon of
mlgranL smuggllng across Lhe u.S.-Mexlco 8order, ln: Clobol nomoo 5moqqlloq. compotouve letspecuves,
5ecooJ Jluoo (u. kyle and 8. koslowskl, eds.) (2011).
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
17
all people. lrom Lhls perspecuve, rescue should be Lhe number one prlorlLy. lL
ls also oen argued LhaL fewer mlgranLs would rlsk deaLh lf more legal channels
for mlgrauon exlsLed. A compeung vlew sLresses LhaL pollcles focuslng on search
and rescue encourage more mlgranLs Lo make dangerous [ourneys and permlL
smugglers and Lramckers Lo proL even more from lrregular mlgrauon.
Whlle vlews may dler on how besL Lo llmlL Lhe number of mlgranL deaLhs,
Lhere ls broad agreemenL on Lhe need for beuer daLa. lundamenLal lnformauon
surroundlng deaLhs ls a necessary sLarung polnL from whlch Lo Lrace Lhe lmpacLs
of pollcles and pracuces and Lo gulde more eecuve lnLervenuons. CurrenLly Lhe
scauered and ad hoc naLure of much of Lhe daLa on mlgranL deaLhs ls deLrlmenLal
Lo consLrucuve debaLe.
arucularly ln recenL years, medla auenuon Lo Lhe lssue of mlgranL deaLhs has
largely focused on SouLhern Lurope, norLh Amerlca and AusLralla. ln addluon Lo
Lhese more vlslble" boundarles beLween Lhe Clobal norLh and Lhe Clobal SouLh,
mlgranLs are dylng ln numerous locauons around Lhe world, very oen wlLhouL
Lhelr sLorles ever maklng headllnes. Some of Lhese areas lnclude rouLes ouL of
Lhe Porn of Afrlca - elLher Lo Lhe Culf (vla ?emen Lo Saudl Arabla), norLhwards
Lhrough Sudan Lo Lhe norLhern coasL of Afrlca, or souLhwards Lowards SouLh
Afrlca, boLh Lreacherous rouLes LhaL can lnvolve crosslng deserLs, mounLalns
and lakes, oen passlng Lhrough remoLe areas chosen wlLh Lhe alm of avoldlng
deLecuon. Mallclous acuons of smugglers, Lramckers and oLher crlmlnals also
conLrlbuLe Lo deaLhs LhaL remaln hldden for Lhe mosL parL, excepL for ln Lhe
horrlfylng accounLs of survlvors.
8ouLes from WesLern and CenLral Afrlca Lo Lhe Canary lslands and Lo norLh Afrlca
are also fraughL wlLh dangers, and based on Lhe accounLs of mlgranLs who have
made Lhese [ourneys, deaLh ls noL uncommon. Powever, Lhe shllng sands of
Lhe deserL qulckly hlde remalns LhaL are oen noL seen agaln. Slnce 2012, nearly
100,000 people are esumaLed Lo have rlsked Lhelr llves Lo cross Lhe 8ay of 8engal
and Lhe Andaman Sea Lo reach 1halland, en rouLe Lo Malaysla (unPC8, 2014b).
1he (Cmce of Lhe) unlLed nauons Plgh Commlssloner for 8efugees (unPC8)
esumaLes LhaL over 1,300 have losL Lhelr llves durlng Lhls [ourney beLween
2012 and Lhe rsL half of 2014 (unPC8, 2014a, unPC8, 2014b). 1he mounLalns
beLween Lhe lslamlc 8epubllc of lran and 1urkey presenL a daunung challenge for
Afghans crosslng overland Lo Creece, from where mosL hope Lo conunue farLher
lnLo Lurope, alLhough Lhls ls oen noL posslble. WlLh land borders lncreaslngly
sealed along boLh Lhe Creece-1urkey and 8ulgarla-1urkey borders, a growlng
number of mlgranLs and asylum-seekers are auempung Lhe more dangerous sea
crosslngs Lo Lhe lslands of Creece (see AmnesLy lnLernauonal, 2014).
ln addluon Lo Lhe rouLes menuoned above, numerous oLher rlvers, mounLaln
ranges, seas and deserLs cosL mlgranLs and asylum-seekers Lhelr llves. 1oo
frequenLly, [ourneys lnvolve vlolence, abuse, LorLure, exLoruon and malpracuce
aL Lhe hands of crlmlnals and corrupL omclals, whlch can also resulL ln deaLh.
Chapter 1 M|grant Deaths: An Internanona| Cverv|ew
18
1.3 How many have died? Statistics on migrant
border-related fatalities
Figure 1.1: Migrant border-related deaths around the world,
JanuarySeptember 2014
a

5ootce: lCM calculauons based on varlous sources lncludlng medla reporLs, lnformauon gaLhered by lCM
lleld Cmces, daLa from medlcal examlner omces and unPC8.
Notes: (a) llgures correspond Lo deaLhs LhaL occurred aL Lhe physlcal borders of SLaLes or durlng mlgrauon
Lowards an lnLernauonal desunauon. 1hey exclude deaLhs LhaL occur once ln a desunauon counLry
LhaL can be lndlrecLly aurlbuLable Lo lmmlgrauon pollcles, such Lhose occurrlng ln deLenuon faclllues,
durlng deporLauon, or on forced reLurn Lo a mlgranL's homeland. llgures lnclude boLh conrmed dead
and people mlsslng and presumed dead, generally aL sea. Cen numbers of mlsslng are esumaLes,
someumes rough ones, as LoLal passenger counLs are rarely known. 1hese gures lnclude only deaLhs
LhaL are reporLed, counLless oLhers occur ln remoLe areas and are noL known of. 1hus, esumaLes
represenL a base mlnlmum of Lhe Lrue global counL. ln some cases, esumaLes were complled based
on exLrapolauon from parual daLa. unlLed SLaLes-Mexlco border deaLhs are esumaLed based on
avallable daLa for lma CounLy, Arlzona and 8rooks CounLy, 1exas, whlch cover Lhe ma[orlLy of Lhe
1ucson and Laredo secLors, respecuvely.
(b) 1hls refers Lo deaLhs LhaL occurred ln Lurope oLher Lhan Lhe MedlLerranean (7) and lndla (1). lL
should be noLed LhaL llkely several hundred deaLhs of mlgranL are occurrlng ln CenLral Amerlca each
year. Powever, currenL daLa sources are paLchy aL besL and do noL provlde sumclenL lnformauon Lo
dlsungulsh wheLher deaLhs are relaLed Lo Lhe process of mlgrauon or due Lo unrelaLed causes whlle
resldlng ln a counLry (see noLe o). Accordlng Lo dlplomauc sources, from !anuary Lo AugusL 2014, 64
bodles of deceased Salvadorans were repaLrlaLed by Lhe Ll Salvador ConsulaLe ln Mexlco. Powever, lL
ls noL posslble Lo deLermlne lf deaLhs occurred durlng LranslL.
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
19
1.3.1 Challenges concerning comparability
Cver Lhe pasL Lwo decades, varlous organlzauons have been worklng Lo Lrack
mlgranL faLallues ln reglons known for hlgh lrregular mlgrauon ows and
dangerous border crosslngs, lncludlng Lhe souLhern border of Lhe Luropean
unlon (Lu), SouLh-LasL Asla/AusLralla and Lhe unlLed SLaLes-Mexlco border
reglon. varlous organlzauons also reporL on deaLhs ln oLher areas, such as
crosslngs of Lhe 8ed Sea and Lhe Culf of Aden. Many groups collecung daLa use
medla as a prlnclpal source and quallLy of lnformauon varles by reglon, wlLh
some sources oerlng deLalled lnformauon on each recorded deaLh, and oLhers
only able Lo provlde rough esumaLes wlLh llule demographlc background on
Lhe deceased. ln some cases, whaL ls known ls anecdoLal and noL complled
or analysed sysLemaucally. lurLhermore, denluons of whaL ls counLed can
vary. Some sLausucs are based on bodles found near Lhe vlclnlLy of Lhe border,
whlle oLhers lnclude boLh bodles found and reporLs, generally of survlvors, of
numbers mlsslng and presumed dead, oen Lhe case when counung deaLhs
aL sea. Compllcaung comparlsons beLween sources sull furLher, Lhere ls no
lnLernauonally sLandardlzed denluon of whaL consuLuLes a border-relaLed
deaLh." Some organlzauons counL only deaLhs occurrlng aL exLernal borders of
SLaLes, whlle oLhers lnclude deaLhs LhaL occur once ln Lhe desunauon or LranslL
counLry LhaL can be dlrecLly or lndlrecLly aurlbuLed Lo Lhe border conLrol reglme,
such as deaLhs of persons ln deLenuon. lor Lhe purposes of Lhls reporL, gures
complled by Lhe lnLernauonal Crganlzauon for Mlgrauon (lCM) correspond Lo
Lo deaLhs LhaL occurred aL Lhe physlcal borders of SLaLes or durlng mlgrauon
Lowards an lnLernauonal desunauon. Clven varlous meLhodologles, as well as
dlerlng levels of compleLeness and rellablllLy of daLa, lL ls dlmculL Lo compare
daLa across counLrles and reglons.
lL should also be noLed LhaL esumaLes of mlgranL deaLhs lnclude only Lhose cases
LhaL are reporLed, generally by medla, governmenL auLhorlues or lnLernauonal
organlzauons. Clven LhaL large numbers of deaLhs occur ln remoLe areas and
many are noL known of, gures underesumaLe Lhe exLenL of mlgranL faLallues.
lurLhermore, because of Lhe varylng quallLy and comprehenslveness of daLa by
reglon, auempLs Lo esumaLe deaLhs globally may underrepresenL numbers ln
cerLaln reglons, Lhus exaggeraung Lhe share of deaLhs LhaL occur ln oLhers. WlLh
Lhese llmlLauons ln mlnd, lL ls posslble Lo suggesL several key ndlngs and Lrends.
Chapter 1 M|grant Deaths: An Internanona| Cverv|ew
20
Where are deaths occurring?
Figure 1.2: Regions in which migrant deaths occurred, 2014
5ootce: lCM's own calculauons based on daLa from varlous sources. See fooLnoLe 2.
Notes: (a) Cenerally, reglons correspond wlLh un classlcauons of reglons.
(b) LasL Afrlca excludes Lhe Porn of Afrlca.
(c) ueaLhs occurrlng whlle Lrylng Lo reach Spanlsh enclaves are lncluded ln LoLals for Lhe MedlLerranean.
(d) norLh Amerlca refers Lo deaLhs along Lhe unlLed SLaLes-Mexlco border.
Mediterranean
8ased on Lhe daLa complled by lCM, Lhe large ma[orlLy of deaLhs ln 2014
occurred ln Lhe MedlLerranean, accounung for an esumaLed 73 per cenL (3,072)
of all deaLhs Lhls year, maklng lL Lhe deadllesL sea ln Lhe world for mlgranLs (see
llgure 1.1 and llgure 1.2).
3
When looklng aL numbers complled over ume, aL
leasL 22,400 people are esumaLed Lo have losL Lhelr llves Lrylng Lo reach Lurope
slnce 2000 (lCM calculauon based on 1he MlgranLs llles daLa).
6
1hls means
on average nearly 1,300 mlgranLs dled each year durlng Lhls perlod. 8ased on
avallable daLa, 2014 represenLs Lhe deadllesL year ln Lhls ume perlod, wlLh more
Lhan Lwlce as many deaLhs occurrlng ln Lhe rsL nlne monLhs of Lhe year Lhan
Look place durlng Lhe Arab Sprlng of 2011 when an esumaLed 1,300 losL Lhelr
llves crosslng Lhe MedlLerranean (unPC8, 2012). 1he gure ls almosL ve umes
3
1he hlgh share of deaLhs ln Lhe MedlLerranean ls llkely ln parL due Lo Lhe avallablllLy of beuer daLa for Lhls
reglon.
6
LsumaLe calculaLed uslng daLa complled by 1he MlgranLs llles and enhanced wlLh lCM 2014 daLa where
needed. 1hls gure lncludes deaLhs near Luropean exLernal land and sea borders. Whlle 1he MlgranLs llles
lncludes deaLhs LhaL occur wlLhln Lurope due Lo condluons ln deLenuon, eorLs of lrregular mlgranLs Lo
evade deLecuon, and aL umes even deaLh followlng reLurn Lo orlgln counLrles, Lhls counL excludes such
cases, focuslng only on deaLhs occurrlng aL exLernal borders. lurLhermore, 1he MlgranLs llles lncludes daLa
on deaLhs ln Lhe Sahara and oLher areas of Afrlca when mlgranLs are presumed Lo be en rouLe Lo Lurope.
1he above esumaLe excludes Lhese cases.
73
6
6
3
3
2
1
1 1
MedlLerranean
LasL Afrlca
norLh Amerlca
8ay of 8engal
Porn of Afrlca
SouLh-LasL Asla
Sahara
Carlbbean
CLher
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
21
hlgher Lhan Lhe 630 mlgranLs who are esumaLed Lo have dled or gone mlsslng
ln Lhe MedlLerranean ln 2007, Lhe peak number prlor Lo 2011 (lbld.). ueaLhs ln
recenL monLhs have reached devasLaung levels, wlLh Lhe mosL deadly shlpwreck
clalmlng an esumaLed 300 llves ln early SepLember (lCM, 2014).
ln comparlson, abouL 100 llves a year, on average, have been losL ln Lhe seas
borderlng AusLralla slnce 2000, alLhough Lhe numbers dropped slgnlcanLly ln
2014 (see ChapLer 6). ln Lhe unlLed SLaLes, beLween scal year 1998 and scal
year 2013, a LoLal of 6,029 deceased mlgranLs were found on Lhe uS slde of Lhe
border wlLh Mexlco, whlch ls approxlmaLely 377 persons per year over a 16-year
perlod (see ChapLer 2).
1he reasons for Lhese dlerences have noL been fully lnvesugaLed, buL Lhe [ump
ln numbers of faLallues ln Lhe MedlLerranean Lhls year llkely reecLs a dramauc
lncrease ln Lhe numbers of mlgranLs Lrylng Lo reach Lurope. ln 2014 numbers
have splked, wlLh over 112,000 arrlvals by sea of lrregular mlgranLs reporLed
by Lhe lLallan auLhorlues ln [usL Lhe rsL elghL monLhs of Lhe year (lnformauon
obLalned from Lhe lLallan MlnlsLry of lnLerlor), almosL Lhree umes as many as ln
Lhe enure year of 2013. Many are eelng conlcL, persecuuon and poverLy, wlLh
LrlLreans and Syrlans consuLuung Lhe largesL share of arrlvals ln lLaly Lhls year.
1he deLerloraung securlLy slLuauon ln Llbya, where many mlgranLs reslde prlor
Lo Lhelr deparLure for Lurope, has also lncreased mlgrauon pressures.
Africa
LsumaLes of numbers of sub-Saharan mlgranLs who dle whlle Lrylng Lo reach
norLhern Afrlca - elLher wlLh Lhe ulumaLe goal of conunulng on Lo Lurope
or of remalnlng Lo work ln Llbya and oLher counLrles ln Lhe reglon - are very
hazy. Accordlng Lo Lhe blog lorLress Lurope, slnce 1996 aL leasL 1,790 mlgranLs
have perlshed crosslng Lhe Sahara, alLhough lL ls acknowledged LhaL Lhls
underesumaLes Lhe Lrue number (see 1able 1.1). uaLa complled by lCM suggesL
only 1.4 per cenL of deaLhs ln Lhe rsL nlne monLhs of 2014 occurred ln Lhe
Sahara (see llgure 1.2), however, Lhls esumaLe ls hampered by lack of avallable
daLa and cerLalnly does noL lnclude all Lhe llves losL Lhrough mlgrauon ln Lhe
reglon. 1esumonles of mlgranLs who have [ourneyed Lhrough Lhe Sahara lndlcaLe
Lhe prevalence of deaLh along Lhls rouLe.
knowledge ls more compleLe regardlng ows of mlgranLs from Lhe Porn of
Afrlca who cross Lhe Culf of Aden and 8ed Sea Lo Lhe shores of ?emen. AbouL
193 mlgranLs have been known Lo dle or go mlsslng whlle maklng Lhe crosslng
from 2010 Lo 2013 (unPC8, 2013), and already ln 2014 over 120 mlgranLs
have losL Lhelr llves ln several large lncldenLs (lCM esumaLe), comprlslng an
esumaLed 3 per cenL of deaLhs globally (see llgure 1.2). numbers for 2014 are
up conslderably from 2013 and 2012, alLhough Lhey remaln far lower Lhan Lhe
peak ln 2007 when deaLhs Lopped 1,000 (unPC8, 2007). Whlle deaLhs occurrlng
Chapter 1 M|grant Deaths: An Internanona| Cverv|ew
22
aL sea are relauvely well monlLored, mlgranLs who dle whlle crosslng overland Lo
reach Lhe sea, or en rouLe Lo norLhern or souLhern Afrlca are oen noL reporLed.
ln 2014, a small number of deaLhs were recorded ln Lhe Sudanese-Llbyan deserL
durlng Lhe [ourney norLhwards, buL cerLalnly more deaLhs Lake place LhaL are
noL known of.
South-East Asia and Australia
Accordlng Lo Lhe AusLrallan 8order ueaLhs uaLabase, nearly 1,300 border-relaLed
deaLhs occurred beLween !anuary 2000 and SepLember 2014 (see 1able 1.1). 1he
number of deaLhs has dropped slgnlcanLly Lhls year, down from 214 ln 2013 Lo
less Lhan a handful of cases (see AusLrallan 8order ueaLhs uaLabase). ln Lhe 8ay
of 8engal, lrregular marlume movemenLs sLarLed galnlng momenLum ln 2006,
buL lncreased dramaucally ln Lhe aermaLh of secLarlan unresL ln !une 2012.
unPC8 esumaLed LhaL of Lhe approxlmaLely 33,000 people who auempLed Lo
cross Lhe 8ay of 8engal and Lhe Andaman Sea ln 2013, over 600 losL Lhelr llves
(unPC8, 2014a), and more Lhan 200 are esumaLed Lo have dled ln Lhe rsL half
of 2014 (unPC8, 2014b). Cf all deaLhs occurrlng ln SouLh-LasL Asla ln 2014
capLured by lCM, Lhose ln Lhe 8ay of 8engal amounL Lo roughly Lhree quarLers.
Central and North America
Along Lhe border beLween Lhe unlLed SLaLes and Mexlco, Lhe harsh condluons of
Lhe arduous deserL Lrek lead Lo hundreds of deaLhs each year and lCM esumaLes
LhaL beLween !anuary and SepLember of 2014 deaLhs along Lhe border accounLed
for roughly 6 per cenL of mlgranL deaLhs around Lhe world (see llgure 1.2). 1he
unlLed SLaLes 8order aLrol esumaLed LhaL 443 dled ln Lhe 2013 scal year,
7

sllghLly lower Lhan numbers from Lhe year before. Slnce 1998, when Lhe 8order
aLrol sLarLed publlshlng daLa on deaLhs, Lhey have recorded 6,029 llves losL (uS
CusLoms and 8order roLecuon, 2013), wlLh an average of approxlmaLely 400
mlgranLs dylng every year slnce 2000 (see 1able 1.1). Clvll socleLy organlzauons
and researchers, however, suggesL Lhese numbers may underesumaLe Lhe acLual
deaLh Loll aL Lhe border.
Whlle numbers from scal year 2014 had noL been complled aL Lhe ume of
publlcauon, exlsung daLa for 2014 suggesL a decllne ln deaLhs from Lhe prevlous
scal year, however, compleLe numbers Lake ume Lo complle as remalns may noL
be found for monLhs or years (see Campoy, 2014). lL remalns Lo be seen lf Lhls
ls a Lrend LhaL wlll conunue. uecllnes may be ln parL due Lo lncreased paLrolllng
and lmproved survelllance Lechnology and asslsLance mechanlsms (lbld.).
Powever, deLermlnlng Lhe llnk beLween changes ln border enforcemenL pollcles
and Lhe number of mlgranL deaLhs ls noL sLralghuorward. A uS CovernmenL
AccounLablllLy Cmce reporL (CAC, 2006) found LhaL a range of facLors may aecL
7
1 CcLober 2012 Lhrough 30 SepLember 2013.
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
23
Lhe number of deaLhs, lncludlng changes ln Lhe volume of border crosslngs,
varlauons ln Lhe locauons where mlgranLs auempL Lo cross Lhe border, and
ucLuauons ln weaLher pauerns.
Sull more mlgranLs lose Lhelr llves Lranslung Lhrough Mexlco, oen due Lo
Lhe acuvlues of crlmlnal groups. AlLhough varlous sources suggesL mlgranLs
are dylng ln large numbers along Lhls sLreLch of Lhe mlgrauon rouLe, Lhe scale
of deaLhs ls challenglng Lo enumeraLe. Mexlcan auLhorlues have recovered
remalns ln mass graves, lncludlng Lhose of 72 mlgranLs followlng a massacre
on a remoLe ranch ln 2010 (1uckman, 2010). 8oughly 11,000 mlgranLs were
reporLedly kldnapped over a slx monLh perlod ln 2010, accordlng Lo Lhe nauonal
Puman 8lghLs Commlsslon (Comlsln naclonal de uerechos Pumanos, clLed ln
AmnesLy lnLernauonal, 2012). ln addluon Lo crlmlnal acuvlues, reporLs of CenLral
Amerlcans perlshlng ln rall accldenLs are common. lor example, on 23 AugusL
2013, 11 CenLral Amerlcan mlgranLs were kllled and many more were ln[ured
when Lhe cargo Lraln Lhey were rldlng deralled ln 1abasco (CovernmenL of Lhe
SLaLe of 1abasco, 2013). AL leasL 230 Ponduran mlgranLs were aboard Lhe Lraln.
As furLher lndlcauon of Lhe scale of deaLhs, lasL year Lhe lorelgn Aalrs MlnlsLry
of Ll Salvador repaLrlaLed from Mexlco Lhe remalns of 99 mlgranLs, Lhrough Lhe
rsL elghL monLhs of 2014, 64 bodles were reLurned home (lnformauon obLalned
from Lhe lorelgn Aalrs MlnlsLry of Ll Salvador). Powever, from Lhls daLa ls lL noL
posslble Lo dlsungulsh wheLher deaLhs are relaLed Lo Lhe process of mlgrauon
or due Lo unrelaLed causes whlle resldlng ln Mexlco. Less ln number, buL sull of
slgnlcanL concern are deaLhs occurrlng ln Lhe Carlbbean - esumaLed aL 43 so
far Lhls year and nearly 200 over Lhe pasL Lhree years (see 1able 1.1).
ueaLhs LhroughouL SouLh Amerlca have noL been promlnenL and very llule
lnformauon ls known. 8esearch lnLo Lhls reglon and oLhers noL covered ln Lhls
reporL ls warranLed Lo deLermlne Lhe rlsks faced by lrregular mlgranLs and
asylum-seekers, lncludlng LhaL of deaLh.
Chapter 1 M|grant Deaths: An Internanona| Cverv|ew
24
Table 1.1: keg|ona| esnmates of m|grant border-re|ated deaths comp||ed by
var|ous sources, ava||ab|e years between 1996 and 2014
Region Number of
deaths
Years Source
Sahara 1,790 1996-2013 lorLress Lurope
unlLed SLaLes-Mexlco
border
6,029 1998-2013 unlLed SLaLes 8order
aLrol
Luropean exLernal
borders
22,394 2000-2014 lCM based on 1he
MlgranLs llles
AusLrallan waLers 1,493 2000-2014 AusLrallan 8order ueaLhs
uaLabase
Porn of Afrlca 3,104 2006-2014 unPC8, lCM for 2014
8ay of 8engal 1,300-2,000 2012-2014 unPC8, Arakan ro[ecL
Carlbbean 188 2012-2014 unPC8, lCM for 2014
Notes: (a) 1he denluon of botJet-teloteJ Jeotb varles beLween sources, some counL only deaLhs occurrlng
aL exLernal borders, whlle oLhers lnclude deaLhs LhaL occur once ln Lhe desunauon or LranslL counLry
LhaL can be dlrecLly or lndlrecLly aurlbuLed Lo Lhe border conLrol reglme.
(b) 2014 gures are unul AugusL 2014.
(c) llgure for Lhe unlLed SLaLes-Mexlco border ls unul 30 SepLember 2013.
1.3.2 Who is most at risk?
Origin of migrants
We know relauvely llule abouL Lhe socloeconomlc prole of deceased mlgranLs,
and ln many cases even baslc demographlc lnformauon ls mlsslng. 8egardlng daLa
obLalned by lCM for 2014, reglon of orlgln ls unknown for roughly one ln ve of
Lhose who have dled around Lhe world, hlghllghung Lhe need for lmproved daLa.
Comprehenslve daLa regardlng ldenuLy and nauonallLy of each of Lhe deceased
ls a long way o ln mosL reglons. Cnly ln some areas along Lhe unlLed SLaLes-
Mexlco border ls daLa of sumclenL quallLy Lo deLermlne Lhls lnformauon, where
condluon of remalns allows. Lven daLa on reglon of orlgln ls based on lncompleLe
lnformauon. 1he reglon of orlgln of deceased mlgranLs, lndlcaLed ln llgure 1.3
below, ls aL umes lnferred based on avallable lnformauon. lor lnsLance, when
all survlvors of a shlpwreck orlglnaLe ln a cerLaln reglon lL may be assumed LhaL
Lhose who perlshed where also from Lhls area. Whlle Lhls provldes a sense of
where mlgranLs are comlng from, mlnor dlerences may exlsL. Accordlng Lo lCM
calculauons, ln 2014 Lhe ma[orlLy of mlgranLs who dled ln LranslL - 63 per cenL -
came from Afrlca and Lhe Mlddle LasL (see llgure 1.3). 1he ma[orlLy of mlgranLs
orlglnaung ln Afrlca and Lhe Mlddle LasL dle whlle crosslng Lhe MedlLerranean.
1hose from Lhe Mlddle LasL and norLh Afrlca (MLnA) (936 or 23 of deaLhs
globally) are largely Syrlans, as well as Lgypuans and alesunlans, crosslng
Lhe MedlLerranean Lo Lurope. Slmllarly, Lhe ma[orlLy of sub-Saharan Afrlcans
capLured ln lCM's daLa dle aL sea whlle Lravelllng Lo Lurope.
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
23
Figure 1.3: Deaths by migrants region of origin, 2014
5ootce: lCM own calculauons based on daLa from varlous sources. See fooLnoLe 2.
Notes: (a) Cenerally, reglons correspond wlLh un dlvlslons of reglons.
(b) Sub-Saharan Afrlca excludes Lhe Porn of Afrlca. 1he ma[orlLy of deaLhs occurred whlle Lrylng Lo
reach Lurope, alLhough 231 dled crosslng Lake AlberL beLween uganda and Lhe uemocrauc 8epubllc
of Lhe Congo, and some lncldenLs occurred ln SouLhern Afrlca.
(c) SouLh-LasL Asla lncludes 8angladesh and souLhern borders of Chlna.
(d) ueaLhs llsLed ln CenLral Amerlca refer Lo boLh cases ln whlch Lhe nauonallues of Lhe dead are
conrmed and Lo Lhose ln whlch nauonallLy ls assumed.
(e) MosL of Lhe noL specled/unknown are LhoughL Lo be sub-Saharan Afrlcans and Syrlans.
(f) ln several lnsLances, Lhe reglon of orlgln was exLrapolaLed based on avallable lnformauon.
ln 2014, Lhose dylng ln Lhe MedlLerranean have Lended Lo be from wesL and cenLral
sub-Saharan Afrlca, Lhe Mlddle LasL and norLh Afrlca, wlLh mosL orlglnaung ln
Lhe Syrlan Arab 8epubllc, Cccupled alesunlan 1errlLory and LgypL, and Lhe Porn
of Afrlca (see llgure 1.4). 1he vasL ma[orlLy, esumaLed aL abouL 73 per cenL,
dle along Lhe CenLral MedlLerranean rouLe from norLhern Afrlca (usually Llbya)
Lowards lLaly and MalLa (lCM esumaLe). Many are eelng counLrles embrolled
ln conlcL and known for wldespread human rlghLs abuses, ln 2013, 63 per cenL
of all deLecuons of lrregular arrlvals Lo Lurope by sea were from Lhe Syrlan Arab
8epubllc, LrlLrea, AfghanlsLan and Somalla, wlLh 46 per cenL from Lhe Syrlan Arab
8epubllc and LrlLrea alone (lronLex, 2014a). Agaln ln 2014 LrlLreans and Syrlans
have been Lhe mosL promlnenL nauonallues, accounung for over 46 per cenL of
all sea arrlvals ln lLaly ln Lhe rsL elghL monLhs of Lhe year (lnformauon obLalned
from Lhe lLallan MlnlsLry of lnLerlor). numbers of alesunlans auempung Lo
cross Lhe MedlLerranean have also lncreased ln recenL monLhs.
30
23
22
12
6
6
1
0
Sub-Saharan Afrlca
MLnA
Porn of Afrlca
SouLh-LasL Asia
CenLral Amerlca
Carlbbean
CLher
Chapter 1 M|grant Deaths: An Internanona| Cverv|ew
26
Figure 1.4: Deaths in the Mediterranean by migrants region of origin, 2014
5ootce: lCM calculauons based on daLa complled from varlous sources. See fooLnoLe 2.
Notes: (a) Cenerally, reglons correspond wlLh un classlcauons of reglons.
(b) ueaLhs occurrlng whlle Lrylng Lo reach Spanlsh enclaves are lncluded ln LoLals for Lhe MedlLerranean.
ln addluon Lo Lhe MedlLerranean, a small number sub-Saharan Afrlcans have
been known Lo dle ln souLhern Afrlca, whlle oLhers have dled ln Lhe deserLs
of Lhe Sahara, and one large lncldenL on Lake AlberL clalmed Lhe llves of 231
refugees from Lhe uemocrauc 8epubllc of Lhe Congo. 8ecause daLa are very poor
ln some reglons such as ln Lhe Sahara and parLs of WesLern and CenLral Afrlca, lL
ls cerLalnly posslble LhaL greaLer numbers of sub-Saharan Afrlcans are dylng and
a larger share ls dolng so wlLhln Afrlca (as opposed Lo Lhe MedlLerranean) Lhan
we are aware of.
ln Lhe rsL nlne monLhs of 2014, abouL 12 per cenL (473) of mlgranLs whose
deaLhs have been recorded around Lhe world are from Lhe Porn of Afrlca (see
llgure 1.3). 1he ma[orlLy of Lhese deaLhs have occurred ln Lhe MedlLerranean,
alLhough boaL [ourneys Lo ?emen have also resulLed ln slgnlcanL numbers
of deaLhs, wlLh [usL over one quarLer (26) of all deaLhs of Porn mlgranLs
occurrlng whlle crosslng Lhe 8ed Sea and Culf of Aden. 1hls number represenLs a
slgnlcanL [ump from 2013, when only 3 deaLhs were recorded, buL remalns well
below peak numbers ln 2007, when annual deaLhs Lopped 1,000 (see ChapLer
3 and unPC8, 2013). A smaller number of mlgranLs from Lhe Porn of Afrlca
are recorded dylng ln Lhe deserL Lravelllng Lhrough Sudan Lo norLhern Afrlca,
alLhough as menuoned prevlously, daLa ln Lhls reglon are very poor and many
deaLhs are noL accounLed for.
CLher groups mosL aL rlsk lnclude mlgranLs and asylum-seekers from SouLh-LasL
Asla, whose deaLhs accounL for abouL 6 per cenL of border-relaLed faLallues
globally, accordlng Lo lCM calculauons for 2014 (see llgure 1.3). 1he vasL
ma[orlLy of Lhese deaLhs occur wlLhln Lhe reglon, wlLh Lhose ln Lhe 8ay of 8engal
accounung for roughly Lhree quarLers (203) of deaLhs ln SouLh-LasL Asla ln Lhe
30%
30%
29%
11%
0%
MENA
Sub-Saharan Africa
Not specied/Unknown
Horn of Africa
South Asia
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
27
rsL slx monLhs of 2014 (unPC8, 2014b). CLher lncldenLs Lhls year have occurred
near lndonesla and Malaysla, wlLh vlcums malnly lndoneslan.
CenLral Amerlcans are Lhe maln group dylng along Lhe unlLed SLaLes-Mexlco
border, wlLh Lhe largesL share comlng from Mexlco. lor cases ln whlch
nauonallLy could be deLermlned, Lhe vasL ma[orlLy of Lhose who have dled
have been Mexlcan, accounung for 86 per cenL of cases examlned by Lhe lma
CounLy Cmce of Lhe Medlcal Lxamlner (CCML) ln Arlzona (8Ml, 2013). Changes
ln place of orlgln can be seen over Lhe pasL 13 years, wlLh a growlng share of
non-Mexlcan CenLral Amerlcans, and changes ln Lhe reglon of orlgln of Mexlcan
mlgranLs (lbld.).
Less frequenL buL sull of concern are deaLhs occurrlng ln Lhe Carlbbean. Cf deaLhs
known Lo lCM ln 2014, all have been Paluans and uomlnlcans who drowned
whlle salllng Lowards uerLo 8lco and llorlda. 8eporLs suggesL elevaLed numbers
of Cubans have also been mlgraung Lhrough lrregular channels Lo Mexlco Lhls
year (8euLers, 2014).
Sex of migrants and other basic data
ln a large number of cases, baslc lnformauon abouL Lhe ldenuues of mlsslng
mlgranLs and cause of deaLh ls slmply unknown, even ln reglons wlLh relauvely
good daLa. lor example, ln Lhe unlLed SLaLes records kepL by Lhe CCML
conLaln baslc proles of Lhe deceased, locauon of deaLh, ume aer deaLh when
remalns are found, condluon of body/remalns when found, and cause of deaLh.
noneLheless, ln over one Lhlrd of cases beLween 1990 and 2012, Lhe ldenuues
of Lhe deceased remaln undeLermlned, and cause of deaLh could noL be
esLabllshed ln 36 per cenL of cases ln Lhls ume perlod (8Ml, 2013). Cf deaLhs ln
2013, cause of deaLh could noL be deLermlned for 63 per cenL of cases, prlmarlly
due Lo Lhe llmlLauons of examlnauon of decomposed remalns (CCML, 2014). ln
CCML's daLa, preclse lnformauon on age ls posslble only for mlgranLs who are
ldenued. ln cases lnvolvlng rescue aL sea, rough esumaLes of Lhe average ages
of Lhe deceased may be posslble based on Lhe ages of survlvors and survlvors'
accounLs, alLhough whaL lnformauon does exlsL ls noL sysLemaucally recorded
or publlshed.
Plghllghung Lhe pauclLy of deLalled lnformauon on Lhe deceased, ln Lhe daLa
complled by lCM lnformauon on sex of Lhe deceased ls noL avallable for Lhe
ma[orlLy of mlgranLs who losL Lhelr llves ln 2014. Cf Lhe esumaLed 4,077 deaLhs,
daLa on sex ls avallable for only 170 people. 1he llmlLed lnformauon avallable,
however, suggesLs LhaL by far Lhe ma[orlLy of Lhe deceased are male (139 ouL of
170 cases) (see llgure 1.3). ueaLhs of males are also more llkely when looklng
aL daLa along Lhe unlLed SLaLes-Mexlco border, alLhough Lo a lesser exLenL. Cf
Lhe 97 dead Lhus far ln 2014 lnvesugaLed by CCML, 33 were ldenued as male
and 4 as female (12) (lCM calculauon based on daLa from CCML). uaLa over
ume supporL Lhls ndlng - wlLh females comprlslng an esumaLed 18 per cenL
Chapter 1 M|grant Deaths: An Internanona| Cverv|ew
28
of cases examlned by CCML slnce 1990 (8Ml, 2013).
8
SlgnlcanL changes ln
gender rauos have occurred over ume, wlLh females reachlng an average of 23
per cenL of Lhose examlned by CCML durlng Lhe early 2000s and decreaslng
laLer ln Lhe decade (lbld.). Along Lhe unlLed SLaLes-Mexlco border llmlLauons on
lnformauon concernlng Lhe deceased ls generally due Lo Lhe advanced sLaLe of
decomposluon of many of Lhe bodles found. ln conLrasL, when deaLhs occur aL
sea Lhe hlgh degree of mlsslng lnformauon ls prlmarlly because bodles are noL
found and llsLs of mlsslng passengers do noL exlsL.
Figure 1.5: Ava||ab|e |nformanon on sex of deceased and m|ss|ng m|grants
globally, 2014
5ootce: lCM own calculauons based on daLa from varlous sources. See fooLnoLe 2.
8esearch by lckerlng and Cochrane (2013) examlnlng Lhe sex of mlgranLs who
dled ln Lurope, AusLralla and Lhe unlLed SLaLes-Mexlco border found LhaL baslc
lnformauon, such as sex of Lhe deceased, was unknown ln 70 per cenL of cases
recorded ln Lurope and AusLralla. uaLa were parucularly lacklng ln Lurope, wlLh
lnformauon on sex of Lhe deceased mlsslng ln 82 per cenL of cases. ln conLrasL,
lnformauon on sex was mlsslng for only 3 per cenL of cases along Lhe unlLed
SLaLes-Mexlco border. 1hls dlerence ln avallablllLy of lnformauon ls llkely
because daLa on Lhe unlLed SLaLes-Mexlco border ls obLalned from medlcal
examlners' omces - meanlng bodles were recoverable. WlLh Lhls mlsslng
lnformauon ln mlnd, Lhe researchers found 14 per cenL of deaLhs ln Lurope
could be ldenued as male as compared Lo 3 per cenL female, 18 per cenL were
male versus 14 per cenL ldenued as female ln AusLralla, and 76 per cenL male
versus 21 per cenL female along Lhe unlLed SLaLes-Mexlco border (lckerlng
and Cochrane 2013:37). 8ulldlng on Lhls daLa, Lhe researchers found LhaL Lhe
cause of deaLh for women was more llkely Lo be drownlng Lhan lL was for men
when crosslng Lo Lurope or AusLralla. An examlnauon of Lhe slnklng of Lhe SlLv
x ln 2001 near WesL !ava, whlch kllled over 330 people, revealed LhaL women
8
Conslderlng cases ln whlch sex was deLermlnable.
3%
1%
96%
Male
Female
Not specied/Unknown
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
29
were more llkely Lo dle Lhan men. SevenLy-seven per cenL of Lhe men on board
drowned, whereas 93 per cenL of Lhe women and 93 per cenL of Lhe chlldren on
Lhe boaL drowned (lckerlng and Cochrane, 2013:41).
1hls brlef comparlson of deaLhs across reglons and Lhe prole of mlgranLs aL
rlsk, suggesLs LhaL Lhere are slgnlcanL dlerences ln Lhe absoluLe numbers
of mlgranLs dylng ln dlerenL parLs of Lhe world. lL ls noL clear Lo whaL exLenL
such dlerences can be explalned by Lhe hlgher scale of lrregular mlgrauon ln
some reglons - Lhus, noL necessarlly hlgher raLes of deaLh - beuer reporung of
deaLhs, or pollcles LhaL have been eecuve ln lowerlng faLallLy raLes. Avallable
lnformauon can also provlde some undersLandlng on Lhe sex and orlgln of
mlgranLs mosL aL rlsk. As explalned ln Lhe nexL secuon, Lhere are sull large gaps
ln lnformauon LhaL llmlL our undersLandlng of boLh Lhe number and prole of
mlgranLs dylng whlle ln LranslL.
1.4 Challenges of collecting data on migrant deaths
1.4.1 Invisibility
1here are lnherenL challenges lnvolved ln Lracklng Lhe deaLhs of lrregular
mlgranLs and even Lhe besL counLs wlll have gaps. lor one, Lhe very naLure
of lrregular Lravel - LhaL Lhe ob[ecuve ls Lo avold deLecuon - makes Lraclng
deaLhs, and ldenufylng bodles, exLremely challenglng. Lven when Lhe mosL
newsworLhy" slnklngs occur, oen Lhe number of passengers on board ls
unknown, maklng accuraLe esumaLes of deaLhs near lmposslble. Many who
dle do noL carry ldenuLy documenLs. When mlgranLs Lravel ln groups, survlvors
who reach Lhelr desunauons undeLecLed may be afrald of reporung deaLhs of
fellow Lravellers due Lo fear of apprehenslon by auLhorlues. lor slmllar reasons,
famllles may noL reporL mlsslng relauves. ln Lhe case of mlgranLs eelng gang
vlolence ln CenLral Amerlca and Mexlco, survlvors may refraln from reporung
deaLhs and dlsappearances for fear of reLrlbuuon Lo famlly members remalnlng
ln orlgln counLrles (see ChapLer 2).
1.4.2 Remote topography and challenging environments
ln addluon Lo Lhe clandesune naLure of lrregular mlgrauon, Lhe Lopography
Lhrough whlch mlgranLs Lravel, agaln Lhe cholce of rouLes belng mouvaLed by
Lhe deslre Lo remaln undeLecLed, presenLs challenges for documenung deaLhs.
lor one, mlgranL Lralls oen pass Lhrough remoLe areas, far from Lhe eyes of
Lhe SLaLe and Lhe medla. 1he Lough ecologles of land passages can mean LhaL
remalns may be qulckly desLroyed by arld cllmaLes and wlld anlmals, or may
be losL ln crevlces or swepL down rlvers. 1hose remalns LhaL are found may
be aL such an advanced sLaLe of decomposluon LhaL even baslc demographlc
lnformauon on Lhe deceased ls noL posslble (8Ml, 2013, CCML, 2014). ln Lhe
sea, wlLhouL an accuraLe counL of passengers, ndlng Lhe bodles of all Lhose
Chapter 1 M|grant Deaths: An Internanona| Cverv|ew
30
who drown oen does noL occur, as hope of recoverlng survlvors dwlndles
and Lhe number of mlsslng people ls unknown. Cen Lhls ls compounded by
Lhe facL LhaL bodles may wash up on Lhe shores of counLrles noL lnvolved ln
rescue eorLs - Lhus, Lhese deaLhs may be excluded from counLs. Lven ln cases
when mlsslng boaL passengers and overland mlgranLs are reporLed, generally by
survlvlng relauves, bodles are oen never recovered. Accordlng Lo Lhe Collbrl
CenLer for Puman 8lghLs, whlch works Lo Lrace mlsslng mlgranLs, an esumaLed
2,000 people are reporLed as mlsslng along Lhe unlLed SLaLes-Mexlco border.
CounLless oLhers remaln mlsslng and are never reporLed. 1hey are slmply noL
heard of agaln, Lhelr remalns losL ln Lhe sand, burled ln unmarked graves or
washed on remoLe shores.
1.4.3 Missing information
ln 2014, nearly 70 per cenL of deaLhs recorded by lCM refer Lo mlgranLs who
are mlsslng, malnly aL sea. Whlle lL ls generally presumed LhaL Lhose mlsslng
are dead, Lhls ls oen lmposslble Lo verlfy, agaln compllcaung auempLs Lo counL
deaLhs. Much of Lhe lnformauon on deaLhs ls from Lhe Lesumonles of survlvlng
mlgranLs who glve esumaLes of numbers Lhey belleve Lo have dled. When
Lravel has been by boaL, oen mlgranLs are noL aware of Lhe acLual number of
passengers, parucularly when numbers are hlgh - Lhus, Lhelr esumaLes of Lhe
mlsslng frequenLly vary and are hard Lo verlfy. When boaLs are smaller, survlvors
may be able Lo glve more preclse lnformauon on numbers mlsslng. AuLhorlues
may also creaLe esumaLes of numbers mlsslng based on Lhe supposed capaclLy
of boaLs. Agaln, however, Lhe Lrue number of passengers ls oen noL known.
Survlvors of sea voyages may have heard of oLhers on anoLher boaL who were
supposed Lo be maklng Lhe crosslng buL never arrlved, however remalns of Lhe
boaL or bodles are noL recovered. Addluonally, Lhe hlgh number of bodles LhaL
are never found means LhaL baslc demographlc lnformauon on Lhe deceased ls
oen noL avallable, as descrlbed prevlously ln secuon 1.3.2.
1.4.4 Involvement of criminal actors
An addluonal compllcaung facLor arlses from Lhe facL LhaL lrregular mlgrauon ls
frequenLly lnLerLwlned wlLh Lhe acuons of smugglers, Lramckers, oLher crlmlnals
and corrupL SLaLe omclals. Whlle some of Lhese acLors may help mlgranLs
avold cerLaln dangers assoclaLed wlLh Lravel, Lhelr lnvolvemenL also leads Lo an
addluonal seL of rlsks and vulnerablllues for mlgranLs. CounLless numbers of
deaLhs have occurred elLher Lhrough dlrecL murder or lndlrecL consequences
of poor care, abuse, LorLure, or abandonmenL, among oLhers (see ChapLer 3).
ln Lhese cases where smugglers or oLher crlmlnals are lnvolved, lf deaLhs are
noL acuvely covered up, Lhey are rarely reporLed. Murders LhaL suggesL sLaLe
corrupuon and compllclLy are kepL sllenced, oLhers LhaL occur ln remoLe areas
are only capLured ln Lhe memorles of survlvors.
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
31
1.4.5 DenitionaI inconsistencies
llnally, aL lssue ln documenung border-relaLed deaLhs ls deLermlnlng whlch
mlgranL deaLhs can be deemed border-relaLed." As noLed above ln secuon 1.3,
some sources collecung daLa suck Lo recordlng deaLhs LhaL occur aL Lhe exLernal
boundarles of SLaLes. CLhers follow a denluon more slmllar Lo whaL Leanne
Weber and Sharon lckerlng have referred Lo as Lhe funcuonal border," whlch
exLends beyond Lhe physlcal parameLers of a nauon SLaLe and lncludes all slLes
aL whlch border funcuons are performed (Weber and lckerlng, 2011).
Weber and lckerlng (2011) noLe Lhe lncreaslng de-LerrlLorlallzauon of borders,"
suggesung LhaL nauonal boundarles are lncreaslngly deLached from soverelgn
LerrlLory. Mlgrauon zones and buers may be creaLed LhaL exLend beyond Lhe
LerrlLorlal boundarles of Lhe SLaLe - such as Lhe exclslon of oshore LerrlLorles
by AusLralla - and remoLe meLhods of border conLrol exlsL Lhrough vlsa pollcy
and refugee deLermlnauon processes (lbld.). 8order conLrol can be enforced by
varlous acLors, boLh sLaLe and non-sLaLe. lor Lhose lllegally resldlng ln a counLry,
Lhe border may remaln presenL Lhrough excluslon from many of Lhe SLaLe's
soclal and legal proLecuons. LxLendlng even furLher, condluons of lllegallLy may
conLrlbuLe Lo slLuauons of soclal and economlc marglnallzauon LhaL lead Lo
addluonal vulnerablllues (lbld.).
9

1hus, we can see how Lhe border may exLend far from Lhe Lradluonal concepuon
of physlcal boundarles. When counung deaLhs aurlbuLable Lo borders, aL whaL
polnL does one draw Lhe llne? Should deaLhs ln deLenuon, Lhrough eorLs Lo
evade deporLauon, or due Lo explolLauve worklng condluons, among oLhers,
be lncluded, or should counLs suck Lo deaLhs LhaL occur aL Lhe physlcal
perlmeLers of SLaLes? 1he physlcal border and Lhe exerclses of soverelgnLy and
governance wlLhln a SLaLe can be broadly dened as Lhe exLernal and lnLernal
borders, respecuvely, LogeLher bulldlng Lhe funcuonal border." As wlll be shown
LhroughouL Lhls reporL, Lhe varlous enuues collecung daLa have chosen dlerenL
polnLs beLween Lhe exLernal and lnLernal borders aL whlch Lo llmlL Lhelr counLs.
As noLed ln secuon 1.3, lCM's gures correspond Lo deaLhs LhaL occurred aL
Lhe exLernal borders of SLaLes or durlng mlgrauon Lowards an lnLernauonal
desunauon. 1hey exclude deaLhs along Lhe lnLernal border," such as Lhose
LhaL occur ln deLenuon faclllues, durlng deporLauon, or on forced reLurn Lo a
mlgranL's homeland, as well as deaLhs more loosely connecLed wlLh mlgranLs'
lrregular sLaLus, such as Lhose resulung from labour explolLauon. 1hls approach
ls chosen because deaLhs occurrlng aL physlcal borders and whlle en rouLe
represenL a more clearly denable caLegory. When lncludlng faLallues more
lndlrecLly assoclaLed wlLh border conLrol and mlgrauon, lL becomes dlmculL Lo
deLermlne where Lo llmlL counLs and lssues of comparablllLy beLween sources
9
lor an ln-depLh dlscusslon of Lhe funcuonal border," see L. Weber and S. lckerlng, ChapLer 1, Clobollzouoo
ooJ 8otJets. ueotb ot tbe Clobol ltoouet (2011).
Chapter 1 M|grant Deaths: An Internanona| Cverv|ew
32
perslsL. uaLa and knowledge of Lhe rlsks and vulnerablllues faced by lrregular
mlgranLs and asylum-seekers, lncludlng deaLh, should noL be neglecLed, buL
raLher Lracked as a dlsuncL caLegory.
1.5 Who collects the data?
no organlzauon aL Lhe global level ls currenLly Lasked wlLh collecung lnformauon
on mlgranL deaLhs occurrlng ln border reglons. nauonal governmenLs Lend noL
Lo publlsh daLa on border-relaLed deaLhs, and very few release daLa regularly
and sysLemaucally (an excepuon ls Lhe unlLed SLaLes 8order aLrol). ln some
cases, SLaLes may have lnformauon concernlng deaLhs LhaL ls noL made publlc
as lL ls collecLed for law enforcemenL purposes and consldered hlghly sensluve
(Weber and lckerlng, 2011:42). Lxlsung lnformauon ls generally complled by
nCCs, unlverslues, humanlLarlan and, aL umes, lnLernauonal organlzauons.
ln Lhe unlLed SLaLes, mlgranL deaLhs are normally lnvesugaLed by medlcal
examlners omces (aL Lhe counLy- or more rarely Lhe sLaLe-level). Medla ouLleLs
and [ournallsLs have also been acuvely lnvolved ln Lracklng deaLhs.
Some promlnenL nCCs Lracklng deaLhs lnclude unl1Lu for lnLerculLural Acuon
and Asoclacln ro uerechos Pumanos de Andalucla (AuPA) (Spaln) ln
Lurope, ln Lhe unlLed SLaLes several organlzauons have parLnered wlLh medlcal
examlners Lo Lrack deaLhs and ldenufy remalns, lncludlng Pumane 8orders,
Lhe Collbrl CenLer for Puman 8lghLs, and Lhe Coallcln de uerechos Pumanos,
whlch also works wlLh consular omces of Mexlco and oLher orlgln counLrles.
ro[ecLs run Lhrough unlverslues lnclude Lhe 8order Crosslng CbservaLory ouL of
Monash unlverslLy ln Melbourne, whlch malnLalns a daLabase of deaLhs, and Lhe
8lnauonal Mlgrauon lnsuLuLe, based aL Lhe unlverslLy of Arlzona. lnLernauonal
organlzauons publlshlng esumaLes of deaLhs oen obLaln knowledge from
Lhelr eld omces ln locauons known for hlgh numbers of deaLhs, or Lhrough
parLnershlps wlLh local humanlLarlan organlzauons. Medla ouLleLs and [ournallsLs
lnvolved ln Lracklng deaLhs lnclude Lhe Atlzooo uolly 5tot, 1he MlgranLs llles
pro[ecL and lorLress Lurope. See Annex for a llsL of sources publlshlng daLa on
mlgranL border-relaLed deaLhs.
1.5.1 The media as a source of data
1bese Joys, lt tokes o blockbostet ttoqeJy fot mlqtoot boots to teocb tbe
ftoot poqes - tbe polet, teqolot oJJluoos to tbe MeJltettooeoos Jeotb toll
eocoooteteJ oo oo olmost-weekly bosls by tescoets, bomoo tlqbts ocuvlsts
ooJ mlqtoot commoolues tbemselves ote slmply fot too bomJtom to moke tbe
molostteom oews.
!ack Shenker wrlung for Lhe CootJloo followlng Lhe Lampedusa shlpwreck on
3 CcLober 2013.
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
33
Much of Lhe publlshed daLa on mlgranL deaLhs ls based on lnformauon exLracLed
from medla reporLs. 1hls ls Lhe case for several groups publlshlng daLa on Lhe
MedlLerranean and Lurope - for lnsLance, unl1Lu,
10
whlch has been malnLalnlng
a llsL of deaLhs" slnce 1993 and also recenLly creaLed a map of deaLhs,
11
1he
MlgranLs llles, a pro[ecL LhaL began ln 2013 buL lncludes reporLs on deaLhs from
2000, and lorLress Lurope, a blog kepL by Lhe [ournallsL Cabrlele uel Crande and
llsLs deaLhs from 1988. 1he AusLrallan 8order ueaLhs uaLabase also gaLhers lLs
daLa from medla reporLs and conLacL wlLh local nCCs.
1here are a number of shorLcomlngs wlLh uslng Lhe medla as a prlmary source
of daLa on border-relaLed deaLhs (see also ChapLer 3). erhaps mosL lmporLanLly,
coverage ls noL compleLe. 1he medla Lend Lo cover larger scale lncldenLs lnvolvlng
many deaLhs, whlle cases ln whlch only several people dle mlghL noL make Lhe
news or mlghL only recelve small menuon ln local papers and be mlssed by
researchers. ln locallues where deaLh ls frequenLly occurrlng buL each lncldenL
lnvolves small numbers, such as along Lhe unlLed SLaLes-Mexlco border, for
lnsLance, deaLhs are unllkely Lo be covered ln Lhe medla as ln a sense Lhey cease
Lo be newsworLhy due Lo Lhelr regularlLy. 1here ls no medla presence ln many
of Lhe areas ln whlch mlgranLs dle and Lhese deaLhs wlll llkely never come Lo
Lhe auenuon of reporLers, unless perhaps deaLhs are ln large numbers and are
dlscovered.
12

Lven when Lhere ls medla coverage of an lncldenL, coverage may noL conunue
unul a nal counL of deaLhs ls known. ln many lncldenLs lnvolvlng deaLhs aL
sea, lnlual esumaLes of faLallues are vague as numbers of LoLal passengers and
Lhe faLe of Lhose who remaln mlsslng ls noL known. ueLalls of Lhe lncldenL may
Lake weeks Lo resolve and medla auenuon has oen waned by Lhls ume. Cen
lnformauon provlded ln Lhe medla ls noL compleLe or does noL menuon deLalls of
Lhe proles of Lhe deceased LhaL would be helpful for a comprehenslve record.
lor lnsLance, parucularly ln reporLs of deaLh aL sea lnvolvlng many vlcums,
nauonallues mlghL noL be llsLed or Lhey may be menuoned ln vague Lerms only.
Age and sex of each of Lhe deceased are also noL llsLed ln medla reporLs of
large lncldenLs. CLher lnformauon, llke exacL locauon and lnformauon gaLhered
Lhrough coronlal lnvesugauon, ls noL glven.
1here have also been cases where medla reporLs of losL vessels have proven Lo be
lncorrecL. lor lnsLance, Lhe records of 330 presumed deaLhs had Lo be removed
from Lhe AusLrallan 8order ueaLhs uaLabase when lL was found LhaL Lhe vessel
LhaL had been reporLed mlsslng ln Lhe medla had laLer been accounLed for.
10
unl1Lu's daLa ls based on lnformauon collecLed from own research, and lnformauon recelved from 330
organlzauons ln Lhe neLwork, as well as local experLs, [ournallsLs and researchers ln Lhe eld of mlgrauon.
11
lncludes all deaLhs unl1Lu deems are aurlbuLable Lo Luropean border conLrol - lncludlng Lhose LhaL occur
due Lo, for lnsLance, sulclde followlng forced reLurn Lo orlgln counLrles. Also lncludes deaLhs LhaL occur whlle
mlgranLs are presumed Lo be Lravelllng Lo Lurope, even lf Lhese occur ln Afrlca and oLher locauons far from
Lurope's borders.
12
lor lnsLance, ln 2013 over 90 bodles were found ln Lhe deserL beLween nlger and Algerla. See www.bbc.
com/news/world-afrlca-24733100.
Chapter 1 M|grant Deaths: An Internanona| Cverv|ew
34
1.6 Keeping count: Why we need better data
lt ls lmpetouve to beqlo o ptocess to lJeoufy ooJ occooot fot tbe tboosooJs
of mlssloq ooJocomeoteJ mlqtoots, wbo Jlsoppeot - oo tbe jootoey ot ofet
ottlvol - ooJ wbose lJeouues ote ookoowo (Councll of Lurope, Commlssloner
for Puman 8lghLs, 2007).
1he need for lmproved deaLh counLs and ldenucauon of Lhose who dle
durlng mlgrauon ls noL a new demand, lndeed lL has been aruculaLed by Lhe
Luropean Councll (SLockholm rogramme, para. 6 and 6.1.6), Lhe Councll of
Lurope (arllamenLary Assembly 8ecommendauon 1467 (2000), Commlssloner
for Puman 8lghLs, 2007 lssue paper), lCM, unPC8, AmnesLy lnLernauonal,
Luropean unlon Agency for lundamenLal 8lghLs (l8A), and numerous oLher lCs,
nCCs, communlLy groups, acuvlsLs and scholars.
1.6.1 Greater accountability and action
lor one, more accuraLe daLa serve Lo hlghllghL Lhe magnlLude of deaLhs and,
Lhrough Lhls, Lo spur greaLer acuon Lo prevenL Lhem. uaLa have Lhe power Lo
capLure auenuon, and whlle counLs of border-relaLed deaLhs wlll always be
esumaLes, Lhey serve Lo make concreLe someLhlng whlch has been le vague
and lll-dened. As Weber and lckerlng noLe ln ChapLer 6, whlle numbers are
sub[ecL Lo compeung clalms, [...]Lhey aL leasL provlde a foundauon for debaLe
and accounLablllLy." ollucally, Lhe avallablllLy omclal daLa ls lmporLanL. Lack of
pollucal commlLmenL aL nauonal and lnLernauonal levels Lo record and accounL
for Lhe deaLhs of mlgranLs boLh reecLs and conLrlbuLes Lo a general lack of
concern more broadly for Lhe safeLy and well-belng of lrregular mlgranLs and
asylum-seekers arrlvlng by lrregular means and conLrlbuLes Lo publlc apaLhy,
lgnorance, and Lhe dehumanlzauon of Lhese groups. CreaLer auenuon Lo human
rlghLs abuses, lncludlng Lhe rlghL Lo llfe, of mlgranLs and asylum-seekers can
encourage SLaLes Lo assume responslblllLy.
1.6.2 More accurate determination of causes and effective response
Addluonally, daLa are cruclal Lo beuer undersLand Lhe proles of Lhose who are
mosL aL rlsk and Lo Lallor pollcles Lo beuer asslsL Lhese mlgranLs and prevenL loss
of llfe. 1o whaL exLenL are pracuces and regulauons surroundlng survelllance and
rescue aL sea sumclenL and eecuve? 1he MedlLerranean, for example, ls among
one of Lhe buslesL seas ln Lhe world and yeL Lhere are sull cases ln whlch boaLs
ln dlsLress are noL asslsLed ln ume for llves Lo be saved, or are noL asslsLed aL
all.
13
uesplLe posluve sLeps, such as lLaly's Mare nosLrum ro[ecL lmplemenLed
13
Cne of Lhe mosL shocklng lncldenLs occurred ln 2011 ln whaL has become known as Lhe le-Lo-dle boaL".
SevenLy-Lwo mlgranLs leavlng from 1rlpoll ran ouL of fuel and were le Lo drl for 14 days desplLe dlsLress
calls belng sounded and Lhelr vessel's posluon belng made known Lo Luropean auLhorlues and nA1C shlps.
WlLh no waLer or food on-board, only nlne of Lhe mlgranLs were sull allve by Lhe ume Lhe boaL drled back
Lo Llbyan shores. See C. Peller, L. ezzanl and Sl1u SLudlo, loteoslc Oceoooqtopby. kepott oo tbe lef-1o-
ule 8oot (2011).
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
33
ln uecember 2013, and lncreased survelllance of Lhe MedlLerranean, more
remalns Lo be done Lo reduce avoldable deaLhs aL sea, as well as on land. AnoLher
posslblllLy ls Lo use lnformauon on causes of deaLh Lo beuer prepare poLenual
mlgranLs prlor Lo deparLure.
Whlle preclse daLa on deaLhs LhaL occur aL Lhe hands of smugglers ls a Lall
order and one LhaL wlll never be compleLe, lmproved lnformauon on how and
why mlgranLs are dylng may shed llghL on Lhe exLenL Lo whlch Lhe pracuces
of smugglers and Lramckers lead Lo deaLh and lf Lhere are groups LhaL are
parucularly vulnerable. lor lnsLance, anecdoLal evldence from Lhe Culf of Aden
suggesLs LhaL raLes of deaLh have decreased durlng Lhe crosslng perhaps because
of shllng dynamlcs ln Lhe smuggllng buslness such LhaL mlgranLs are now more
valued when dellvered Lo Lhelr desunauon allve (see ChapLer 3). More preclse
daLa concernlng how mlgranLs are dylng could help dlsungulsh Lhese lnuences
from Lhose of changlng pollcles and pracuces regardlng apprehenslon and
rescue, whlch may also have conLrlbuLed Lo lower deaLh raLes.
Powever, lL ls noL enough Lo only reduce faLallues wlLhouL addresslng Lhe deeper
causes LhaL perpeLuaLe Lhls phenomenon - ulumaLely, lmproved daLa should
conLrlbuLe Lo eorLs Lo beuer undersLand Lhe underlylng forces LhaL are leadlng
so many Lo rlsk Lhelr llves Lo reach anoLher counLry. 8esearchers are lnLeresLed
ln whaL daLa on deaLhs can Lell us abouL Lhe causes, boLh dlrecL and lndlrecL, of
Lhese faLallues and Lhe poLenual llnks wlLh broader mlgrauon conLrol pollcles
and pracuces. 1he lnformauon provlded by survlvors and Lhe famllles of Lhose
who dle can also help Lo persuade oLhers noL Lo embark on such rlsky [ourneys.
We musL know Lhe conLexLs ln whlch mlgranLs are dylng Lo ensure SLaLe acLors
make all posslble eorLs Lo proLecL Lhe fundamenLal rlghLs of mlgranLs and
refugees, sLarung wlLh Lhe mosL baslc rlghL Lo llfe.
1.6.3 Respect for the dead and greater closure for families
8lanchard eL al. (2008) argue LhaL, alLhough esumaLes of deaLhs wlll always
lack preclslon, auempung Lo creaLe a counL ls a klnd of moral requlremenL, a
LrlbuLe Lo be pald Lo Lhe vlcums," and ln a sense glves Lhese nameless deaLhs
an exlsLence" (LranslaLed from lrench). ConcomlLanL wlLh Lhe need Lo beuer
record numbers of dead ls Lhe requlslLe Lo glve ldenuues Lo Lhose who have
dled, also for Lhe sake of survlvlng famlly members. SLephanle CranL (2011)
argues LhaL Lhe rlghL Lo famlly llfe granLs famllles Lhe rlghL Lo know Lhe faLe
of Lhelr relauves.
14
unLold numbers of mlgranLs remaln mlsslng. WlLh Lhelr
locauons never Lraced and Lhelr bodles never found, famllles are le ln a sLaLe
of unknowlng. Croups of relauves ln 1unlsla have come LogeLher Lo Lrace Lhelr
mlsslng famlly members, many refuslng Lo belleve Lhe worsL: LhaL Lhelr loved
14
See: Councll of Lurope Convenuon, Arucle 8 - 8lghL Lo respecL for prlvaLe and famlly llfe, and Lhe unlversal
ueclarauon of Puman 8lghLs, Arucle 16(3), whlch sLaLes LhaL: 1he famlly ls Lhe naLural and fundamenLal
group unlL of socleLy and ls enuLled Lo proLecuon by socleLy and Lhe SLaLe."
Chapter 1 M|grant Deaths: An Internanona| Cverv|ew
36
ones are dead and Lhelr bodles losL ln Lhe sea (Moorehead, 2014). ln lebruary
2013, 131 1unlslan famllles slgned a peuuon Lo Lhe Lu asklng for acuons Lo be
Laken Lo Lrace Lhelr mlsslng relauves and some Lravelled Lo lLaly Lo encourage
exchange of lnformauon beLween Lhe lLallan and 1unlslan governmenLs (lbld.).
1.7 Way forward: Better monitoring, data collection
and analysis
8euer monlLorlng and collecuon of daLa on mlgranL deaLhs ls noL merely a
Lechnlcal challenge. 1o daLe, Lhere has been a lack of pollucal wlll across SLaLes
Lo collecL and share such daLa ln a sysLemauc fashlon. nauonal auLhorlues have
noL glven prlorlLy Lo collecung Lhls daLa, glven LhaL Lhe mlgranL deaLh counL ls
oen percelved by clvll socleLy groups as an lndlcauon of Lhe consequences
of Lougher border conLrols. lurLhermore, Lhe recelvlng SLaLes have noL been
under pressure Lo produce beuer lnformauon because lrregular mlgranLs usually
auracL llule publlc sympaLhy, and an emouonal dlsLanclng from Lhe suerlng of
Lhe vlcums leaves deaLhs less nouced.
ln a vlslL Lo Lampedusa, followlng Lhe shlpwreck on 3 CcLober 2013, ope lrancls
condemned whaL he called a globallzauon of lndlerence" declarlng Lhe Clobal
norLh cared llule for Lhe suerlng of oLhers. lrregular mlgranLs may be seen as
LhreaLs Lo soclal coheslon and nauonal economles and as crlmlnals and even
poLenual LerrorlsLs.
13
uehumanlzauon, wrlLe Weber and lckerlng (2011:39),
produces excluslon, noL only from a parucular moral communlLy, buL also from
all bonds of human empaLhy and proLecuon." 1he llves of Lhose dylng are ln a
way deemed less lmporLanL (lbld.:62). ubllc demand for greaLer accounLablllLy
ls llmlLed, and Lhe pollucal lncenuve for documenung border-relaLed deaLhs ls
weak.
lurLhermore, pollucal wlll Lo record deaLhs may be low as greaLer
lnvesugauon lnLo Lhe llves of Lhose who dle carrles lmpllcauons for SLaLes Lo
assume responslblllLy and, where necessary, be held accounLable. As Carollne
Moorehead noLes: 1o LesL for Lhe ldenuues of bodles washed up aL sea would
be Lo acknowledge a humanlLarlan dlmenslon Lo Lhe Lraglc llves of Lhose
forced Lo ee Lhelr own counLrles - even lf Lhe cause of lghL ls acuLe poverLy"
(Moorehead, 2014:70).
1.7.1 Who should be counting?
numbers are lnherenLly pollucal, parucularly when Lhere ls a degree of
uncerLalnLy ln Lhem, as ls Lhe case wlLh border-relaLed deaLhs. 1hls uncerLalnLy
ls noL only because lnformauon ls oen mlsslng or non-verlable, buL because
13
lor an example of how Lhe medla may play a role formlng and perpeLuaung Lhese amLudes, see: Lsses,
Medlanu and Lawson, 2013.
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
37
border-relaLed deaLh" ls noL a recognlzed sLausucal caLegory, nor an easlly
denable one. Some clvll socleLy organlzauons quesuon wheLher governmenLs
who pursue resLrlcuve mlgrauon pollcles should be Lasked wlLh collecung such
daLa.
1he approprlaLeness of counung as a SLaLe-led process has been quesuoned
glven SLaLes' close proxlmlLy Lo boLh lssues of responslblllLy and accounLablllLy
for deaLhs. 1hls ls parucularly an lssue ln counLrles wlLh weak governmenLs and
Lhose deallng wlLh hlgh levels of corrupuon, ln whlch deaLhs more frequenLly
lnvolve colluslon wlLh auLhorlues.
An opuon would be Lo encourage boLh omclal, SLaLe-led counLs as well as ones
led by clvll socleLy and researchers - slmllar Lo whaL ls belng done along Lhe
souLhern border of Lhe unlLed SLaLes. ln Lhls way boLh sources could be held ln
check and cross referenced. lor Lhls Lo be feaslble, common meLhodologles and
denluons would need Lo be developed.
AnoLher posslblllLy could be Lo develop parLnershlps beLween lnLernauonal
organlzauons and local humanlLarlan organlzauons worklng dlrecLly wlLh
mlgranLs. lor lnsLance, ln ?emen dally coasL monlLorlng paLrols are organlzed by
nCCs ln parLnershlp wlLh unPC8. 8y worklng wlLh smaller groups on Lhe ground,
lnLernauonal organlzauons could poLenually complle rlch lnformauon collecLed
by Lhese groups LhaL mlghL oLherwlse go unpubllshed, and dlssemlnaLe lL from a
cenLrallzed plauorm. lnLernauonal organlzauons are well placed Lo gaLher global
counLs of deaLhs due Lo Lhe presence of eld omces ln Lhe ma[orlLy of counLrles
around Lhe world, allowlng for close observauon of Lhe local slLuauon ln dlverse
border-areas, some of whlch may oLherwlse go largely unnouced.
AnoLher source of daLa could be deaLh records and coroners' reporLs, lnformauon
LhaL could perhaps be complled by a neLwork of unlverslues. 1hls meLhod comes
wlLh a new seL of challenges - noL leasL of whlch ls how Lo accounL for deaLhs
of Lhose whose bodles are never found. Powever, Lhe use of deaLh records and
lnformauon generaLed durlng lnvesugauon and reglsLrauon could provlde deLalls
for aL leasL a number of Lhose who dle and may be parucularly approprlaLe ln
cerLaln conLexLs and reglons. 1hls opuon ls explored ln ChapLer 3.
More coordlnauon ls needed beLween acLors and organlzauons collecung
daLa on deaLhs. CurrenLly, varylng meLhodologles and denluons hlnder
comparablllLy beLween reglons and even wlLhln nauonal conLexLs. An lnlual sLep
ln Lhls dlrecuon could be Lo dra a daLa collecuon gulde Lo be clrculaLed among
acLors and organlzauons worklng ln Lhls area. 1he process of consLrucung Lhls
gulde should be a collaborauve one, lnvolvlng academlc researchers and clvll
socleLy organlzauons, as well as relevanL represenLauves from governmenLs.
Chapter 1 M|grant Deaths: An Internanona| Cverv|ew
38
A global monlLorlng framework lnvolvlng a range of acLors should be esLabllshed
Lo brlng LogeLher daLa on deaLhs globally. lCM plans Lo conunue worklng Lo
lmprove daLa on mlgranL border-relaLed faLallues ln several ways. Cngolng
daLa collecuon concernlng deaLhs around Lhe world began ln !anuary 2014
and wlll be conunued, feedlng lnLo an onllne daLabase and porLal dedlcaLed Lo
presenung more up-Lo-daLe gures on faLallues globally. lCM alms Lo enhance
coordlnauon wlLh eld omces Lo lmprove rellablllLy and compleLeness of lLs
daLaseL. Addluonally, daLa on deaLhs can be lmproved Lhrough parLnershlps wlLh
nCCs and academlcs. Annual reporLs wlll make avallable mosL recenL daLa on
deaLhs and global esumaLes.
1hls reporL makes a serles of key recommendauons on ways ln whlch daLa can
be lmproved ln Lhe fuLure, ln order Lo help reduce Lhe number of mlgranL deaLhs
and Lo allow more famllles Lo know Lhe faLe of Lhelr mlsslng relauves.
key recommendanons:
1. An lndependenL monlLorlng body should be esLabllshed wlLh represenLauves
of governmenLs, clvll socleLy and lnLernauonal organlzauons Lo promoLe Lhe
collecuon, harmonlzauon and analysls of daLa on mlgranL deaLhs globally.
CurrenLly, varylng meLhodologles and denluons hlnder comparablllLy
beLween reglons and even wlLhln nauonal conLexLs. lCM's Mlsslng MlgranLs
ro[ecL, whlch collecLs daLa on mlgranL deaLhs globally, could acL Lo coordlnaLe
Lhls new lnluauve.
2. AL Lhe nauonal level, governmenLs should be encouraged Lo Lake greaLer
responslblllLy for collecung daLa on mlgranL deaLhs, ln parLnershlp wlLh
clvll socleLy organlzauons Lo ensure Lransparency and accounLablllLy. Whlle
meLhods of daLa collecuon should be lmproved, governmenLs may also uullze
exlsung daLa, such as LhaL conLalned ln deaLh records and coroners' reporLs.
Survlvors, who oen have a greaL deal of lnformauon abouL smuggllng
operauons, as well as relauves of Lhe deceased should also be encouraged
Lo speak ouL and share lnformauon wlLhouL fear of sancuons ln order Lo help
prevenL furLher Lragedles.
3. lnnovauve daLa lnluauves should be promoLed and shared more wldely.
lor example, a parLnershlp beLween medlcal examlners' omces and human
rlghLs groups ln Arlzona has resulLed ln Lhe creauon of Lhe Arlzona CpenClS
lnluauve for ueceased MlgranLs, an onllne mapplng Lool LhaL allows anyone
Lo search Lhe hundreds of known deaLhs of mlgranLs ln parLs of Lhe SLaLe
slnce 2001. Such a Lool allows for changes ln mlgranL rouLes Lo be Lracked
over ume, and can help humanlLarlan asslsLance along rouLes Lo be beuer
LargeLed.
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
39
1.8 Outline and chapter overviews
lotol Iootoeys. 1tockloq llves lost Jotloq Mlqtouoo lnvesugaLes how border-
relaLed deaLhs are documenLed, who ls documenung Lhem and whaL can be
done Lo lmprove Lhe evldence base Lo encourage lnformed accounLablllLy, pollcy
and pracuce. 1he book ls organlzed by reglon - or more speclcally, by areas and
mlgrauon rouLes known Lo have hlgh numbers of mlgranL deaLhs. 1hese lnclude
Lhe rouLe Lhrough CenLral Amerlca Lo Lhe unlLed SLaLes, wlLh a focus on Lhe
unlLed SLaLes-Mexlco border reglon, Lhe souLhern Luropean unlon borderlng
Lhe MedlLerranean, rouLes from sub-Saharan Afrlca Lo norLhern Afrlca, rouLes
Laken by mlgranLs emlgraung from Lhe Porn of Afrlca Lowards Lhe Culf or
SouLhern Afrlca, and Lhe waLers surroundlng AusLralla. Lach chapLer presenLs
Lhe mosL recenL daLa on mlgranL deaLhs, dlscusses pracuces of counung and
assoclaLed challenges, and suggesLs sLeps for lmprovlng documenLauon. 1he
reporL does noL auempL Lo cover every reglon of Lhe world, and some reglons,
such as SouLh Amerlca, for whlch lL was more dlmculL Lo nd daLa have been
excluded. 1hls does noL lmply, however, LhaL mlgranL deaLhs are noL occurrlng
ln such reglons.
ln ChapLer 2 8obln 8elneke and uanlel Marunez dlscuss deaLhs along Lhe unlLed
SLaLes-Mexlco border and en rouLe Lo Lhe unlLed SLaLes Lhrough Mexlco. uslng
daLa from Lhe unlLed SLaLes 8order aLrol, Lhe lma CounLy Cmce of Lhe Medlcal
Lxamlner, sLudles conducLed by several promlnenL scholars, and Lhelr own daLa
from Lhe Collbrl CenLer for Puman 8lghLs Lhe auLhors plece LogeLher a plcLure
of deaLhs along Lhe border. 1he avallablllLy of relauvely deLalled daLa collecLed
over Lhe pasL Lwo decades allows for some lnformauon on Lhe demographlcs
of Lhe deceased, as well as lnformauon on Lhe rouLes used over ume, and raLes
of deaLh along Lhe border. AlLhough lL ls recognlzed LhaL deaLhs of mlgranLs
wlLhln Mexlco occur ln hlgh numbers, oen relaLed Lo crlmlnal acuvlues of
smugglers and drug carLels, esumaLes of numbers are vague and lnformauon ls
noL sysLemaucally complled.
ChapLer 3 focuses on border-relaLed deaLhs ln Lhe MedlLerranean. AuLhors
1amara LasL and 1homas Spl[kerboer provlde recenL daLa on deaLhs aL sea and
ouLllne who ls collecung Lhls lnformauon and Lo whaL purposes counLs are
useful. ln Lhe absence of omclal daLa, groups Lracklng deaLhs oen rely on medla
as a source of lnformauon, a meLhod whlch comes wlLh a seL of shorLcomlngs
and challenges. 1he auLhors dlscuss opuons of alLernauve sources of daLa, such
as LhaL generaLed Lhrough Lhe processes of reglsLerlng, lnvesugaung and burylng
Lhe dead ln SLaLes borderlng Lhe MedlLerranean.
1he dangers faced by mlgranLs Lravelllng from sub-Saharan Afrlca Lhrough Lo
norLhern Afrlca are Lhe sub[ecL of ChapLer 4, wrluen by ChrlsLopher Porwood
Chapter 1 M|grant Deaths: An Internanona| Cverv|ew
40
wlLh Lhe supporL of Arezo Malakoou. Along Lhese rouLes, Lhere ls no coordlnaLed
mechanlsm for recordlng mlgranL faLallues. Powever, Lhe Lesumonles of survlvors
allude Lo Lhe frequency of deaLh. Along rouLes from WesLern and CenLral Afrlca,
mlgranLs Lend Lo dle from Lhe dangers lnherenL ln crosslng challenglng Lerraln,
such as from dehydrauon and exhausuon. ln oLher cases, deaLh occurs when
mlgranLs geL losL ln Lhe deserL, are le sLranded by faclllLaLors or are crammed
lnLo overcrowded vehlcles. Along rouLes from Lhe Porn, slmllar dangers exlsL,
alLhough reporLs suggesL Lhe greaLer lnvolvemenL of crlmlnal acuvlues ln causlng
deaLhs, lncludlng ouLrlghL murder and kldnapplng.
ChapLer 3 dlscusses deaLhs of mlgranLs leavlng Lhe Porn of Afrlca and Lravelllng
Lo ?emen or souLhwards ln Lhe dlrecuon of SouLh Afrlca. ChrlsLopher Porwood
descrlbes Lhe complexlLy of mlgrauon ows ln Lhe reglon and hlghllghLs LhaL
mlgrauon experlences Lend Lo be characLerlzed by hardshlp, neglecL, vlcumlzauon
and aL umes deaLh. ueaLhs occurrlng ln Lhe Culf of Aden and 8ed Sea are
relauvely well-documenLed, aL leasL over Lhe pasL decade. Challenges assoclaLed
wlLh documenung deaLhs of lrregular mlgranLs aL sea are furLher compllcaLed
by Lhe lnvolvemenL of smugglers and oLher crlmlnals, aL umes walung on Lhe
shores of ?emen Lo Lake mlgranLs onwards. Cn land rouLes souLhwards or Lo Lhe
coasLs of u[lbouu and unLland, ln[ury, lllness and deaLh are common. Agaln,
Lhe placemenL of lrregular mlgrauon wlLhln a sLrong smuggllng neLwork and Lhe
lnvolvemenL of oLher crlmlnals and corrupL SLaLe omclals furLher problemauzes
Lhe process of counung Lhe dead.
1he nal chapLer looks aL deaLhs of mlgranLs and asylum-seekers Lravelllng Lo
AusLralla, ralslng quesuons of accounLablllLy, responslblllLy and Lhe lmporLance
of lmproved daLa ln worklng Lowards compasslonaLe and eecuve response.
urawlng on daLa from Lhe AusLrallan 8order ueaLhs uaLabase, auLhors Leanne
Weber and Sharon lckerlng presenL avallable lnformauon on numbers of deaLhs,
causes, and proles of Lhose who dle, lncludlng gender-speclc vulnerablllues.
ln Lhe process, Lhey address soclal and meLhodologlcal challenges LhaL arlse
when counung and accounung for deaLhs. 1he auLhors explore Lhe value ln
counung Lhe dead, noung LhaL whlle underlylng causes and responslblllLy for
deaLhs are noL easlly explalned or ldenued, numbers provlde a sLarung polnL
for dlalogue and debaLe, ulumaLely prompung greaLer accounLablllLy, [usuce and
more eecuve response.
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
41
Bibliography
AmnesLy lnLernauonal
2012 Aooool kepott 2012. Mexlco. Avallable from www.amnesLy.org/en/
reglon/mexlco/reporL-2012.
2014 1be nomoo cost of lotttess otope. AmnesLy lnLernauonal LLd.,
London.
8lnauonal Mlgrauon lnsuLuLe (8Ml)
2013 A coouooeJ nomooltotloo ctlsls ot tbe 8otJet. uoJocomeoteJ
8otJet ctosset ueotbs kecotJeJ by tbe llmo coooty O[ce of tbe
MeJlcol xomloet, 1990-2012. 1he 8lnauonal Mlgrauon lnsuLuLe,
1ucson, Arlzona.
8lanchard, L., C. Clochard and C. 8odler
2008 CompLer les morLs [cooouoq tbe JeoJ]. llelo utolt, 77, !une,
La 8evue du ClS1l, arls. Avallable from www.glsu.org/splp.
php?arucle1163.
8rlan, 1.
2014 ueaLh aL Lhe border: 1he challenge of documenung llves losL durlng
mlgrauon. Mlqtouoo lollcy ltocuce, 3(6):22-23.
Campoy, A.
2014 MlgranL deaLhs decllne along border. 1be woll 5tteet Iootool, 8
SepLember.
Councll of Lurope, Commlssloner for Puman 8lghLs
2007 1be nomoo klqbts of ltteqolot Mlqtoots lo otope. CommuP/lssue
aper (2007) 1, SLrasbourg, 17 uecember.
Lsses, v.M., S. Medlanu and A.S. Lawson
2013 uncerLalnLy, LhreaL, and Lhe role of Lhe medla ln promoung Lhe
dehumanlzauon of lmmlgranLs and refugees. Iootool of 5oclol
5cleoces, 69(3):318-336.
Luropean Agency for Lhe ManagemenL of Cperauonal Cooperauon aL Lhe
LxLernal 8orders of Lhe Member SLaLes of Lhe Luropean unlon (lronLex)
2014a Aooool klsk Aoolysls 2014. lronLex, Warsaw.
2014b lkAN Ooottetly, Ooottet 1, 2014. lronLex, Warsaw.
CovernmenL of Lhe SLaLe of 1abasco
2013 AumenLa a 11 el numero de vlcumas por descarrllamlenLo del Lren.
29 AugusL. Avallable from www.Labasco.gob.mx/conLenL/aumenLa-
11-el-numero-de-vlcumas-por-descarrllamlenLo-del-Lren.
Chapter 1 M|grant Deaths: An Internanona| Cverv|ew
42
CranL, S.
2011 8ecordlng and ldenufylng Luropean fronuer deaLhs. otopeoo
Iootool of Mlqtouoo ooJ low, 13:133-136.
lnLernauonal Crganlzauon for Mlgrauon (lCM)
2014 lCM asslsLs probes lnLo Lhe deaLhs of hundreds of mlgranLs losL
Lhls monLh o Lhe coasL of MalLa. ress brleng, 23 SepLember.
Avallable from www.lom.lnL/cms/en/slLes/lom/home/news-and-
vlews/press-brleflng-noLes/pbn-2014b/pbn-llsLlng/lom-asslsLs-
probes-lnLo-Lhe-deaL.hLml.
Moorehead, C.
2014 Mlsslng ln Lhe MedlLerranean. 1be cooomlst - lotelllqeot llfe,
May/!une.
lckerlng, S. and 8. Cochrane
2013 lrregular border-crosslng deaLhs and gender: Where, how and why
women dle crosslng borders. 1beoteucol ctlmlooloqy, 17:27-48.
lma CounLy Cmce of Lhe Medlcal Lxamlner (CCML)
2014 Aooool kepott 201J. 8ev 31, March. Avallable from hup://webcms.
plma.gov/governmenL/medlcal_examlner/.
8euLers
2014 Mexlco frees Cuban survlvors found aL sea, some bound for u.S.
border. 8euLers, 23 SepLember.
1uckman, !.
2010 Survlvor Lells of escape from Mexlcan massacre ln whlch 72 were le
dead. 1be CootJloo, 26 AugusL. Avallable from www.Lheguardlan.
com/world/2010/aug/23/mexlco-massacre-cenLral-amerlcan-
mlgranLs.
(Cmce of Lhe) unlLed nauons Plgh Commlssloner for 8efugees (unPC8)
2007 Mlxed mlgrauon ln Lhe Culf of Aden: 8lsklng sharks and sLormy
seas on Lhe Culf of Aden. Avallable from www.unhcr.org/
pages/4a1d39c1d.hLml.
2012 More Lhan 1,300 drown or go mlsslng Lrylng Lo cross Lhe
MedlLerranean ln 2011. unPC8 news SLorles, 31 !anuary. Avallable
from www.unhcr.org/4f2803949.hLml.
2013 new arrlvals ln ?emen comparlson 2010-2013. Avallable from
www.unhcr.org/4fd3a3de9.hLml.
2014a As Lhousands conunue Lo ee Myanmar, unPC8 concerned abouL
growlng reporLs of abuse. unPC8 news SLorles, 10 !une. Avallable
from www.unhcr.org/3396ee3b9.hLml.
2014b 5ootb-ost Aslo. ltteqolot Motlume Movemeots, Iooooty - Iooe
2014. Avallable from www.unhcr.org/33f741fc9.hLml.
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
43
unlLed nauons Cmce on urugs and Crlme (unCuC)
2011 lssoe lopet. 5moqqlloq of Mlqtoots by 5eo. unlLed nauons/unCuC,
new ?ork ClLy/vlenna.
unlLed SLaLes CusLoms and 8order roLecuon
2013 u.S. 8order aLrol scal year sLausucs: SouLhwesL border secLor
deaLhs - l? 1998 Lhrough l? 2013. Avallable from www.cbp.gov/
newsroom/medla-resources/sLaLs?uLle=8order+aLrol.
unlLed SLaLes CovernmenL AccounLablllLy Cmce (CAC)
2006 lllegal lmmlgrauon: 8order-crosslng deaLhs have doubled slnce
1993, eorLs Lo prevenL deaLhs have noL been fully evaluaLed. CAC-
06-770.
Weber, L. and S. lckerlng
2011 Clobollzouoo ooJ 8otJets. ueotb ot tbe Clobol ltoouet. algrave
Macmlllan, 8aslngsLoke.
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
43
8obln 8elneke
1
and uanlel L. Marunez
2
2.1 Introduction
Cver Lhe pasL Lwo decades, a crlsls of unknown proporuons has unfolded along
mlgranL rouLes from Lhe unlLed Mexlcan SLaLes
3
and CenLral Amerlca Lo Lhe
unlLed SLaLes of Amerlca.
4
lrom Lhelr homes Lo Lhelr desunauons, mlgranLs ln
norLh Amerlca are exposed Lo dlsproporuonaLe levels of rlsk of human rlghLs
vlolauons, dlsappearance and deaLh. 1he Lrue number of deaLhs of mlgranLs ln
LranslL ls unknown, buL Lhe exlsung numbers, LhoughL Lo be lncompleLe, are ln
Lhe Lhousands. 1he absence of compleLe daLa on Lhe dead and mlsslng along
mlgranL rouLes represenLs a secondary crlsls beyond Lhe lnlual loss of llfe of
hundreds of mlgranLs each year (!lmenez, 2009, Marunez, Slack and vandervoeL,
2013, Marunez, eL al., 2014). noL only does Lhls absence of lnformauon presenL
a serlous barrler Lo deLermlnlng Lhe sLeps LhaL need Lo be Laken Lo mlugaLe
Lhe prevalence of mlgranL deaLhs along Lhe border" (AmnesLy lnLernauonal,
2012:17), buL lL also presenLs serlous challenges Lo Lhe ldenucauon of Lhe
dead. 1housands of famllles walL wlLhouL answers regardlng Lhe whereabouLs
of mlsslng loved ones.
1hls chapLer presenLs an overvlew of Lhe avallable daLa on mlgranL faLallues ln
Lhe unlLed SLaLes and ln Mexlco, and an analysls of Lhe reasons for lncompleLe
counLs. MlgranL deaLhs are dened as Lhose occurrlng whlle mlgranLs are
acuvely ln LranslL. AlLhough mlgranLs are exposed Lo addluonal rlsks once Lhey
arrlve aL Lhelr desunauons, Lhls conLexL ls very dlerenL from LhaL of mlgranL
Lralls.
3
1he Lwo reglons ln norLh Amerlca where mlgranL faLallues occur aL
Lhe hlghesL raLes are verucally along mlgranL Lralls ln Mexlco, and horlzonLally
along Lhe unlLed SLaLes-Mexlco border. AlLhough Lhe condluons leadlng Lo Lhe
ln[ury, dlsappearance and deaLh of mlgranLs ln Mexlco are dlsuncL from Lhose
*

1he vlews expressed ln Lhls chapLer are Lhose of Lhe auLhors and do noL necessarlly represenL Lhose of Lhe
lnLernauonal Crganlzauon for Mlgrauon (lCM).
1
8obln 8elneke ls co-founder and Lxecuuve ulrecLor of Lhe Collbrl CenLer for Puman 8lghLs ln 1ucson and a
docLoral candldaLe ln Lhe School of AnLhropology aL Lhe unlverslLy of Arlzona.
2
uanlel L. Marunez ls an AsslsLanL rofessor of Soclology aL Ceorge WashlngLon unlverslLy ln WashlngLon,
u.C.
3
Perelnaer referred Lo as Mexlco.
4
Perelnaer referred Lo as Lhe unlLed SLaLes.
3
See ChapLer 1 for a dlscusslon of Lhe exLernal versus lnLernal borders.
Migrant Deaths in the
Americas (United States
and Mexico) Chapter 2
Chapter 2 Migrant Deaths in the Americas (United States and Mexico)
46
ln Lhe unlLed SLaLes, for many mlgranLs Lhe Lwo reglons are slmply dlerenL
parLs of Lhe same [ourney. WheLher Mexlcan or CenLral Amerlcan, mlgranLs
share common experlences of marglnallzauon and vulnerablllLy LhroughouL
Lhelr [ourney - prlor Lo mlgrauon, on Lhe mlgranL Lrall, ln Lhelr desunauons
and upon deporLauon.
6
SoclosLrucLural facLors ln Mexlco and CenLral Amerlca
are compelllng enure populauons Lo leave Lhelr homes ln pursulL of physlcal
safeLy and economlc securlLy. CerLalnly, a culLure of mlgrauon" has emerged ln
many mlgranL-sendlng counLrles, whlch conLrlbuLes dlrecLly Lo mlgrauon ows,
however, we conLend LhaL ab[ecL poverLy, pollucal lnsLablllLy, neollberal pollcles
and vlolence play slgnlcanL roles ln spurrlng ouLmlgrauon ln boLh reglons. Whlle
Mexlcan mlgranLs generally cross one border, CenLral Amerlcan mlgranLs oen
cross several. uurlng Lhelr [ourney Lhrough Mexlco, CuaLemalans, Salvadorans,
Pondurans and oLhers Lravelllng Lhrough lrregular channels face severe dangers
as Lhey [ourney norLh, many crowdlng aLop lurchlng frelghL Lralns and navlgaung
organlzed crlme. Cnce aL Lhe unlLed SLaLes-Mexlco border, Lhey face an
lncreaslngly consLrlcLed barrler where Lhe only clandesune passageways are
Lhrough remoLe, lnhosplLable deserL or mounLaln geographles.
1he lack of daLa on mlgranL faLallues reecLs omclal dlsregard for Lhe safeLy and
securlLy of lrregular mlgranLs ln boLh counLrles. WlLh hundreds of deaLhs each
year [usL ln Lhe slngle uS sLaLe of Arlzona, Lhe deaLh of mlgranLs ls a ma[or publlc
healLh concern. ?eL Lhere conunues Lo be no rellable compleLe counL of Lhe
number of faLallues ln elLher Lhe unlLed SLaLes or Mexlco. AlLhough geographlc
and conLexLual facLors can make Lhe counung of Lhe dead somewhaL dlmculL,
Lhe challenges ln norLh Amerlca ln Lhls regard are much less severe Lhan Lhose ln
Lhe MedlLerranean, for lnsLance, where Lhe recovery of human remalns ls oen
lmposslble as deaLhs occur ln Lhe open sea. 1he lnvlslblllLy of mlgranL deaLhs
relaLes Lo Lhe lnvlslblllLy of mlgranLs ln llfe. 1he sLory of mlgranL deaLhs ln norLh
Amerlca ls a sLory of excluslon and exposure - mlgranLs, seen as lllegal" or
oLher," are excluded from soclal sysLems of safeLy and proLecuon, whlle Lhey are
slmulLaneously exposed Lo Lhe rlsks of organlzed crlme, explolLauon and harsh
envlronmenLs. lL ls Lhese excluslons LhaL make Lhe counung and undersLandlng
of mlgranL deaLhs challenglng.
6
See Marunez, Slack and vandervoeL, 2013, for a dlscusslon of mlgranL marglnallzauon and vulnerablllLy.
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
47
2.2 Historical and geographical overview
Mlgrauon from Mexlco Lo Lhe unlLed SLaLes ls generauons old, and desplLe
drasuc changes ln Lhe lasL 20 years, hlsLorlcal facLors conunue Lo be relevanL. 1he
agrlculLural secLor ln Mexlco has sLruggled for cenLurles. 1he LwenueLh cenLury
ln parucular saw damaglng shls, as Mexlcan agrlculLural reform followlng Lhe
revoluuon enhanced bureaucrauzauon and prlvauzauon, ulumaLely pushlng
many farmers o Lhelr land (kaLz, 1974, Sanderson, 1981). MosL recenLly, Lhe
economlc reforms of Lhe 1980s and 1990s broughL Mexlco lnLo global sLrucLural
ad[usLmenL programs. 1he mosL damaglng for small farmers of such economlc
resLrucLurlng was Lhe norLh Amerlcan lree 1rade AgreemenL (nAl1A), whlch
ellmlnaLed Larls on several agrlculLural producLs and allowed uS corporauons
Lo lmporL cheap, mass-produced goods lnLo Lhe Mexlcan markeL (nevlns, 2007).
1he nAl1A challenged Lhe llvellhoods of smallholder farmers by pumng Lhem ln
dlrecL compeuuon wlLh large, heavlly subsldlzed and hlghly exlble mulunauonal
corporauons (!ohnson, 1994, 8acon, 2004, nevlns and Alzekl, 2008), an
esumaLed 1.3 mllllon Mexlcan farmers losL Lhelr [obs very qulckly, and anoLher
mllllon workers who depended upon Lhe farmers became unemployed over
ume (olaskl, 2004, Wlse, 2010). ln Lurn, Lhe uS economy's rellance on mlgranL
labour - parucularly ln Lhe secLors of hosplLallLy, agrlculLure and consLrucuon
- has become sLrucLurally embedded (Cornellus, 1998). PlsLorles of mlgrauon,
especlally beLween Mexlco and Lhe unlLed SLaLes, are also deeply embedded
soclally (orLes and Sensenbrenner, 1993).
A very slmllar hlsLory can be Lraced for CenLral Amerlcan counLrles, wlLh
Lhe added compllcauon of vlolenL lnLernal pollucal conlcL and uS mlllLary
lnvolvemenL ln Lhe LwenueLh cenLury (Conzalez, 2000). CenLral Amerlcan
governmenLs emerged ln Lhe LwenLy-rsL cenLury wlLh weak democracles and
clvll unresL. 1hen, wlLh former Mexlcan resldenL lellpe Calderon's drug war,"
drug Lramcklng organlzauons (u1Cs) moved Lhelr operauons souLh lnLo Lhe
CenLral Amerlcan counLrles of Ll Salvador, CuaLemala and Ponduras. 1he lnux
of organlzed crlmlnal facuons ln comblnauon wlLh already weak governmenLs
and rampanL poverLy has resulLed ln an lncrease ln vlolence ln Lhese counLrles.
Ponduras now has Lhe hlghesL murder raLe ln Lhe world, wlLh 90.4 homlcldes
per 100,000 people recorded ln 2013 (unCuC, 2013). CenLral Amerlcans also
face severe poverLy. 1he World 8ank esumaLed LhaL ln 2012, 34.3 per cenL of
Lhe Salvadoran populauon was llvlng below Lhe counLry's poverLy llne (World
8ank, 2014). 1hls esumaLe ls 66.3 per cenL ln Ponduras for Lhe same year, and
33.7 per cenL ln CuaLemala ln 2011 (lbld.).
Chapter 2 Migrant Deaths in the Americas (United States and Mexico)
48
Figure 2.1: M|gratory ows from and through Mex|co to the Un|ted States
south-western border
5ootce: AdapLed from 8arron Cruz, M.C., La 8esua: La Lenue llnea enLre la mlgracln y la LraLa de personas,
2013.
2.2.1 Demographics
unauLhorlzed mlgranLs crosslng Lhe unlLed SLaLes-Mexlco border over Lhe
pasL Lwo decades have prlmarlly been from Mexlco, buL are now lncreaslngly
comlng from CenLral Amerlcan counLrles, especlally Ll Salvador, CuaLemala
and Ponduras. lrom 2000 unul 2011, Mexlcan nauonals accounLed for 86 Lo
98 per cenL of all 8order aLrol apprehenslons along Lhe souLhern border. ln
2012, however, 27 per cenL of Lhe 8order aLrol's apprehenslons were of non-
Mexlcans, and ln 2013 LhaL percenLage rose Lo 36 (uS 8order aLrol, 2014). MosL
of Lhls lncrease ln Lhe lrregular crosslng of non-Mexlcans (Lhe overwhelmlng
ma[orlLy of whom are CenLral Amerlcans) has occurred ln SouLh 1exas (uS 8order
aLrol, 2014). non-Mexlcans made up nearly 63 per cenL of LoLal apprehenslons
ln Lhe 8lo Crande valley SecLor ln 2013 (lbld.). 1he dlsproporuonaLe lncrease
ln Lhe apprehenslon of non-Mexlcans ln 1exas ln parucular ls ln parL due Lo Lhe
geographlc proxlmlLy of SouLh 1exas Lo CenLral Amerlca relauve Lo Lhe resL of Lhe
souLh-wesLern unlLed SLaLes.
1he lncrease ln ouLmlgrauon from cerLaln CenLral Amerlcan counLrles relaLes Lo
escalaung vlolence and ab[ecL poverLy ln Lhese counLrles, as noLed prevlously.
Accordlng Lo Lhe Mexlcan SecreLarlaL of Lhe lnLerlor's Mlgrauon ollcy unlL,
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
49
86,298 forelgn lndlvlduals were deLalned ln Mexlco ln 2013, prlmarlly from
CuaLemala, Ponduras, Ll Salvador, and nlcaragua (lsacson, Meyer and Morales,
2014). AlLhough Lhe ma[orlLy of mlgranLs ln Mexlco are from CenLral Amerlca,
a growlng number come from Cuba, SouLh Amerlca, Asla, Lhe Mlddle LasL and
Afrlca (lbld.).
2.2.2 Routes and risks: United StatesMexico border
1he facLors compelllng Mexlcans and CenLral Amerlcans Lo leave home are
complex and mululayered, and are boLh economlcally and soclally embedded.
MlgraLory rouLes from Mexlco Lo Lhe unlLed SLaLes have been well Lravelled
for decades. Powever, several changes ln Lhe 1990s made Lhese rouLes more
deadly. 1he uS economy experlenced a recesslon, and Lhere was wldespread
publlc concern LhaL lmmlgranLs from Mexlco were Laklng Amerlcan [obs and
conLrlbuung Lo a weak economy. lmmlgrauon became a heaLed lssue ln Lhe
1993 presldenual elecuon, and CllnLon promlsed Lhe Amerlcan publlc LhaL
hls presldency would brlng Lhe souLhern border under conLrol" (Andreas,
2009). Cnce ln omce, CllnLon oversaw a serles of sweeplng changes Lo border
enforcemenL. 1he sLraLegy of prevenuon Lhrough deLerrence" along Lhe border
was underLaken ln Lhe 1990s and remalns ln place Loday (Andreas, 1998, 2009).
As descrlbed by lmmlgrauon scholar Wayne Cornellus, Lhe Lheory underlylng
Lhe sLraLegy was LhaL ralslng Lhe cosL, Lhe physlcal rlsk, and Lhe probablllLy of
apprehenslon on each enLry auempL would evenLually dlscourage Lhe mlgranL
and cause hlm (or her) Lo reLurn Lo Lhe locauon of orlgln" (2001:667). 1he
1994 8order aLrol SLraLeglc lan ouLllned a program whereby Lhe border
would be secured Lhrough segmenLed enforcemenL." 8order aLrol agenLs
and survelllance Lechnology would be deployed heavlly along Lhe more easlly
crossed polnLs of Lhe border, whlle Lhe more remoLe and lsolaLed poruons of
Lhe border would be le unpaLrolled. 1hls sLraLegy relled on Lhe remoLe and
dangerous geography of Lhe souLh-wesL borderlands Lo acL as a naLural barrler."
1he resulL has led Lo lncreased dangers and rlsks for Lhose Lrylng Lo cross Lhe
borderlands lrregularly as mlgranLs, and Lhe smugglers who gulde Lhem, are
pushed lnLo more remoLe deserLs, a phenomenon oen descrlbed by scholars
as Lhe funnel eecL" (8ublo-ColdsmlLh eL al., 2006, !lmenez, 2009, Marunez,
Slack and vandervoeL, 2013). 1housands have dled ln Lhe remoLe geographles
of Lhe deserL borderlands slnce Lhe mld-1990s, and Lhe sLraLegles adopLed ln
Lhe CllnLon era have only expanded. AmnesLy lnLernauonal has sLaLed Lhese
deaLhs are a dlrecL resulL of measures Laken by Lhe uS CovernmenL Lo make
safer passages lmpassable for mlgranLs" (2013:7). Many oLhers have observed
Lhe llnk beLween CllnLon-era border enforcemenL pollcles and Lhe lncrease ln
mlgranL faLallues (Lschbach eL al., 1999, Lschbach, Pagan and 8odrlguez, 2003,
Cornellus, 2001, 2003, nevlns, 2003, 8ublo-ColdsmlLh eL al., 2006, !lmenez,
2009, Marunez, Slack and vandervoeL, 2013, kovlc, 2013).
Chapter 2 Migrant Deaths in the Americas (United States and Mexico)
30
ueaLhs along Lhe unlLed SLaLes-Mexlco border rsL lncreased ln SouLhern
Callfornla ln Lhe 1990s, buL Lhen qulckly shled Lo Arlzona, whlch has recorded Lhe
hlghesL number of mlgranL deaLhs over Lhe pasL 13 years. lollowlng Lhe CllnLon
admlnlsLrauon's border securlLy measures, known as Cperauon CaLekeeper
ln Lhe San ulego area and Cperauon Pold Lhe Llne ln Lhe Ll aso reglon, Lhe
Arlzona deserLs became Lhe maln enLry polnL for unauLhorlzed border crosslngs
beglnnlng ln Lhe early 2000s. 8order aLrol's 1ucson (Arlzona) SecLor, comprlsed
prlmarlly of remoLe, mounLalnous and deserL geography, qulckly overLook all
oLher secLors boLh ln Lhe number of apprehenslons and ln Lhe number of deaLhs.
MlgranLs face a number of deadly rlsks when crosslng Lhe unlLed SLaLes-Mexlco
border. 1hey suocaLe ln cargo comparLmenLs of commerclal Lrucks, Lhey drown
ln lrrlgauon canals or rlvers, Lhey dle ln moLor vehlcle accldenLs or are sLruck by
vehlcles as Lhey auempL Lo cross busy hlghways on fooL, Lhey fall Lo Lhelr deaLhs
from mounLaln clls, and Lhey freeze Lo deaLh ln Lhe mounLalns of Arlzona and
Callfornla. Some are llkely kllled by human or drug smugglers (SapkoLa eL al.,
2006, Marunez, Slack and vandervoeL, 2013). A small buL concernlng number
have dled aL Lhe hands of Lhe unlLed SLaLes 8order aLrol ln lsolaLed lncldenLs
(SpagaL, 2013, SouLhern 8order Communlues Coalluon, 2013). 1he vasL ma[orlLy
of mlgranLs who have dled on Lhe uS slde of Lhe border wlLh Mexlco perlsh
from heaL sLroke and dehydrauon ln Lhe deserLs of Lhe souLh-wesL (Lschbach eL
al., 1999, Lschbach, Pagan and 8odrlguez, 2003, 8ublo-ColdsmlLh eL al., 2006,
Marunez, Slack and vandervoeL, 2013, Marunez eL al., 2014).
2.2.3 Routes and risks: Within Mexico
CenLral Amerlcans mlgraLe Lo boLh Mexlco and Lhe unlLed SLaLes. 1herefore,
Mexlco ls a sendlng counLry, a recelvlng counLry and a LranslL counLry for mlgranLs.
MlgranLs who Lravel Lhrough Mexlco en rouLe Lo Lhe unlLed SLaLes face grave
LhreaLs durlng Lhe [ourney. AlLhough Lhe dlerences ln Lhe rlsks mlgranLs face
ln Mexlco versus ln Lhe unlLed SLaLes are complex, Lhey can be summarlzed as
follows: mlgranLs face sLrucLural vlolence" when crosslng Lo Lhe unlLed SLaLes,
and Lhey face dlrecL vlolence ln Mexlco.
7
SLrucLural vlolence, a Lerm colned by
norweglan soclologlsL !ohan CalLung (1969, 1990, 1996), refers Lo soclal, legal
or oLherwlse sLrucLured processes LhaL lead Lo dlsproporuonaLe levels of rlsk
for some, oen whlle proLecung" oLhers. SLrucLural vlolence can be dlmculL Lo
see" because lL does noL necessarlly lnvolve a vlcum and perpeLraLor, as ls Lhe
case wlLh dlrecL vlolence. Whlle Lhe ma[orlLy of mlgranL deaLhs ln Lhe unlLed
SLaLes are due Lo exposure Lo Lhe elemenLs, Lhe ma[orlLy of mlgranL faLallues ln
Mexlco are caused by dlrecL vlolence. Cf course, mlgranLs ln Mexlco experlence
sLrucLural vlolence as well, buL from whaL ls known abouL Lhe faLallues LhaL occur
7
1he auLhors graLefully acknowledge Marc Sllver for Lhls observauon. A documenLary lm dlrecLor, Sllver has
worked on lssues relevanL Lo mlgrauon and human rlghLs ln Ponduras, Mexlco and Lhe unlLed SLaLes slnce
2009. Pls serles of shorL lms, los lovlslbles (2010), produced ln collaborauon wlLh AmnesLy lnLernauonal,
as well as hls feaLure-lengLh lm, wbo ls uoyool ctlstol? (2013), provlde excellenL lnslghL lnLo Lhls Loplc.
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
31
along Lhe mlgranL Lrall ln Mexlco, lL appears LhaL Lhey are predomlnanLly from
homlclde, llkely by u1Cs. 1he Mexlcan SLaLe securlLy and mlgrauon auLhorlues
have been crluclzed for focuslng prlmarlly on prevenung lrregular mlgrauon,
raLher Lhan ensurlng Lhe safeLy of mlgranLs ln Mexlco (lsacson and Meyer, 2012,
ereyra, 2013). 1he resulL ls whaL has been Lermed a verucal border" Lhrough
Mexlco (lsacson and Meyer, 2012, kovlc, 2013) where CenLral Amerlcan mlgranLs
experlence lllegallLy, vulnerablllLy and marglnallzauon along Lhe mlgranL Lrall.
MosL CenLral Amerlcan mlgranLs enLer Mexlco Lhrough Lhe counLry's souLhern
border wlLh CuaLemala, represenLed by elLher a narrow rlver or sparsely
lnhablLed [ungle vegeLauon (lsacson, Meyer and Morales, 2014). Aer crosslng
Lhe acLual border, mlgranLs predomlnanLly Lravel norLh Lhrough Mexlco, rldlng
aLop frelghL Lralns LhaL run all Lhe way from Lhe counLry's souLhern border
wlLh 8ellze and CuaLemala Lo lLs norLhern border wlLh Lhe unlLed SLaLes. lL ls
durlng Lhls parL of Lhelr [ourney LhaL mlgranLs ln Mexlco face Lhe greaLesL rlsk of
experlenclng dlrecL vlolence. 1hese rouLes are lncreaslngly domlnaLed by u1Cs
and youLh gangs LhaL are known Lo exLorL, enslave, LorLure and kldnap mlgranLs
(vogL, 2012, ereyra, 2013, lsacson, Meyer and Morales, 2014). 1he human
cargo" of CenLral Amerlcan mlgranLs ls valuable, wlLh Lhe currenL prlce of
smuggllng Lhrough Mexlco Lo Lhe uS border ranglng from uSu 6,000 Lo uSu 7,000
per mlgranL (vogL, 2012). ?eL many mlgranLs cannoL aord Lhls expense, and
Lravel Lhrough Mexlco wlLhouL guldes (lsacson, Meyer and Morales, 2014). lL
ls Lhese mlgranLs who are aL Lhe hlghesL rlsk for abuse. As smugglers pay fees
Lo crlmlnal groups (and aL umes Mexlcan auLhorlues) who conLrol Lhe mlgranL
rouLes, Lhey are more llkely Lo en[oy safe passage, wlLh a slgnlcanLly lower
probablllLy of abuse and vlolence" (lsacson, Meyer and Morales, 2014:13).
1he Mara SalvaLrucha gang (MS-13) ls known Lo conLrol enure secuons of
mlgraLory rouLes, demandlng paymenL from mlgranLs rldlng aLop Lhe Lralns
(lsacson, Meyer and uavls, 2013). 1hose who do noL pay are Lhrown onLo
Lhe Lracks where Lhey are frequenLly kllled or malmed (lbld.). kldnapplng and
exLoruon are rampanL, wlLh Lhe perpeLraLors largely, buL noL compleLely, llmlLed
Lo drug carLels and organlzed crlme.
lrregular Mexlcan and CenLral Amerlcan mlgranLs are also exposed Lo dangers,
lncludlng kldnapplng and deaLh, upon deporLauon from Lhe unlLed SLaLes.
ueporLauon pollcles LhaL puL mlgranLs aL rlsk lnclude dropplng o Mexlcan
lmmlgranLs mlles from where Lhey crossed Lhe border, oen aL nlghL, and lnLo
some of Lhe mosL unsLable areas of norLhern Mexlco (no More ueaLhs, 2011,
lsacson and Meyer, 2012, Slack eL al., 2013).
1he Mexlcan Comlsln naclonal de los uerechos Pumanos (CnuP, nauonal
Puman 8lghLs Commlsslon) has auempLed on aL leasL Lwo separaLe occaslons
Lo esumaLe Lhe number of mlgranLs who have been vlcums of kldnapplng
Chapter 2 Migrant Deaths in the Americas (United States and Mexico)
32
whlle Lraverslng Lhe lengLh of Mexlco. 8y maklng vlslLs Lo varlous locauons
LhroughouL Lhe counLry and speaklng Lo mlgranLs Lhemselves as well as oLher
sLakeholders, Lhey have arrlved aL some lnlual esumaLes (see nauonal Puman
8lghLs Commlsslon of Mexlco, 2009, 2011, for Lhe meLhodology).
Accordlng Lo a 2009 reporL by Lhe CnuP, an esumaLed 9,378 mlgranLs were
kldnapped ln Mexlco across 198 cases beLween SepLember 2008 and lebruary
2009 (CnuP, 2009). llndlngs from Lhls reporL suggesL LhaL mlgranLs are belng
kldnapped en masse, wlLh 33 per cenL of Lhe vlcums belng kldnapped ln Lhe
souLhern parL of Mexlco - mosLly ln Lhe sLaLes of veracruz and 1abasco (lbld.).
Around 12 per cenL were kldnapped ln Lhe norLh and 1 per cenL ln Lhe cenLral
reglon of Lhe counLry (lbld.). 1he reglon where Lhe kldnapplng occurred was
unknown for 32 per cenL of Lhe vlcums (lbld.). Among Lhe 9,378 mlgranLs
kldnapped, Lhe person's counLry of orlgln was only deLermlned for 332 lndlvlduals:
372 Pondurans, 101 Salvadorans, 74 CuaLemalans and 3 nlcaraguans (lbld.).
ln a follow-up reporL, Lhe CnuP found LhaL beLween Aprll 2010 and SepLember
2010 aL leasL 11,333 mlgranLs were abducLed across 214 cases, malnly by crlmlnal
organlzauons (CnuP, 2011). 8ased on 178 Lesumonles relaLed Lo kldnapplngs of
mlgranLs gaLhered Lhrough slLe vlslLs, 86 per cenL of whlch were from vlcums
Lhemselves, Lhe reporL clLed LhaL Mexlcan auLhorlues were lnvolved ln an
esumaLed 8.9 per cenL of kldnapplngs (lbld.). WlLh respecL Lo Lhe nauonal orlgln
of vlcums, Lhe 2011 reporL found LhaL [usL over 44 per cenL of cases conslsLed of
Pondurans, 16.2 per cenL Salvadorans, 11.2 per cenL CuaLemalans, 10.6 per cenL
Mexlcans, 3 per cenL Cubans, 4.4 per cenL nlcaraguans, 1.6 per cenL Colomblans
and 0.3 per cenL Lcuadorans (lbld.). 1he nauonallues of vlcums were unknown
ln Lhe remalnlng 6.3 per cenL of cases (lbld.). ln nelLher of Lhe CnuP reporLs ls lL
clear how many of Lhe kldnapplng vlcums were released, dlsappeared or found
deceased.
AlLhough Lhe LhreaLs mlgranLs experlence ln Mexlco are prlmarlly due Lo
organlzed crlme, oLher rlsks exlsL. MlgranLs are reporLed Lo drown each year ln
Lhe SuchlaLe 8lver whlch runs beLween Mexlco and CuaLemala (unlLed SLaLes
Conference of CaLhollc 8lshops, 2003). Many are reporLed Lo accldenLally fall
from movlng Lralns, or mlssLep as Lhey auempL Lo [ump on or o (enhaul, 2010,
lsacson, Meyer and Morales, 2014). 1here are also reporLs of mlgranLs gemng
losL and dylng of dehydrauon or heaL sLroke ln Lhe norLhern sLaLes of Mexlco,
as Lhey Lraverse remoLe geographles approachlng Lhe unlLed SLaLes-Mexlco
border (Campbell, 2012).
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
33
2.3 Estimated number of migrant fatalities
2.3.1 United States
Whlle Lhe Lrue number of mlgranL faLallues ln boLh Mexlco and Lhe unlLed SLaLes
ls unknown, Lhe esumaLes are alarmlng. 1he mosL compleLe numbers for mlgranL
deaLhs along Lhe uS slde of lLs border wlLh Mexlco come from Lhe unlLed SLaLes
8order aLrol, whlch began complllng daLa on mlgranL deaLhs ln 1998. Pundreds
of deaLhs occurred prlor Lo Lhls ume, however. lor lnsLance, Lschbach, Pagan and
8odrlguez (2003) reporLed over 4,200 mlgranL deaLhs across Lhe border beLween
1983 and 2000, wlLh nearly 3,300 deaLhs occurrlng before 1998. A dlerenL
sLudy by Wayne Cornellus (2001) found LhaL 1,700 deaLhs were reporLed Lo Lhe
Mexlcan ConsulaLes along Lhe souLh-wesLern border from 1994 Lhrough mld-
2001. A more recenL sLudy by Lhe same auLhor reporLed 2,978 faLallues border-
wlde beLween 1993 and 2004 (Cornellus, 2003). Lven slnce 8order aLrol began
Lo Lrack mlgranL deaLhs ln 1998, Lhere have been concerns LhaL Lhelr numbers
are lncompleLe (CAC, 2006, 8ublo-ColdsmlLh eL al., 2006). Whlle Lhe unlLed
SLaLes 8order aLrol esumaLes provlde an lmporLanL lnslghL lnLo mlgranL deaLhs
near Lhe border wlLh Mexlco, Lhe meLhodology behlnd Lhe producuon of Lhese
numbers ls unknown, and Lhus Lhey musL be lnLerpreLed wlLh cauuon.
1he unlLed SLaLes 8order aLrol esumaLes of mlgranL deaLhs are Lhe mosL
comprehenslve counL of mlgranL faLallues along Lhe enure border and over ume,
and Lherefore can provlde lnslghL lnLo changlng Lrends. llgure 2.2 dlsplays daLa
from Lhe unlLed SLaLes 8order aLrol on Lhe number of mlgranL faLallues along Lhe
souLh-wesLern border beLween 1998 and 2013. SouLh-wesLern apprehenslons
by Lhe agency durlng Lhls perlod are also lllusLraLed, a gure whlch ls oen used
by scholars as a proxy for unauLhorlzed mlgrauon ows (Lspenshade, 1993).
Chapter 2 Migrant Deaths in the Americas (United States and Mexico)
34
Figure 2.2: M|grant deaths recorded by the Un|ted States 8order atro|
re|anve to apprehens|ons on the south-western border, hsca| year
1998-2013
5ootce: unlLed SLaLes 8order aLrol, 2014.
Accordlng Lo Lhe unlLed SLaLes 8order aLrol esumaLes, beLween scal year 1998
and 2013,
8
a LoLal of 6,029 deceased mlgranLs were found on Lhe uS slde of Lhe
border wlLh Mexlco, wlLh Lhe remalns of aL leasL 300 mlgranLs belng recovered
each year along Lhe border slnce 2000. As noLed ln llgure 2.2, mlgranL deaLhs
have conunued Lo occur year aer year desplLe a subsLanual decrease ln Lhe
unlLed SLaLes 8order aLrol apprehenslons slnce Lhe mld-2000s. Scholars and
demographers have suggesLed LhaL mlgrauon from Mexlco, whlch for generauons
has been Lhe slngle largesL source of unauLhorlzed mlgranLs Lo Lhe unlLed SLaLes,
has slowed subsLanually over Lhe pasL several years (assel, Cohn and Conzalez-
8arrera, 2012, Massey, 2012). llgure 2.3 furLher shows Lhe relauonshlp beLween
decreased apprehenslons and a conslsLenLly hlgh number of mlgranL deaLhs over
Lhe pasL several years across Lhe border. Cver Lhe pasL Lhree scal years, Lhere
have been more Lhan 100 mlgranL deaLhs per 100,000 apprehenslons across Lhe
border, compared wlLh [usL 40 a decade ago. MlgranLs may be aL hlgher rlsk for
deaLh Loday Lhan ln prlor years, and as research suggesLs (Marunez, Slack and
vandervoeL, 2013, Marunez eL al., 2014), Lhls may be because Lhey are le wlLh
llule opuon Lhan Lo Lrek Lhrough more dangerous remoLe areas along Lhe border
or for longer perlods of ume, ln order Lo avold deLecuon by uS auLhorlues.
8
1 CcLober 1997-30 SepLember 2013.
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
0
200,000
400,000
600,000
800,000
1,000,000
1,200,000
1,400,000
1,600,000
1,800,000
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
US Border Patrol deaths South-western apprehensions
M
i
g
r
a
n
t

d
e
a
t
h
s

a
c
r
o
s
s

s
o
u
t
h
-
w
e
s
t
e
r
n

b
o
r
d
e
r
S
o
u
t
h
-
w
e
s
t
e
r
n

a
p
p
r
e
h
e
n
s
i
o
n
s
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
33
Figure 2.3: M|grant deaths recorded by the Un|ted States 8order atro| per
100,000 apprehens|ons on the south-western border, hsca| year
1998-2013
5ootce: unlLed SLaLes 8order aLrol, 2014.
As noLed ln llgure 2.4, mlgranL deaLhs across Lhe unlLed SLaLes-Mexlco border
have noL been evenly dlsLrlbuLed across ume and geography. 1he poruon of Lhe
border where Lhe mosL mlgranLs have dled ls ln Lhe 1ucson SecLor of Arlzona.
A slgnlcanL number of deaLhs have also occurred ln Callfornla and 1exas, wlLh
Lhe fewesL recorded ln new Mexlco. urawlng on records from Lhe Cmce of Lhe
Medlcal Lxamlner ln Lhe sLaLe of new Mexlco, one sLudy reporLed [usL 23 mlgranL
deaLhs beLween 1993 and 1997 (Lschbach eL al., 1999). A more recenL sLudy
reporLed 11 mlgranL deaLhs ln new Mexlco beLween 2002 and 2003 (SapkoLa
eL al., 2006). new Mexlco has hlsLorlcally had low levels of unauLhorlzed mlgrauon
from Mexlco and CenLral Amerlca, largely explalned by Lhe remoLe geography,
llmlLed roadways and lack of populaLed areas on elLher slde of Lhe border (wlLh
Lhe excepuon of Lhe Las Cruces-Ll aso meLropollLan area, whlch encompasses
parL of souLh-easLern new Mexlco and Lhe wesLern mosL up of 1exas). Clven Lhls
conslderauon, whaL follows ls a deLalled look aL each of Lhe Lhree sLaLes where
mlgranL deaLhs have occurred ln Lhe hlghesL numbers: Callfornla, Arlzona and
1exas, wlLh Ll aso esumaLes lncluded ln Lhe counLs for 1exas.
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
M
i
g
r
a
n
t

D
e
a
t
h
s

p
e
r

1
0
0
,
0
0
0

A
p
p
r
e
h
e
n
s
i
o
n
s
Chapter 2 Migrant Deaths in the Americas (United States and Mexico)
36
Figure 2.4: M|grant deaths recorded by the Un|ted States 8order atro| by
sector, hsca| year 1998-2013
5ootce: unlLed SLaLes 8order aLrol, 2014.
California
Callfornla was among Lhe rsL Lo experlence Lhe CllnLon admlnlsLrauon's
lnLenslcauon of border enforcemenL and lLs sLraLegy of prevenuon Lhrough
deLerrence, wlLh Lhe launch of CaLekeeper ln Lhe San ulego SecLor ln 1994
(Andreas, 1998, 2009). 8eglnnlng LhaL year, Lhe Callfornla poruon of Lhe unlLed
SLaLes-Mexlco border was heavlly forued ln sLages, worklng gradually from
wesL Lo easL. llgure 2.3 provldes daLa on mlgranL deaLhs over ume ln Callfornla
from varlous sources, lncludlng research by Lschbach and colleagues (1999),
Cornellus (2001) and Lhe unlLed SLaLes 8order aLrol. uaLa for Lhe ?uma area ls
omlued from Lhe gure, as Lhe ?uma SecLor of Lhe 8order aLrol encompasses
an area whlch lncludes small poruons of easLern Callfornla and wesLern Arlzona.
LsumaLes from Lschbach eL al. (1999) come from medlcal examlner and coroner
omces records and vlLal reglsLrles from across border sLaLes, whlle Lhe Cornellus
(2001) esumaLes come from Lhe Mexlcan MlnlsLry of lorelgn 8elauons and
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
San Diego, CA
El Centro, CA
Yuma, AZ-CA
Tucson, AZ
El Paso, TX-NM
Big Bend, TX
Del Rio, TX
Laredo, TX
Rio Grande Valley, TX
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
37
lnclude deaLhs occurrlng on Lhe Mexlcan slde of Lhe mounLalns, deserLs,
canals and rlvers LhaL sLraddle Lhe souLhwesL border" (669). lor Lhls reason,
Cornellus (2001, 2003) esumaLes of mlgranL deaLhs are conslsLenLly hlgher Lhan
reporLed by oLher sources. Whlle Lschbach eL al. (1999) and Cornellus (2001)
are LransparenL ln Lerms of how Lhey arrlved aL Lhelr esumaLes, Lhe same cannoL
be sald for Lhe unlLed SLaLes 8order aLrol esumaLes of mlgranL deaLhs across
Lhe border.
9
neverLheless, Lhe Lhree daLa sources clearly lllusLraLe LhaL deaLhs
lncreased almosL lmmedlaLely followlng Lhe lncrease ln border forucauon. ln
[usL one year, deaLhs of mlgranLs ln Callfornla more Lhan doubled, rlslng from
23 ln 1994 Lo 61 ln 1993 (Cornellus, 2001). Accordlng Lo Lhe research, Lhe eecL
was noL a resulL of an lncrease ln auempLed crosslngs. As noLed by Cornellus,
some poruon of Lhe lncrease ln faLallues from 1993 Lo 2000 can be aurlbuLed Lo
a rlslng volume of unauLhorlzed Mexlco-Lo-unlLed SLaLes mlgrauon durlng LhaL
perlod, however, Lhe per-year lncreases ln morLallLy are much larger Lhan Lhe
lncreases ln 8order aLrol apprehenslons" (2001:670).
Figure 2.5: Ca||forn|a m|grant death esnmates by data source (exc|ud|ng
uma area), 1993-2013
5ootces: Lschbach, k. eL al., 1999, ueaLh aL Lhe border, lotetoouoool Mlqtouoo kevlew, 33(2):430-434,
Cornellus, W.A., 2001, ueaLhs aL Lhe border: Lmcacy and unlnLended consequences of uS lmmlgrauon
conLrol pollcy, lopolouoo ooJ uevelopmeot kevlew, 27(4):661-683, unlLed SLaLes 8order aLrol,
2014.
As was Lhe case along mosL of Lhe border, Lhere were deaLhs each year ln
Callfornla before Lhe securlLy changes of Lhe 1990s. rlor Lo CaLekeeper, lL was
9
1he auLhors of Lhls reporL reached ouL Lo u.S. CusLoms and 8order roLecuon seeklng clarlcauon on Lhe
meLhodology uullzed Lo counL mlgranL deaLhs along Lhe border, buL had noL recelved a response by Lhe
publlcauon of Lhe reporL.
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 20042005 2006 20072008 20092010 2011 2012 2013
N
u
m
b
e
r

o
f

d
e
a
t
h
s
Eschbach et al. 1999 Cornelius 2001 U.S. Border Patrol (San Diego and El Centro Sectors)
Chapter 2 Migrant Deaths in the Americas (United States and Mexico)
38
noL uncommon for mlgranLs Lo be sLruck by vehlcles as Lhey auempLed Lo run
across freeways near Lhe border ln Lhe urban areas of San ulego. Powever, as
documenLed by researchers from Lhe unlverslLy of PousLon (Lschbach eL al.,
1999, 2003) and Cornellus (2001), Lhe deaLhs ln Callfornla changed ln boLh
number and cause followlng CaLekeeper. 8eLween 1994 and 2000, Callfornla saw
a 309 per cenL lncrease ln faLallues, wlLh mosL occurrlng ln remoLe geographles
raLher Lhan along hlghways as before (Cornellus, 2001). uslng Lhe 1994 deaLhs
as a basellne (all deaLhs LhaL year occurred before CaLekeeper began), Cornellus
noLes LhaL from 1993 Lhrough 2000 mlgranL deaLhs from Lramc faLallues ln urban
areas remalned sLable, whlle faLallues as a resulL of envlronmenLal facLors such
as heaL sLroke or drownlng rose slgnlcanLly, accounung for 78 per cenL of all
deaLhs (lbld.).
MlgranL deaLhs ln Callfornla are prlmarlly due Lo drownlng and exposure.
Pundreds have drowned ln Lhe All Amerlcan Canal and ln Lhe hlghly polluLed
new 8lver near Calexlco ln lmperlal CounLy (Lschbach eL al., 1999, Cornellus,
2001). 1here are also reporLs of mlgranLs drownlng ln Lhe aclc Ccean Lrylng Lo
reach Lhe shores of Callfornla (lsacson and Meyer, 2012). Pundreds more have
perlshed ln Lhe remoLe and mounLalnous reglons of souLheasLern Callfornla,
especlally ln Lhe deserL reglons of souLhern lmperlal valley, where summer
LemperaLures average 44 degrees Celslus (Lschbach eL al., 1999, Cornellus,
2001, !lmenez, 2009). 1here ls almosL noLhlng ln Lhe exLanL llLeraLure on Lhe
demographlcs of mlgranL deaLhs ln Callfornla, alLhough lL appears LhaL Lhe vasL
ma[orlLy of Lhe decedenLs have been Mexlcan (lbld.).
As noLed ln llgure 2.3, Lhe deaLhs ln Callfornla lncreased rapldly ln Lhe 1990s,
and Lhen decreased ln Lhe 2000s as remoLe poruons of Arlzona became Lhe
maln polnL of enLry of unauLhorlzed mlgrauon. ln 1998, mlgranL deaLhs ln Lhe
Lwo maln secLors of Callfornla (San ulego and Ll CenLro) accounLed for more
Lhan half of all border deaLhs nauonwlde (uS 8order aLrol, 2014) as noLed ln
llgure 2.4. 8y Lhe year 2000, Lhese secLors reporLed 106 deaLhs, less Lhan a Lhlrd
of Lhe LoLal of Lhe border-wlde LoLal of 380 (uS 8order aLrol, 2014). ln 2013,
Lhe Lwo secLors reporLed a comblned LoLal of 10 mlgranL deaLhs. MlgranL Lramc
shled Lo Arlzona, as Callfornla became lncreaslngly dlmculL Lo cross due Lo Lhe
enhanced securlLy presence followlng CaLekeeper.
Arizona
1he shl Lowards Arlzona began ln 2000, and by 2002, Lhe 1ucson secLor of
Arlzona had abouL a Lhlrd of all border deaLhs, desplLe only accounung for abouL
14 per cenL of Lhe geographlcal lengLh of Lhe border (Anderson, 2008). ln 2000,
roughly 38 per cenL of all apprehenslons occurred ln Lhe 1ucson SecLor, buL by
2002 Lhls share decreased Lo only 36 per cenL (uS 8order aLrol, 2014). 1he
Arlzona verslon of CaLekeeper, called Cperauon Safeguard, was launched ln
1994, buL was noL slgnlcanLly resourced unul 1999, when lL became clear LhaL
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
39
CaLekeeper was pushlng Lhe ma[orlLy of mlgranLs Lo auempL Lhelr crosslng ln
Arlzona (Andreas, 1998, Cornellus, 2001, Crrenlus, 2004). lollowlng Safeguard,
and Lhen agaln followlng Lhe lncrease ln border mlllLarlzauon aer Lhe LerrorlsL
auacks ln new ?ork on 11 SepLember 2001, mlgranLs were pushed lnLo Lhe mosL
remoLe sLreLches of Lhe Sonoran deserL.
1he souLhern Arlzona rouLe usually beglns ln a Mexlcan Lown near Lhe border,
such as AlLar, where mlgranLs prepare for Lhe [ourney and meeL Lhelr coyotes
(human smuggllng guldes). 1he coyoLes Lhen lead groups of mlgranLs across Lhe
border on fooL, usually crosslng Lhe acLual lnLernauonal boundary very soon
lnLo Lhe [ourney. 1he mosL dangerous poruon of Lhe [ourney ls generally aer
Lhe border lLself has been crossed, as mlgranLs walk for several days, evadlng
8order aLrol, Lhrough remoLe geographles unul reachlng a hlghway or urban
area, such as 1ucson, for LransporLauon Lo Lhe lnLerlor. uurlng Lhe [ourney, Lhey
are Lraverslng Lhe Sonoran deserL, known for lnLense heaL and arldlLy, wlLh
LemperaLures regularly over 37 degrees Celslus ln Lhe summer monLhs. 1he
hlghesL concenLrauon of deaLhs has occurred wlLhln Lhe sparsely populaLed
1ohono C'Cdham lndlan 8eservauon (Pumane 8orders, 2014, lsacson, Meyer
and uavls, 2013).
Figure 2.6: Deaths recorded by the |ma County Cmce of the Med|ca|
Examiner in Tucson, Arizona
5ootce: Arlzona CpenClS for ueceased MlgranLs, !anuary 2001-!uly 2014.
1he lma CounLy Cmce of Lhe Medlcal Lxamlner (CCML) ln 1ucson, whlch
rsL began Lo sysLemaucally classlfy lndlvlduals belleved Lo be unauLhorlzed
Chapter 2 Migrant Deaths in the Americas (United States and Mexico)
60
mlgranLs as undocumenLed border crossers or u8Cs" ln 2001,
10
has conslsLenLly
provlded Lhe mosL deLalled and comprehenslve daLa regardlng mlgranL deaLhs
of all sources, buL Lhe [urlsdlcuon of Lhe CCML ls llmlLed Lo souLhern Arlzona.
1he CCML provldes medlco-legal lnvesugauon of deaLh Lo Lhe ma[orlLy of Lhe
counues comprlslng Lhe 1ucson SecLor, wlLh Lhe excepuon of Marlcopa CounLy
Lo Lhe norLh, and Lhe oLher counues Lo Lhe norLh of Marlcopa. numbers from
Lhe CCML also do noL lnclude deaLhs LhaL occur ln ?uma CounLy Lo Lhe wesL
of Lhe 1ucson SecLor (see llgure 2.6). very llule ls known of Lhe numbers and
characLerlsucs of Lhose who dle ln Lhese counues noL covered by Lhe CCML,
buL a comparlson of Lhe CCML daLa wlLh Lhe unlLed SLaLes 8order aLrol daLa
from Lhe 1ucson SecLor reveals LhaL Lhe addluonal mlgranL deaLhs represenLed
ln Lhese reglons ls mlnlmal. llgure 2.7 lllusLraLes exLanL esumaLes for mlgranL
deaLhs ln Arlzona by varlous sources, lncludlng Lschbach eL al. (1999), Cornellus
(2001), Lhe unlLed SLaLes 8order aLrol and Lhe CCML. As noLed, mlgranL deaLh
esumaLes provlded by Lhe unlLed SLaLes 8order aLrol and Lhe CCML are hlghly
correlaLed ln Lhe posluve dlrecuon (r = 0.98, p < 0.000) (Marunez, Slack and
vandervoeL, 2013).
Figure 2.7: Ar|zona m|grant death esnmates by data source (exc|ud|ng uma
area), 1990-2013
5ootces: Lschbach, k. eL al., 1999, ueaLh aL Lhe border, lotetoouoool Mlqtouoo kevlew, 33(2):430-434,
Cornellus, W.A., 2001, ueaLhs aL Lhe border: Lmcacy and unlnLended consequences of uS lmmlgrauon
conLrol pollcy, lopolouoo ooJ uevelopmeot kevlew, 27(4):661-683, Marunez, u. eL al., 2014,
SLrucLural vlolence and mlgranL deaLhs ln souLhern Arlzona: updaLed daLa from Lhe lma CounLy
Cmce of Lhe Medlcal Lxamlner, 1990-2013, Iootool oo Mlqtouoo ooJ nomoo 5ecotlty (forLhcomlng),
unlLed SLaLes 8order aLrol, 2014.
10
ln 2003, a Leam of researchers from Lhe unlverslLy of Arlzona's 8lnauonal Mlgrauon lnsuLuLe sysLemaucally
revlewed Lhe CCML records from 1990 Lo 2000, and coded undocumenLed border-crosser deaLhs uullzlng
Lhe same codlng schemes used by Lhe CCML from 2001 and on (see 8ublo-ColdsmlLh eL al., 2006, Marunez,
Slack and vandervoeL, 2013, Marunez eL al., 2014 for Lhe meLhodology used Lo classlfy u8Cs from 1990 Lo
2000).
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
N
u
m
b
e
r

o
f

d
e
a
t
h
s
Eschbach et al. 1999 Cornelius 2001 U.S. Border Patrol (Tucson Sector) Pima County OME
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
61
1he CCML experlenced a more Lhan Lenfold lncrease ln mlgranL deaLhs ln
a very shorL span of ume (8ublo-ColdsmlLh eL al., 2006, Marunez, Slack and
vandervoeL, 2013). ln Lhe years prlor Lo Lhe funnel eecL" ln Arlzona, from 1990
Lo 1999, Lhe CCML lnvesugaLed Lhe deaLhs of an average of 12 mlgranLs per
year. lollowlng Lhe lmplemenLauon of Lhe border-wlde CllnLon admlnlsLrauon
sLraLegy ln Lhe early 2000s, Lhe average lncreased Lo over 160 per year beLween
2000 and 2013 (Marunez, Slack and vandervoeL, 2013). 1he 1ucson SecLor has
been Lhe buslesL of all nlne 8order aLrol secLors for over a decade, wlLh Lhe
hlghesL number of apprehenslons, drug selzures, 8order aLrol agenLs and
deaLhs (lsacson, Meyer and uavls, 2013).
A 2013 reporL publlshed by Lhe 8lnauonal Mlgrauon lnsuLuLe (8Ml) of Lhe
unlverslLy of Arlzona analysed daLa from Lhe CCML beLween 1990 and 2013.
uaLa from LhaL reporL wlll be updaLed and publlshed ln Iootool oo Mlqtouoo ooJ
nomoo 5ecotlty ln 2014. 8ecause Lhe CCML records provlde Lhe mosL deLalled
lnformauon avallable on Lhe characLerlsucs of deceased mlgranLs ln souLhern
Arlzona, Lhe daLa presenLed ln Lhe nexL secuon of Lhls reporL ls drawn from
Lhese Lwo verslons of Lhe 8Ml's reporL (Marunez, Slack and vandervoeL, 2013,
Marunez eL al., 2014).
1he cause of deaLh ln souLhern Arlzona ls prlmarlly exposure Lo Lhe elemenLs,
accounung for over 43 per cenL of all mlgranL deaLh cases ln Lhe CCML records.
1hls ls followed by undeLermlned causes (38), moLor vehlcle accldenLs (8),
oLher mlscellaneous causes (3) and homlclde (4).
1here has been some ucLuauon over ume ln Lerms of leadlng causes of deaLh
ln souLhern Arlzona. As reporLed by Marunez and colleagues (2014), Lhe share of
deaLhs due Lo exposure Lo Lhe elemenLs has decreased over ume whlle Lhe share
of undeLermlned causes has lncreased. neverLheless, lL ls belleved LhaL many of
Lhe cases where an undeLermlned cause of deaLh ls llsLed are acLually exposure
deaLhs glven Lhe remoLe geography where Lhe remalns were recovered, buL Lhls
cannoL be deLermlned wlLh cerLalnLy (Marunez, Slack and vandervoeL, 2013,
Marunez eL al., 2014). ueaLhs due Lo moLor vehlcle accldenLs have decreased ln
souLhern Arlzona, from 20 per cenL of all cases lnvesugaLed from 1990 Lo 1999,
Lo 11 per cenL beLween 2000 and 2003 and 6 per cenL beLween 2006 and 2013.
ueaLhs due Lo homlclde have remalned unchanged over ume ln Lerms of Lhelr
share of all causes of deaLh (Marunez, Slack and vandervoeL, 2013, Marunez
eL al., 2014).
Whlle Lhe CCML provldes excellenL and comprehenslve daLa, lL ls lmporLanL
Lo noLe LhaL many demographlcs are llmlLed Lo Lhose decedenLs who have
been successfully ldenued. CuL of a LoLal of 2,413 (belleved-Lo-be) mlgranL
deaLhs lnvesugaLed beLween 1990 and 2013, 820 cases or over one Lhlrd
remaln unldenued (Marunez eL al., 2014). 1he causes for such a hlgh number
of unldenued remalns relaLe ln parL Lo ecologlcal facLors LhaL cause remalns
Chapter 2 Migrant Deaths in the Americas (United States and Mexico)
62
Lo decompose very rapldly. 1he number of unldenued remalns also relaLes Lo
challenges Lhe CCML and oLhers face ln developlng a comprehenslve, reglonal
unA ldenucauon sysLem (!lmenez, 2009, 8elneke, 2013, lsacson, Meyer and
uavls, 2013).
1able 2.1 provldes daLa on Lhe counLrles of orlgln of mlgranLs ldenued aL Lhe
CCML from 1990 Lo 2013, as reporLed by Lhe 8Ml. Cf Lhose ldenued ln Lhls ume
perlod, 81.3 per cenL were from Mexlco. CuaLemala accounLed for Lhe second
hlghesL counLry of orlgln represenLed, aL a much lower 7.3 per cenL of LoLal
ldenued mlgranLs examlned aL Lhe CCML. lollowlng CuaLemala, Ll Salvador
and Ponduras accounLed for 2.4 per cenL and 1.3 per cenL, respecuvely, of all
counLrles of orlgln of mlgranLs ldenued aL Lhe CCML. CounLry of orlgln was
unknown ln 4.9 per cenL of ldenued mlgranLs.
Table 2.1: CCML deaths coded as undocumented border crossers by
country of or|g|n among |dennhed decedents,
hsca| year 1990-2013
Country of origin er cent Number
Mexlco 81.3 1,291
CuaLemala 7.3 119
Ll Salvador 2.4 38
Ponduras 1.3 24
Lcuador 0.6 10
eru 0.3 8
8razll 0.3 4
CosLa 8lca 0.3 4
uomlnlcan 8epubllc 0.1 2
Colombla 0.0 1
Chlle 0.0 1
nlcaragua 0.0 1
venezuela (8ollvarlan
8epubllc of)
0.0 1
unknown 4.9 77
n = 1,381
5ootce: Marunez, u. eL al., 2014, SLrucLural vlolence and mlgranL deaLhs ln souLhern Arlzona: updaLed daLa
from Lhe lma CounLy Cmce of Lhe Medlcal Lxamlner, 1990-2013, Iootool oo Mlqtouoo ooJ nomoo
5ecotlty (forLhcomlng).
Note: ercenLages may noL sum Lo 100 due Lo roundlng.
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
63
1he CCML records, as reporLed by Lhe 8Ml researchers, lndlcaLe LhaL 80 per cenL
of Lhe decedenLs were male, wlLh a mean age of 31 years - alLhough lnformauon
on a person's preclse age ls only avallable for people who are successfully
ldenued. Whlle Lhe ma[orlLy of decedenLs were beLween Lhe ages of 20 and
39, 13 per cenL were beLween Lhe ages 10 and 19. As noLed by Marunez eL
al. (2013, 2014), Lhe Lyplcal mlgranL deaLh lnvesugaLed by Lhe CCML beLween
1990 and 2013 can be descrlbed as a male near Lhe age of 30 from cenLral or
souLhern Mexlco who dled of exposure whlle auempung Lo avold deLecuon by
u.S. auLhorlues" (Marunez, Slack and vandervoeL, 2013:19).
1he 8Ml reporL noLes an lmporLanL shl, however, wlLh CenLral Amerlcans
accounung for an lncreaslng percenLage of Lhe dead. A sLausucally slgnlcanL
change was noLed beLween Lhe 2000-2003 and 2006-2012 perlods, wlLh Lhe
percenLage of non-Mexlcans lncreaslng from 9 per cenL Lo 18 per cenL (Marunez
eL al., 2014). 1hls change parallels Lrends of lrregular mlgrauon across Lhe enure
unlLed SLaLes-Mexlco border, whlch saw an lncrease ln mlgrauon from CenLral
Amerlca ln Lhe same perlod, especlally ln 1exas (lsacson and Meyer, 2012, uS
8order aLrol, 2014).
Texas
1exas was ln facL where Lhe rsL large-scale operauon Lo secure Lhe border"
was underLaken, laLer used as a model for Lhe CllnLon sLraLegles. ln 1993, durlng
lnLense nauonal concern abouL undocumenLed lmmlgrauon over Lhe border,
Ll aso 8order aLrol SecLor Chlef SllvesLre 8eyes launched Cperauon 8lockade,
(laLer renamed Cperauon Pold Lhe Llne aer pressure from Mexlcan omclals),
whlch won conslderable acclalm and auenuon followlng dublous clalms of
success (Cornellus, 2001). 8lockade/Pold Lhe Llne was Lhen used as a model for
Lhe federal programs under CllnLon, whlch lncluded CaLekeeper, Safeguard, and
evenLually Cperauon 8lo Crande ln 1997 ln SouLh 1exas.
llgure 2.8 lllusLraLes mlgranL deaLh esumaLes ln 1exas from 1993 Lo 2013. uaLa
sources lnclude Lhe semlnal research by Lschbach and colleagues (1999), work
by Cornellus (2001) and sLausucs complled by Lhe unlLed SLaLes 8order aLrol.
1hese esumaLes lnclude mlgranL deaLhs ln Lhe Ll aso area. When compared
wlLh Callfornla, where mlgranL deaLhs have decreased rapldly over Lhe pasL 20
years, and Arlzona, where deaLhs have lncreased exponenually over Lhe pasL Lwo
decades, mlgranL deaLhs ln 1exas have remalned relauvely sLeady over Lhe pasL 20
years, lncreaslng aL umes ln 2000, 2003 and 2012-2013. As noLed ln llgure 2.8,
Lhe unlLed SLaLes 8order aLrol sLausucs provlde Lhe mosL comprehenslve Lrend
esumaLes of mlgranL faLallues ln 1exas. neverLheless, Lhls daLa does noL provlde
lnformauon on demographlc characLerlsucs of Lhe deceased or causes of deaLh.
Cn Lhe oLher hand, daLa publlshed by researchers aL Lhe unlverslLy of PousLon
(Lschbach eL al., 1999) conLalns Lhe mosL compleLe and deLalled lnformauon
Chapter 2 Migrant Deaths in the Americas (United States and Mexico)
64
on mlgranL demographlc characLerlsucs and causes of deaLh, buL are llmlLed
Lo deaLhs LhaL occurred beLween 1993 and 1997. uesplLe Lhls llmlLauon ln Lhe
Lschbach eL al. 1999 daLa, we draw upon Lhls source Lo provlde lnformauon on
causes of deaLh ln 1exas, buL glven Lhe daLed naLure of Lhe sLudy Lhese gures
should be lnLerpreLed wlLh cauuon.
I|gure 2.8: 1exas m|grant death esnmates by data source (|nc|ud|ng L| aso
area), 1993-2013
5ootces: Lschbach, k. eL al., 1999, ueaLh aL Lhe border, lotetoouoool Mlqtouoo kevlew, 33(2):430-434,
Cornellus, W.A., 2001, ueaLhs aL Lhe border: Lmcacy and unlnLended consequences of uS lmmlgrauon
conLrol pollcy, lopolouoo ooJ uevelopmeot kevlew, 27(4):661-683, unlLed SLaLes 8order aLrol,
2014.
1he greaLesL danger Lo mlgranLs ln 1exas has hlsLorlcally been Lhe unpredlcLable
currenLs of Lhe 8lo Crande. 1he rlver boundary beLween much of souLhern 1exas
and Mexlco also makes Lhe counung of deaLhs compllcaLed, as some remalns are
recovered on Lhe uS slde, and some on Lhe Mexlcan slde. An addluonal number
of bodles are swepL ouL Lo sea from Lhe 8lo Crande Lo Lhe Culf of Mexlco,
never Lo be lncluded ln any counLs. 8oLh Lhe unlverslLy of PousLon researchers
and Lhose from Lhe Amerlcan Clvll Llberues unlon (ACLu) reporL noLe more
drownlngs reporLed on Lhe Mexlcan slde Lhan on Lhe uS slde. 1he unlverslLy
of PousLon researchers reporL LhaL beLween 1993 and 1997, Mexlcan omclals
counLed an average of 130 Lo 140 cases of drowned mlgranLs ln Lhe rlver per
year, whlle uS omclals only counLed an average of 40 (Lschbach eL al., 1999).
1he ACLu reporL noLes LhaL Mexlcan sources reporLed Lhe recovery of 88 bodles
from Lhe 8lo Crande on Lhe Mexlcan slde, whereas Lhe unlLed SLaLes reporLedly
only recovered Lhe remalns of 12 (!lmenez, 2009).
0
50
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300
1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
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Eschbach et al. 1999 Cornelius 2001 U.S. Border Patrol
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
63
Slmllar Lo Cornellus' research (2001) ln Callfornla, Lschbach and hls colleagues
also noLed an lncrease ln deaLhs due Lo heaL, cold and dehydrauon beLween
1993 and 1997 ln 1exas, llkely due Lo Lhe shllng of ows Lo more remoLe deserL
reglons ln response Lo lncreased border securluzauon.
1he mosL slgnlcanL change ln numbers of mlgranL deaLhs ln 1exas occurred
aer 2010. ln 2012 and 2013, whlle deaLhs ln Arlzona remalned aL near all-ume
hlghs, counues along Lhe 1exas border began Lo reporL very hlgh numbers of
mlgranL deaLhs. 8eLween 2011 and 2012, deaLhs ln 1exas lncreased 73 per cenL
(uS 8order aLrol, 2014). Cne counLy ln parucular reporLed very hlgh numbers,
especlally ln relauon Lo lLs slze. 8rooks CounLy, whlch ls nearly 10 umes smaller
Lhan lma CounLy, Arlzona, ln Lerms of geographlcal area, reporLed 129 deaLhs ln
calendar year 2012 compared wlLh 20 ln 2010 (MacCormack, 2013, Mlro, 2013,
Marunez, Slack and vandervoeL, 2013). 1hls lncrease ls conrmed by unlLed SLaLes
8order aLrol gures, whlch esumaLe Lhe deaLhs ln Lhe 8lo Crande valley and
Laredo SecLors aL 66 and 63 ln scal year 2011, aL 130 and 90 ln scal year 2012,
and aL 136 and 36 ln 2013, respecuvely (uS 8order aLrol, 2014). 1hls lncrease
llkely ls Lhe resulL of Lhree key facLors: 1) lncreased border enforcemenL eorLs
ln Arlzona whlch have pushed mlgranL ows lnLo SouLh 1exas, 2) deporLauon
pracuces whlch currenLly repaLrlaLe a hlgh number of deporLees Lo areas [usL
souLh of 1exas where Lhey Lhen Lry Lo cross agaln, and 3) lncreased mlgrauon
from CenLral Amerlca (SouLh 1exas ls geographlcally closer Lo CenLral Amerlca).
8aLher Lhan drownlng ln Lhe 8lo Crande as ln Lhe pasL years, a hlgh number
of mlgranLs ln 1exas ln recenL years are dylng ln Lhe remoLe ranch lands of
souLhern 1exas. 1he mlgranL Lrall ln Lhls reglon usually follows a slmllar paLh
whereby mlgranLs cross Lhe rlver on fooL or ln small ras, and are Lhen plcked
up by smugglers ln vehlcles on Lhe uS slde. 1hey are Lhen drlven norLh on ma[or
hlghways headed Lowards PousLon unul Lhe rsL ma[or checkpolnL, whlch
ls near lalfurrlas, 8rooks CounLy, abouL 70 mlles norLh of Lhe lnLernauonal
boundary. 1he mlgranLs are leL ouL of Lhe vehlcles before Lhe checkpolnL, and
Lhen Lrek for mlles ln remoLe, dense brush ln hopes of avoldlng deLecuon by
8order aLrol aL (and around) Lhe checkpolnL. lL ls ln Lhese remoLe brushlands,
prlmarlly prlvaLe ranch land, where mlgranLs are dylng ln hlgh numbers from
heaL sLroke and relaLed causes (kovlc, 2013). 8ecause Lhese deaLhs occur on
prlvaLe land, remalns may be less llkely Lo be found and recorded. ln Arlzona, on
Lhe oLher hand, mlgranLs are much more llkely Lo cross Lhrough sLaLe, federal
or lndlgenous land Lhan prlvaLe land, whlch may lncrease Lhe llkellhood LhaL
Lhe remalns of mlgranLs are locaLed by omclals and reporLed Lo Lhe proper
auLhorlues for lnvesugauon.
1here ls llule Lo no daLa abouL Lhe counLrles and reglons of orlgln of Lhose mlgranLs
who have dled ln SouLh 1exas over Lhe pasL Lwo decades. An excepuon ls a 2012
presenLauon by ur Corlnne SLern, Chlef aLhologlsL of Lhe Webb CounLy Medlcal
Chapter 2 Migrant Deaths in the Americas (United States and Mexico)
66
Lxamlner, ln Laredo, 1exas, whlch reporLed demographlcs and causes of deaLh
for almosL 200 deceased mlgranLs examlned beLween 2007 and 2011 (SLern,
2012). uurlng Lhls ume, Lhe Webb CounLy Medlcal Lxamlner was responslble
for medlco-legal deaLh lnvesugauon Lo seven counues ln souLh-wesLern 1exas ln
addluon Lo Webb.
11
ur SLern reporLed LhaL 91 per cenL of Lhe decedenLs were
male and only 9 per cenL female (lbld.). 1he leadlng cause of deaLh for mlgranLs
examlned by Webb CounLy was hyperLhermla (42), followed by drownlng
(32), undeLermlned causes (14) and moLor vehlcle accldenLs (7). MosL
of Lhose ldenued were Mexlcans (79), wlLh Pondurans and CuaLemalans
accounung for 8 per cenL and 7 per cenL, respecuvely (SLern, 2012).
AL Lhe ume, ur SLern's daLa dld noL lnclude 8rooks CounLy, Lhe counLy wlLh Lhe
hlghesL number of mlgranL faLallues ln SouLh 1exas Loday. AlLhough Lhere ls very
llule daLa avallable regardlng Lhe demographlcs of border-crossers ln Lhe 8lo
Crande valley who have dled ln recenL years, lL ls llkely LhaL a hlgher percenLage
of Lhem are CenLral Amerlcans Lhan ln ur SLern's 2012 sLudy because of Lhe
lncrease ln apprehenslons of CenLral Amerlcans ln Lhe area. 1he unlLed SLaLes
8order aLrol apprehenslons of non-Mexlcans ln Lhe 8lo Crande valley SecLor
lncreased from 20,890 ln 2011 (accounung for 33 of apprehenslons) Lo 96,829
ln 2013 (accounung for nearly 63 of apprehenslons) - an all-ume hlgh (uS
8order aLrol, 2014).
1he lncrease ln mlgranL deaLhs ln SouLh 1exas ls concernlng beyond Lhe facL of
more loss of llves. 1he counues where Lhese mlgranLs dle, such as 8rooks CounLy,
are some of Lhe pooresL counues ln Lhe counLry. 1here ls no medlcal examlner
for mlles, and lnsLead remalns fall under Lhe [urlsdlcuon of Lhe !usuce of Lhe
eace. lor several years, hundreds of remalns dlscovered ln 8rooks CounLy were
burled as unldenued prlor Lo auLopsy, anLhropologlcal analysls or sampllng for
unA (kovlc, 2013). ln !une 2014, researchers exhumed 32 graves of suspecLed
unauLhorlzed mlgranLs ln lalfurrlas, 1exas, for furLher examlnauon (8eynolds,
2014). uesplLe a drasuc lncrease ln mlgranL deaLhs, 8rooks CounLy has recelved
no federal supporL for Lhe lncrease ln cosLs assoclaLed wlLh lnvesugaung Lhe
deaLhs. AlLhough remalns dlscovered ln 8rooks CounLy are now senL Lo Lhe
Webb CounLy Medlcal Lxamlner's Cmce locaLed ln Laredo, lL ls unclear whaL Lhe
condluons are for deaLhs ln nelghborlng counues.
Comparisons across California, Arizona and Texas
LsumaLes of mlgranL faLallues along Lhe enure unlLed SLaLes-Mexlco border
over ume are exLremely dlmculL - lf noL lmposslble - Lo calculaLe. Cur goal ln
Lhls secuon ls Lo LrlangulaLe several daLa sources Lo palnL a broader plcLure of
how mlgranL deaLhs have been geographlcally dlspersed across Lhe border over
ume. We do Lhls ln Lwo ways: 1) by provldlng mlgranL deaLh esumaLes across
Callfornla, Arlzona and 1exas, and 2) by calculaung approxlmaLe mlgranL deaLh
11
1hese counues lnclude val verde, Maverlck, Zavala, ulmmlL, La Salle, ZapaLa and !lm Pogg.
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
67
raLes (sLandardlzed Lo 100,000 unlLed SLaLes 8order aLrol apprehenslons) ln
each sLaLe over Lhe pasL 20 years.
llgure 2.9 shows esumaLes for mlgranL deaLhs ln Callfornla, Arlzona and 1exas
from research conducLed by Lschbach eL al. (1999), Cornellus (2001) and Lhe
unlLed SLaLes 8order aLrol sLausucs, and records from Lhe CCML. lor years,
ln whlch Lhere are muluple esumaLes of mlgranL deaLhs for a parucular sLaLe,
we reporLed Lhe mean of sald daLa polnLs. ln cases where only one daLa polnL ls
avallable, we slmply reporL LhaL value (see llgures 2.3, 2.7 and 2.8).
I|gure 2.9: M|grant death esnmates by state (exc|ud|ng uma area), 1990-2013
5ootces: Lschbach, k. eL al., 1999, ueaLh aL Lhe border, lotetoouoool Mlqtouoo kevlew, 33(2):430-434,
Cornellus, W.A., 2001, ueaLhs aL Lhe border: Lmcacy and unlnLended consequences of uS lmmlgrauon
conLrol pollcy, lopolouoo ooJ uevelopmeot kevlew, 27(4):661-683, Marunez, u. eL al., 2014,
SLrucLural vlolence and mlgranL deaLhs ln souLhern Arlzona: updaLed daLa from Lhe lma CounLy
Cmce of Lhe Medlcal Lxamlner, 1990-2013, Iootool oo Mlqtouoo ooJ nomoo 5ecotlty (forLhcomlng),
unlLed SLaLes 8order aLrol, 2014.
Note: Ll aso area ls lncluded ln Lhe 1exas counL.
As lndlcaLed ln llgure 2.9, mlgranL deaLhs were much hlgher ln Callfornla and
1exas ln Lhe mld-1990s Lhan ln Arlzona. Powever, ows shled Lo remoLe
areas of souLhern Arlzona followlng border mlllLarlzauon eorLs as parL of Lhe
prevenuon Lhrough deLerrence," ulumaLely leadlng Lo an lncrease ln mlgranL
faLallues ln LhaL sLaLe as well as border-wlde. Whlle mlgranL deaLhs ln 1exas
decreased sLeadlly beLween 2006 and 2010, Lhere has been a sharp lncrease ln
faLallues ln LhaL sLaLe over Lhe pasL Lhree years (2011-2013). We hypoLheslze
LhaL Lhls lncrease ls due Lo Lhree prevlously dlscussed facLors: 1) lncreased
enforcemenL ln Arlzona LhaL has pushed mlgranLs lnLo SouLh 1exas, 2) lncreased
deporLauons Lo areas [usL souLh of 1exas, and 3) an lncrease ln mlgrauon from
0
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200
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1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
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California Arizona Texas
Chapter 2 Migrant Deaths in the Americas (United States and Mexico)
68
CenLral Amerlca. 1oday, mlgranL deaLhs are lower Lhan ever before ln Callfornla,
buL remaln near all-ume hlghs ln Arlzona and 1exas.
Whlle Lhe daLa provlded ln llgure 2.9 helps palnL a more compleLe porLralL of how
esumaLes of mlgranL deaLhs have changed across ume and space, lL falls Lo Lake
lnLo conslderauon Lhe lmpacL LhaL changlng mlgrauon ows have on lncreaslng
or decreaslng mlgranL deaLhs ln Callfornla, Arlzona and 1exas. We address Lhls
llmlLauon by provldlng an approxlmaLe mlgranL deaLh raLe" for each year ln
Lhese Lhree sLaLes. We calculaLe mlgranL deaLh raLes by dlvldlng mlgranL deaLh
esumaLes provlded ln llgure 2.9 by Lhe unlLed SLaLes 8order aLrol apprehenslon
sLausucs (used as a proxy for mlgrauon ow) ln secLors correspondlng Lo each
sLaLe, and sLandardlze Lhe quouenL Lo 100,000 apprehenslons. noLe LhaL
mlgranL deaLh esumaLes and apprehenslons sLausucs for Lhe ?uma SecLor were
noL lncluded ln Lhls analysls because lL encompasses an area where Lhe sLaLes of
Callfornla and Arlzona overlap.
Figure 2.10: Approx|mate m|grant death rate by state (exc|ud|ng uma area),
1990-2013
5ootces: Lschbach, k. eL al., 1999, ueaLh aL Lhe border, lotetoouoool Mlqtouoo kevlew, 33(2):430-434,
Cornellus, W.A., 2001, ueaLhs aL Lhe border: Lmcacy and unlnLended consequences of uS lmmlgrauon
conLrol pollcy, lopolouoo ooJ uevelopmeot kevlew, 27(4):661-683, Marunez, u. eL al., 2014,
SLrucLural vlolence and mlgranL deaLhs ln souLhern Arlzona: updaLed daLa from Lhe lma CounLy
Cmce of Lhe Medlcal Lxamlner, 1990-2013, Iootool oo Mlqtouoo ooJ nomoo 5ecotlty (forLhcomlng),
unlLed SLaLes 8order aLrol, 2014.
Note: Ll aso area ls lncluded ln Lhe 1exas raLe.
As deplcLed ln llgure 2.10, Lhe approxlmaLe mlgranL deaLh raLe ln Callfornla has
decreased from a peak of 44 deaLhs per 100,000 apprehenslons ln 2003 Lo 23 per
100,000 ln 2013. neverLheless, Lhls decrease ls noL as promlnenL as Lhe raLe of
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
R
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,
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0
0

U
S

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o
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s
i
o
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s
California Arizona Texas
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
69
decllne ln Lhe raw counL of deaLhs lllusLraLed ln llgure2.9 because apprehenslons,
or unauLhorlzed mlgrauon ows, have dropped aL a fasLer raLe ln Callfornla
relauve Lo deaLhs. Cn Lhe oLher hand, Lhe mlgranL deaLh raLe has lncreased
exponenually ln boLh 1exas and ln Arlzona slnce Lhe early 2000s. uesplLe recenL
lncreases ln counLs of mlgranL faLallues ln 1exas ln 2012 and 2013, Lhe deaLh
raLe ln Arlzona was subsLanually hlgher Lhan ln 1exas ln 2013 (133 per 100,000
apprehenslons compared wlLh 97 per 100,000 apprehenslons). A comparlson of
Lhe mlgranL deaLh raLe ln 1ucson SecLor (160 per 100,000 apprehenslons) and
Lhe 8lo Crande valley SecLor (101 per 100,000 apprehenslons) ln 2013 lllusLraLe
a slmllar relauonshlp.
Lven wlLhouL exacL counLs, lL ls clear LhaL Lhe deaLh of mlgranLs along Lhe unlLed
SLaLes-Mexlco border ls a serlous human rlghLs concern. 8order pollcles and
resLrlcuve vlsa reglmes have especlally been hard on Lhe poor and marglnallzed,
who oen do noL quallfy for enLry Lhrough exlsung uS vlsa programmers and
cannoL aord Lhe years lL may Lake Lo quallfy for a Lemporary worker vlsa.
1he evldence ls overwhelmlng LhaL Lhe sLraLegy of prevenuon Lhrough
deLerrence has been lncreaslngly deadly for mlgranLs who musL Lravel Lhrough
lrregular means, and lL ls unclear wheLher or noL lL has had Lhe deslred eecL of
decreaslng unauLhorlzed border crosslngs. Whlle lL ls llkely LhaL some poLenual
mlgranLs have been deLerred from crosslng as a resulL of lncreased border
enforcemenL eorLs, a 2012 reporL by Lhe ew 8esearch CenLer suggesLs LhaL
Lhe weakened u.S. [ob and houslng consLrucuon markeLs . . . growlng dangers
assoclaLed wlLh lllegal border crosslngs, Lhe long-Lerm decllne ln Mexlco's blrLh
raLes and broader economlc condluons ln Mexlco" also llkely play a role ln Lhe
recenL decllne ln unauLhorlzed mlgrauon ows (assel, Cohn and Conzalez-
8arrera, 2012:6). 1he relaLed case of mlgranL deaLhs ln Mexlco ls qulLe dlerenL,
alLhough Lhe facL of vulnerablllLy and marglnallzauon remalns.
2.3.2 Mexico
1he number of mlgranLs who have dled ln Mexlco ls unknown. LsumaLes for Lhe
lasL slx years range from 47,000 (lMuMl, 2013) Lo 70,000 (CnuP, 2012). As one
unnamed humanlLarlan prlesL ln Mexlco commenLed Lo a researcher, Mexlco
ls a cemeLery for CenLral Amerlcans. A cemeLery wlLhouL crosses" (vogL, 2012).
lL ls lmporLanL Lo noLe LhaL very few mlgranLs reporL abuse from local Mexlcan
cluzens. 1he reporLed perpeLraLors are overwhelmlngly organlzed crlmlnals.
Some key sLudles have come up wlLh dlerenL esumaLes of Lhe number of dead
and mlsslng. A 2013 reporL by Lhe lnsuLuLo para las Mu[eres en la Mlgracln
(lMuMl, lnsuLuLe for Women ln Mlgrauon) esumaLed LhaL 47,000 mlgranLs were
kllled due Lo organlzed crlme ln Lhe prlor slx years (lMuMl, 2013). 1hls gure
lncludes boLh CenLral Amerlcans and Mexlcans from souLhern sLaLes who follow
Lhe same rouLe norLhward. 1he CnuP (2012) esumaLes LhaL aL leasL 70,000
mlgranLs dlsappeared ln Mexlco beLween 2007 and 2012. Accordlng Lo a reporL
Chapter 2 Migrant Deaths in the Americas (United States and Mexico)
70
by Lhe Mexlcan newspaper Mlleolo, Lhe Mexlcan forenslc servlces conLaln Lhe
remalns of 24,102 unldenued bodles (8amsey, 2012). lL ls unknown how many
of Lhese may be Lhe remalns of mlgranLs.
1he conLexL leadlng Lo mlgranL deaLh ln Mexlco conLrlbuLes Lo Lhe lack of
lnformauon and exacL numbers. As noLed, mlgranLs ln Mexlco share Lravel
rouLes wlLh organlzed crlmlnals smuggllng drugs lnLo Lhe unlLed SLaLes. !usL as
Lhe mlgranLs are preyed upon by organlzed crlme, human rlghLs defenders are
aL rlsk when auempung Lo proLecL mlgranLs and research Lhelr dlsappearances
(unPC8, 2011, ereyra, 2013). lamllles of Lhe mlsslng are also afrald Lo come
forward Lo reporL cases (lbld.). Powever, Lhere ls evldence LhaL when mlgranLs
and Lhelr famllles do come forward, omclals are oen relucLanL Lo open an
lnvesugauon (Puman 8lghLs WaLch, 2013). A 2011 un Worklng Croup on
Lnforced ulsappearances also reporLed conslsLenL lack of lnvesugauon by
Mexlcan auLhorlues lnLo reporLs of dlsappearances (unPC8, 2011).
AlLhough overall counLs are lacklng, some mass murder evenLs have galned
lnLernauonal auenuon ln recenL years. ln laLe AugusL 2010, 72 mlgranLs
were murdered ln San lernando, 1amaullpas, by Los ZeLas, a drug Lramcklng
syndlcaLe. 1helr bodles were dlscovered on a ranch by Lhe Mexlcan mlllLary. 1he
72 lncluded 38 men and 14 women, mosLly from CenLral and SouLh Amerlca.
LaLer on, ln 2011, Mexlcan auLhorlues dlscovered mass graves conLalnlng a LoLal
of 193 vlcums, also ln San lernando, 1amaullpas, many of whom were mlgranLs.
A parucularly dlsLurblng evenL occurred ln May 2012, when Lhe severed Lorsos
of 49 vlcums were dlscovered scauered along a ma[or hlghway ln CadereyLa,
nuevo Len. AlLhough Lhose responslble, Los ZeLas, lndlcaLed LhaL Lhe dead
were members of a rlval gang, auLhorlues have noL ruled ouL Lhe posslblllLy LhaL
Lhey were mlgranLs, and lnvesugauons are ongolng.
As menuoned, mlgranLs ln Mexlco also perlsh by accldenLal means, lncludlng
falllng from Lralns or gemng losL ln Lhe remoLe areas of norLhern sLaLes near Lhe
uS border (lsacson and Meyer, 2012). Powever, Lhere are no concluslve counLs
avallable esumaung Lhe number of such faLallues.
2.4 Record keeping and limitations to existing counts
llve key facLors conLrlbuLe Lo lncompleLe deaLh counLs ln boLh Mexlco and Lhe
unlLed SLaLes: 1) Lhe clandesune naLure of undocumenLed mlgrauon, 2) Lhe
geographlcal condluons where remalns are found, 3) Lhe fear mlgranLs and
human rlghLs defenders face ln reporung or researchlng cases, 4) lnconslsLencles
ln denlng meLhods and scope, and 3) lack of federal accounLablllLy and auenuon
Lowards Lhe problem of mlgranL deaLh ln general.
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
71
8ecause Lhose dylng along mlgranL Lralls ln Mexlco and Lhe unlLed SLaLes do
so ouLslde omclal, sLaLe-sancuoned avenues for lmmlgrauon, much of Lhelr
movemenL ls ouLslde sLaLe survelllance. 1hey llve shadowed llves" (Chavez,
1997) and Lhelr deaLhs, especlally whlle ln LranslL, are ln many ways lnvlslble. ln
Lhelr eorLs Lo evade Mexlcan securlLy forces, organlzed crlme or 8order aLrol,
mlgranLs auempL Lo obscure Lhelr ldenuLy. lnvesugaLors aL Lhe CCML ln 1ucson
have learned Lo LreaL ldenucauon cards wlLh susplclon, as many mlgranLs carry
false ldenucauon medla. MlgranLs are oen Lold by coyoLes Lo change Lhelr
cloLhlng before Lhe Lrek across Lhe border Lo blend ln Lo Lhe scenery and avold
deLecuon. Some mlgranL remalns have even been found wlLh cheaL sheeLs" -
sLudy guldes llke Leachlng CenLral Amerlcan mlgranLs how Lo speak and acL ln
ways Lo help Lhem pass as Mexlcans durlng Lhelr [ourney.
WheLher lL ls auempLs Lo avold ldenucauon llke Lhose menuoned above, rules
from coyoLes for mlgranL groups before crosslng, or Lhe remoLe geographles
mlgranLs use Lo Lravel, Lhe goal ls Lo enLer Lhe unlLed SLaLes or Mexlco undeLecLed.
1he lack of daLa on Lhe overall number of mlgranLs Lo successfully cross Lhe
Mexlco-CuaLemala border or Lhe unlLed SLaLes-Mexlco border means LhaL
undersLandlng mlgranL deaLhs wlll, Lo some exLenL, always be llmlLed. AlLhough
Lhe auLhors belleve LhaL relauvely compleLe counLs of Lhe dead are wlLhln Lhe
ablllLy of Lhe federal auLhorlues ln boLh cases, knowlng changes over ume and
raLes of mlgranL deaLh versus successful crosslngs wlll be llmlLed by Lhe absence
of an accuraLe denomlnaLor.
MlgranL deaLhs ln varlous conLexLs around Lhe world can be characLerlzed as
whaL forenslc experLs call an open dlsasLer," as opposed Lo a closed dlsasLer."
An example of a closed dlsasLer ls a plane crash, where a passenger manlfesL
generally exlsLs, and a conLalned number of vlcums are lnvolved. An open
dlsasLer, on Lhe oLher hand, ls a ma[or caLasLrophlc evenL resulung ln Lhe deaLhs
of a number of unknown lndlvlduals for whom no prlor records or descrlpuve
daLa are avallable" (ln1L8CL, 2009:3). Lxamples of an open dlsasLer lnclude
hurrlcane kaLrlna ln 2003 or Lhe 2010 earLhquake ln Palu, where Lhe scene
lnlually lnvolved an unknown number of vlcums and mlsslng persons. AlLhough
Lhe remalns of Lhe deceased may or may noL all be recoverable, Lhe key
characLerlsuc ln an open dlsasLer ls LhaL an ookoowo oombet of mlsslng persons
could have been lnvolved ln Lhe evenL. Cpen dlsasLers requlre more lnLenslve
research Lo esLabllsh Lhe number of poLenual vlcums. ln addluon Lo belng open"
Lo an undeLermlned number of cases, Lhe counung of vlcums ln Lhls conLexL ls
also challenged by Lhe vasL geographlcal space where mlgranLs Lravel. SLreLchlng
from SouLh Amerlcan counLrles Lo Canada, mlgranLs are dlsappearlng and dylng
ln muluple counLrles, and oen ln some of Lhe mosL remoLe reglons of Lhose
counLrles.
Chapter 2 Migrant Deaths in the Americas (United States and Mexico)
72
1he same geographlcal facLors LhaL lead Lo a hlgh number of deaLhs ln Mexlco
and Lhe unlLed SLaLes also lead Lo challenges ln counung mlgranL remalns. ln
Mexlco, Lhe mlgranL Lrall ls so deeply occupled by organlzed crlme LhaL lL ls
dlmculL Lo dlscern homlclde vlcums who were mlgranLs versus Lhose who were
non-mlgranLs. ln addluon Lo falllng prey Lo organlzed crlme, a number of mlgranLs
also perlsh due Lo Lhe elemenLs ln norLhern Mexlco on Lhelr way Lowards Lhe
unlLed SLaLes-Mexlco border. 1he geographlcal challenges ln Lhls area are more
akln Lo Lhose of Lhe unlLed SLaLes, where Lhe dlscovery of mlgranL remalns ls
delayed due Lo geographlcal facLors.
1he remoLe geographles and harsh ecologles where mlgranLs Lravel ln Lhe unlLed
SLaLes pose speclc challenges Lo counung. MlgranL remalns are desLroyed by
arld cllmaLes, preyed upon by wlld anlmals, swepL away by oods followlng
seasonal raln pauerns, hldden by Lhose afrald of prosecuuon, or losL aL sea. Cf
course, ln addluon Lo poslng challenges Lo a compleLe counL of mlgranL remalns,
Lhese facLors also deeply challenge Lhe ldenucauon process. An esumaLed
2,000 mlgranLs are reporLed Lo be mlsslng along Lhe unlLed SLaLes-Mexlco
border (Collbrl CenLer for Puman 8lghLs, 2014) and up Lo 70,000 wlLhln Mexlco
(CnuP, 2012).
1he llved experlence of fear for mlgranLs and Lhelr famllles, exlsung aL all polnLs
along Lhe mlgranL [ourney from home Lo desunauon, prevenLs many relauves
and survlvlng mlgranLs from reporung cases of deaLh and dlsappearance. As a
large number of CenLral Amerlcan mlgranLs are eelng vlolence ln Lhelr home
counLrles, reporung a deaLh or dlsappearance Lo Lhe auLhorlues ln Lhls reglon
could pose an addluonal level of rlsk Lo Lhose relauves sull ln Lhe counLry. Along
Lhe mlgranL Lrall, fellow mlgranLs who wlLness abuses or deaLhs could be afrald
Lo reporL Lo Lhe auLhorlues for fear of deporLauon or reprlsals. Slmllarly, ln Lhe
unlLed SLaLes, many famllles are afrald Lo call auLhorlues regardlng a mlsslng
person for fear of deporLauon, whlch could lead Lo furLher famlly separauon. Also,
ln Mexlco, as prevlously menuoned, human rlghLs defenders face lncreaslngly
severe securlLy rlsks as Lhey look lnLo cases of vlolence and crlmlnal acuvlLy.
1he nal Lwo key facLors conLrlbuung Lo llmlLed daLa abouL mlgranL deaLhs are
deeply lnLerrelaLed. 1he lnconslsLency ln meLhods for denlng, reporung and
counung mlgranL deaLhs ls relaLed Lo lack of auenuon aL Lhe federal level Lowards
cenLrallzlng such counLs. As sLaLed by Marla !lmenez ln Lhe 2009 ACLu reporL:
1here ls no coordlnaLed process Lo sysLemlze counung Lhe dead. LsumaLes vary
wlLh Lhe source, Lhe crlLerla used Lo ldenufy remalns as Lhose of undocumenLed
mlgranLs, and Lhe meLhod for reglsLerlng Lhe dead" (24).
ln Lhe uS conLexL, Lhe four border-sLaLes where mlgranLs are dylng each have
a dlerenL sysLem for lnvesugaung and Lracklng deaLhs. Callfornla operaLes on
a coroner-medlcal examlner sysLem, wlLh Lwo key counues recordlng mlgranL
deaLhs. Arlzona operaLes on a medlcal examlner sysLem, wlLh Lwo Lo Lhree
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
73
dlerenL omces examlnlng deceased mlgranLs. Cnly one omce ln Arlzona
(CCML) counLs mlgranL remalns speclcally. new Mexlco has a sLaLewlde
medlcal examlner sysLem, whlch means LhaL Lhe daLa ls llkely qulLe accuraLe for
Lhe small number of remalns dlscovered ln LhaL sLaLe. 1exas ls where problems
are Lhe mosL severe, wlLh 13 counues borderlng Mexlco, and a confuslng !usuce
of Lhe eace medlco-legal sysLem. 1hus, along Lhe border, each sLaLe, secLor,
counLy, or dlsLrlcL records deaLhs sllghLly dlerenLly, and many do noL counL
mlgranL deaLhs as a speclc caLegory of faLallLy.
Some counues ln Lhe unlLed SLaLes may have requlremenLs for recordlng a deaLh
LhaL mlghL lnadverLenLly exclude mlgranL cases ln parucular. 1he unlverslLy
of PousLon researchers referenced earller (Lschbach eL al., 1999) found LhaL
medlcal lnvesugaLors ln lmperlal CounLy, Callfornla, requlre a body parL LhaL
ls essenual Lo llfe" such as a skull or a splnal column Lo be recovered for a
deaLh cerucaLe Lo be led (1999:438). lL ls unknown wheLher Lhls ls sull Lhe
case. 1he researchers also menuon Lhe case of a sherl ln 1exas who would
arrange for a deaLh cerucaLe on a human skull only lf Lhe decedenL's famlly
became lnvolved" (lbld.). 1hese meLhods may exclude cases of mlgranL remalns
ln parucular because lL ls noL uncommon for mlgranL remalns Lo become hlghly
fragmenLed before recovery (Anderson, 2008), and Lhe decenLrallzed naLure of
mlsslng mlgranL lnvesugauon may prevenL a famlly from belng lnvolved before
Lhe lnvesugauon ends (8elneke, 2013).
Many of Lhese problems could be solved wlLh a federal requlremenL or mandaLe
Lo counL mlgranL remalns, along wlLh sysLemauc guldellnes and crlLerla. lL may
be Lrue LhaL 8order aLrol records are compleLe. Powever, Lhe meLhodology for
such counLs ls noL LransparenL, and varlous researchers have found Lhe agency's
esumaLes Lo be lncompleLe (Lschbach eL al., 1999, CAC, 2006, !lmenez, 2009).
Clven LhaL Lhe local meLhods for reporung mlgranL deaLhs are lnconslsLenL and
decenLrallzed, lL ls hlghly unllkely LhaL a compleLe counL exlsLs.
2.5 Conclusion and recommendations
1he lnlual crlsls of Lhe loss of llves of Lhousands of mlgranLs ln norLh Amerlca
over Lhe pasL Lwo decades ls compounded by lack of lnformauon abouL such
faLallues. lncompleLe daLa on mlsslng and deceased mlgranLs ln Mexlco and
Lhe unlLed SLaLes llmlLs Lhe scope and eecuveness of eorLs Lo prevenL such
deaLhs. 1here ls no compleLe counL, leL alone deLalled sLausucal analysls of Lhe
demographlcs and causes of deaLh for deceased mlgranLs ln Lhe Amerlcas. 1he
mosL deLalled, compleLe and sysLemauc eorL Lo enumeraLe mlgranL deaLhs and
provlde a prole of Lhe deceased as well as lnformauon on leadlng causes of
deaLh ln any slngle reglon has come from Lhe eorLs puL forLh by Lhe CCML ln
1ucson, Arlzona. 1he meLhods uullzed by Lhe CCML can and should be used
Chapter 2 Migrant Deaths in the Americas (United States and Mexico)
74
as a blueprlnL by [urlsdlcuons encounLerlng recenL surges ln mlgranL faLallues.
Adherlng Lo such conslsLenL and preclse meLhodology ls lmperauve, as Lhe lack
of undersLandlng of Lhe phenomenon of mlgranL faLallues ln Lhe Amerlcas wlll
sLunL eorLs Lo save llves, repaLrlaLe Lhe dead and prosecuLe Lhose lnvolved ln
homlcldes or forced dlsappearances.
MlgranLs LhroughouL Lhe Amerlcas consuLuLe a vulnerable populauon, requlrlng
exLra proLecuons by lnLernauonal, SLaLe and local governlng bodles. AlLhough
exacL numbers are unavallable, lL ls clear LhaL mlgranLs are faclng severe LhreaLs
Lo Lhelr securlLy ln boLh Mexlco and Lhe unlLed SLaLes. 1hey are dylng and
dlsappearlng aL an alarmlng raLe, a raLe LhaL should ralse concerns regardlng Lhe
safeLy and securlLy of all persons ln reglons aecLed.
1he followlng recommendauons are llmlLed speclcally Lo Lhe problem of
enumeraung dead and mlsslng mlgranLs.
unlLed SLaLes
- 1he unlLed SLaLes 8order aLrol musL make lLs meLhodology for
enumeraung mlgranL deaLhs along Lhe border publlc. lurLher, Lhe agency
should provlde baslc demographlc daLa on Lhe deceased (age, blologlcal
sex, place of orlgln, eLc.), lnformauon on leadlng causes of deaLh and
ldenucauon raLes across 8order aLrol secLors.
- Local border [urlsdlcuons should follow Lhe example and crlLerla of Lhe
CCML ln Arlzona for counung mlgranL faLallues of boLh ldenued and
unldenued lndlvlduals. 1hls eorL should lnclude worklng closely wlLh
forenslc anLhropologlsLs, local auLhorlues, 8order aLrol agenLs and
forelgn consulaLes.
- Clvll socleLy organlzauons, academlcs and represenLauves from local
governmenLs along Lhe border should convene a meeung Lo esLabllsh
shared guldellnes for Lhe enumerauon of mlgranL deaLhs along Lhe border
Lo cross-check 8order aLrol counLs.
- Local [urlsdlcuons should follow federal and sLaLe laws as well as
professlonal besL pracuces when lnvesugaung mlgranL deaLhs.
Mexlco
- Mexlcan CovernmenL omclals should lmprove raLes of lnvesugauon lnLo
Lhe deaLhs or dlsappearances of mlgranLs as reporLed by famllles or
human rlghLs defenders.
- lederal and local auLhorlues, especlally ln Lhe medlcal examlner sysLem
(l.e. Ll Servlclo Medlco lorense), should make avallable daLa regardlng Lhe
number of recovered remalns along mlgranL rouLes, lncludlng unldenued
remalns.
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
73
- Puman rlghLs defenders, mlgranL rlghLs and humanlLarlan organlzauons,
and relevanL federal and local omclals should convene a meeung Lo
deLermlne besL pracuces for Lhe enumerauon of mlgranL deaLhs and
dlsappearances.
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1994 lree Lrade and closed borders: nAl1A and Mexlcan lmmlgrauon Lo
Lhe unlLed SLaLes. u.c. uovls low kevlew, 27:937-78.
!udls, !.8.
2008 1rade secreLs. New kepobllc, 9 Aprll. Avallable from www.
newrepubllc.com/arucle/Lrade-secreLs.
kaLz, l.
1974 Labor condluons on haclendas ln orrlan Mexlco: Some Lrends and
Lendencles. 1be nlspoolc Ametlcoo nlstotlcol kevlew, 34(1):1-47.
kovlc, C.
2013 5eotcbloq fot tbe llvloq, tbe ueoJ, ooJ tbe New ulsoppeoteJ oo
tbe Mlqtoot 1toll lo 1exos. ltellmlooty kepott oo Mlqtoot ueotbs
lo 5ootb 1exos. 1exas Clvll 8lghLs ro[ecL, Ausun, 1exas. Avallable
from www.LexasclvllrlghLspro[ecL.org/3208/mlgranL-deaLhs-aL-Lhe-
souLh-Lexas-border-Lcrp-human-rlghLs-reporL-summer-2013/.
kronlck, u.
2010 urug-war-relaLed homlcldes omclal sLausucs. Avallable from hup://
sLanford.edu/~dkronlck/mexlco_crlme/.
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
79
MacCormack, !.
2013 SouLh 1exas deaLhs belle mlgranL sLausucs. noostoo cbtoolcle,
2 !anuary. Avallable from www.housLonchronlcle.com/news/
housLon-Lexas/housLon/arLlcle/S-1exas-deaLhs-belle-mlgranL-
sLausucs-4160173.php.
Marunez, u.L. eL al.
2013 A coouooeJ nomooltotloo ctlsls ot tbe 8otJet. uoJocomeoteJ
8otJet ueotbs kecotJeJ by tbe llmo coooty O[ce of tbe MeJlcol
xomloet, 1990-2012. 8lnauonal Mlgrauon lnsuLuLe, ueparLmenL
of Mexlcan Amerlcan SLudles, unlverslLy of Arlzona, 1ucson,
Arlzona.
Marunez, u.L., 8. 8elneke, 8. 8ublo-ColdsmlLh and 8ruce A. arks
SLrucLural vlolence and mlgranL deaLhs ln souLhern Arlzona:
updaLed daLa from Lhe lma CounLy Cmce of Lhe Medlcal Lxamlner,
1990-2013. Iootool oo Mlqtouoo ooJ nomoo 5ecotlty (forLhcomlng).
Marunez, u.L., !. Slack and . vandervoeL
2013 MeLhodologlcal challenges and eLhlcal concerns of researchlng
marglnallzed and vulnerable populauons: Lvldence from rsLhand
experlences of worklng wlLh unauLhorlzed mlgranLs. ln: uocbotteJ
1ettolos. New ultecuoos lo 8otJet keseotcb ooJ MetboJoloqy,
tblcs, ooJ ltocuce (A.C. C'Leary, C.M. ueeds and S. WhlLeford,
eds.). unlverslLy of Arlzona ress, 1ucson, Arlzona, pp. 101-120.
Massey, u.S., !. uurand and n.!. Malone
2002 8eyooJ 5moke ooJ Mlttots. Mexlcoo lmmlqtouoo lo oo to of
cooomlc loteqtouoo. 8ussell Sage loundauon, new ?ork.
Mlro, n.
2013 SouLh 1exas counLy faces wave of mlgranL deaLhs. 1be wosbloqtoo
lost, 8 May. Avallable from hup://arucles.washlngLonposL.
com/2013-03-08/world/39114984_1_lllegal-mlgranLs-u-s-border-
paLrol-checkpolnL.
nevlns, !.
2003 1hlnklng ouL of bounds: A crlucal analysls of academlc and human
rlghLs wrlungs on mlgranL deaLhs ln Lhe u.S.-Mexlco border reglon.
Mlqtoclooes lotetoocloooles, 2(2):171-190.
2003 A beaung worse Lhan deaLh: lmaglnlng and conLesung vlolence ln
Lhe u.S.-Mexlco 8orderlands. AmetlOoests, 2(1):1-23.
2007 uylng for a cup of coee? MlgranL deaLhs ln Lhe uS-Mexlco border
reglon ln a neollberal age. Ceopollucs, 12(2):228-247.
Chapter 2 Migrant Deaths in the Americas (United States and Mexico)
80
nevlns, !. and M. Alzekl
2008 uyloq to llve. A 5toty of u.5. lmmlqtouoo lo oo Aqe of Clobol
ApottbelJ. ClLy LlghLs ubllshers, San lranclsco, Callfornla.
Crrenlus, .
2004 1he eecL of u.S. border enforcemenL on Lhe crosslng behavlor of
Mexlcan mlgranLs. ln: ctossloq tbe 8otJet. keseotcb ftom Mexlcoo
Mlqtouoo ltoject (!. uurand and u.S. Massey, eds.). 1he 8ussell
Sage loundauon, new ?ork ClLy, pp. 281-297.
assel, !., u.v. Cohn and A. Conzalez-8arrera
2012 neL mlgrauon from Mexlco falls Lo zero-and perhaps less. ew
8esearch Plspanlc CenLer, 23 Aprll.
enhaul, k.
2010 1raln of deaLh" drlves mlgranL Amerlcan dreamers. Cnn, 23 !une.
Avallable from www.cnn.com/2010/WC8Lu/amerlcas/06/23/
mexlco.Lraln.deaLh/.
ereyra, A.!.L.
2013 Mexlco, una moneda al alre: lnforme sobre las y los mlgranLes no
locallzados, desaparecldos y resLos no ldenucados en Mexlco. ln:
uloqosuco Je uetecbos nomooos eo lo ltooteto 5ot Je Mxlco.
Mlqtoclo 1ettltotlo Mojetes uefeosotes y uefeosotos Je uetecbos
nomooos. lnlclauvas para la ldenudad y la lnclusln A.C. (lnlClA),
San CrlsLobal de las Casas and Morella, pp. 11-44.
olaskl, S.
2003 !obs, wages, and household lncome. ln: NAl1As ltomlse ooJ
keollty. lessoos ftom Mexlco fot tbe nemlspbete (!.!. Audley, u.C.
apademeLrlou, S. olaskl and S. vaughan). Carnegle LndowmenL
for lnLernauonal eace, WashlngLon, u.C., pp. 11-37. Avallable
from hup://carnegleendowmenL.org/les/naa1.pdf.
orLes, A. and !. Sensenbrenner
1993 Lmbeddedness and lmmlgrauon: noLes on Lhe soclal deLermlnanL
of economlc acuon. 1be Ametlcoo Iootool of 5ocloloqy, 98(6):1320-
1330.
ubllc Cluzen's Clobal 1rade WaLch
2014 NAl1As 20-eot leqocy ooJ tbe lote of tbe 1toos-loclfc lottoetsblp.
ubllc Cluzen's Clobal 1rade WaLch, WashlngLon, u.C. Avallable
from www.cluzen.org/documenLs/nAl1A-aL-20.pdf.
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
81
8amsey, C.
2012 Mapplng Lhe unldenued vlcums of Mexlco's drug war. lnSlghL
Crlme, 18 november. Avallable from www.lnslghLcrlme.org/
news-analysls/mapplng-Lhe-unldenued-vlcums-of-mexlcos-drug-
war?prlnL=1&Lmpl=componenL.
8elneke, 8.
2013 LosL ln Lhe sysLem: unldenued bodles on Lhe border. NAclA kepott
oo tbe Ametlcos, 46(2):30-33.
8eynolds, !.
2014 1he brlef: unldenued mlgranLs' mass grave spurs calls for
lnvesugauon. 1be 1exos 1tlbooe, 23 !une. Avallable from www.
LexasLrlbune.org/2014/06/23/brlef/.
8ublo-ColdsmlLh, 8. eL al.
2006 1he funnel eecL" and recovered bodles of unauLhorlzed mlgranLs
processed by Lhe lma CounLy Cmce of Lhe Medlcal Lxamlner, 1990-
2003. 8lnauonal Mlgrauon lnsuLuLe, Mexlcan Amerlcan SLudles and
8esearch CenLer, unlverslLy of Arlzona, 1ucson, Arlzona. Avallable
from www.derechoshumanosaz.neL/lmages/pdfs/bml20reporL.
pdf.
Sanderson, S.L.
1981 Aqtotloo lopollsm ooJ tbe Mexlcoo 5tote. 1be 5ttoqqle fot looJ lo
5oooto. unlverslLy of Callfornla ress, Los Angeles.
SapkoLa, S. eL al.
2006 unauLhorlzed border crosslngs and mlgranL deaLhs: Arlzona, new
Mexlco, and Ll aso, 1exas, 2002-2003. Ametlcoo Iootool of lobllc
neoltb, 96(7):1282-1287.
Slack, !. eL al.
2013 ln Lhe shadow of Lhe wall: lamlly separauon, lmmlgrauon
enforcemenL and securlLy. CenLer for Laun Amerlcan SLudles,
unlverslLy of Arlzona, 1ucson, Arlzona. Avallable from hup://
las.arlzona.edu/slLes/las.arlzona.edu/flles/uA_lmmlgraLlon_
8eporL2013web.pdf.
SouLhern 8order Communlues Coalluon
2013 8order aLrol abuse slnce 2010: 22 kllled by CusLoms and 8order
roLecuon. numbers from SouLhern 8order Communlues Coalluon
webslLe, as of 7 uecember.
Chapter 2 Migrant Deaths in the Americas (United States and Mexico)
82
SpagaL, L.
2013 8order aLrol wlll conunue kllllng people who Lhrow rocks.
AssoclaLed ress, 3 november. As posLed on www.humngLonposL.
com/2013/11/03/border-paLrol-kllllng_n_4218334.hLml.
Spener, u.
2009 clooJesuoe ctossloqs. Mlqtoots ooJ coyotes oo tbe 1exos-Mexlco
8otJet. Cornell unlverslLy ress, lLhaca, new ?ork.
SLern, C.
2012 Crosslng Lhrough Lhe borderland: laLallues due Lo auempLed lllegal
crosslngs beLween Lhe Mexlco and unlLed SLaLes 8order along Lhe
8lo Crande rlver ln souLhwesL 1exas, 2007-2011. resenLauon
Lo Lhe Amerlcan Academy of lorenslc Sclences, ALlanLa, Ceorgla,
lebruary.
unlLed nauons Cmce of Lhe Plgh Commlssloner for Puman 8lghLs (CPCP8)
2011 unlLed nauons Worklng Croup on Lnforced or lnvolunLary
ulsappearances concludes vlslL Lo Mexlco. ress release, CPCP8
Mexlco Cmce, 31 March. Avallable from www.ohchr.org/Ln/
newsLvenLs/ages/ulsplaynews.aspx?newslu=10907&Langlu=L.
unlLed nauons Cmce on urugs and Crlme (unCuC)
2013 Clobol 5toJy oo nomlclJe 201J. 1teoJs, cootexts, uoto. unCuC/
unlLed nauons, vlenna/new ?ork ClLy. Avallable from www.unodc.
org/documenLs/gsh/pdfs/2014_CLC8AL_PCMlCluL_8CCk_web.
pdf.
unlLed SLaLes 8order aLrol
2014 1oLal lllegal allen apprehenslons by scal year (CcL. 1sL Lhrough SepL.
30Lh). Avallable from www.cbp.gov/slLes/defaulL/les/documenLs/
u.S.208order20aLrol20llscal20?ear20Apprehenslon20
SLausucs20by20secLor20and20border20area.pdf.
unlLed SLaLes Conference of CaLhollc 8lshops
2003 SLrangers no longer LogeLher on Lhe [ourney of hope. A pasLoral
leuer concernlng mlgrauon from Lhe CaLhollc 8lshops of Mexlco
and Lhe unlLed SLaLes, 22 !anuary. Avallable from www.usccb.org/
lssues-and-acuon/human-llfe-and-dlgnlLy/lmmlgrauon/sLrangers-
no-longer-LogeLher-on-Lhe-[ourney-of-hope.cfm.
unlLed SLaLes CovernmenL AccounLablllLy Cmce (CAC)
2006 lllegal lmmlgrauon: 8order-crosslng deaLhs have doubled slnce
1993, 8order aLrol's eorLs Lo prevenL deaLhs have noL been fully
evaluaLed. CAC, WashlngLon, u.C.
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
83
vogL, W.A.
2012 8upLured [ourneys, rupLured llves: CenLral Amerlcan mlgrauon,
Lransnauonal vlolence, and hope ln souLhern Mexlco. ulsserLauon,
unlverslLy of Arlzona, 1ucson, Arlzona.
Wlse, 1.A.
2009 8eformlng nAl1A's agrlculLural provlslons. ln: 1be lotote of Nottb
Ametlcoo 1toJe lollcy. lessoos ftom NAl1A (k.. Callagher, L.u.
eLers and 1.A. Wlse, conveners). 1he lrederlck S. ardee CenLer for
Lhe SLudy of Lhe Longer-8ange luLure, 8osLon unlverslLy, 8osLon,
pp. 33-42. Avallable from www.bu.edu/pardee/les/2009/11/
ardee-8eporL-nAl1A.pdf.
2010 AgrlculLural dumplng under nAl1A: Lsumaung Lhe cosLs of
u.S. agrlculLural pollcles Lo Mexlcan producers. Mexlcan 8ural
uevelopmenL 8esearch 8eporLs serles, 8eporL 7, Woodrow
Wllson lnLernauonal CenLer for Scholars, WashlngLon,
u.C. Avallable from www.ase.Lus.edu/gdae/ubs/rp/
AgrlcuumplngWoodrowWllsonCenLer.pdf.
World 8ank
2014 overLy and equlLy daLa. Avallable from hup://daLa.worldbank.org/
Loplc/poverLy.
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
83
Tracking Deaths in the
Mediterranean Chapter 3
1amara LasL
1
and 1homas Spl[kerboer
2
3.1 Introduction
1he recenL surge of popular lnLeresL ln and lncreaslng publlc awareness of
mlgranL deaLhs ln Lhe MedlLerranean has Lurned Lhe quesuon of how many
have dled lnLo an urgenL mauer. AuempLs Lo respond Lo Lhls quesuon have
produced varylng esumaLes. 1hls varlauon ls parLly aurlbuLable Lo Lhe pollucally
conLroverslal naLure of Lhe sub[ecL of border-relaLed deaLhs: dlerenL pollucal
and lnsuLuuonal acLors have dlerenL sLakes ln Lhe answer Lo Lhls quesuon. ln
addluon, Lhere ls a general pauclLy of lnformauon abouL Lhose who have dled
auempung Lo cross Lhe souLhern exLernal borders of Lhe Luropean unlon (Lu)
wlLhouL auLhorlzauon, especlally when compared wlLh Lhe amounL of daLa
generaLed abouL Lhe arrlval, lnLercepuon, rescue, deLenuon and deporLauon
of mlgranLs - sLausucs whlch can serve Lo [usufy fundlng and lnLenslcauon of
border conLrol.
1hls chapLer lnvesugaLes Lhe varlous esumaLes of deaLhs LhaL have been
produced - where Lhey come from, how Lhey are used, whaL Lhey add Lo
debaLes, proposed soluuons, pollcy and pollcy developmenL, awareness of Lhe
lssue and human rlghLs advocacy, among oLhers. lL shows LhaL exlsung esumaLes
are lnsumclenL for documenung how many people have dled Lrylng Lo cross
Lhe souLhern Lu exLernal borders. 1he chapLer also revlews Lhe posslblllues for
lmproved daLa on border-relaLed deaLhs.
1here are numerous reasons why lL ls lmporLanL Lo documenL Lhe number
of people who have dled auempung Lo cross lnLo souLhern Lurope wlLhouL
auLhorlzauon. lor one, Lhls lnformauon would enable us Lo appreclaLe Lhe exLenL
of mlgranL morLallLy ln Lhe MedlLerranean. lurLhermore, knowledge of when,
where and how mlgranLs dle ls lmporLanL Lo deLermlne Lhe facLors conLrlbuung
Lo Lhese deaLhs, so LhaL furLher lncldenLs may be prevenLed Lhrough changes ln
pollcy or pracuces. 1he lack of rellable and accuraLe daLa prevenLs debaLes from
*

1he vlews expressed ln Lhls chapLer are Lhose of Lhe auLhors and do noL necessarlly represenL Lhose of Lhe
lnLernauonal Crganlzauon for Mlgrauon (lCM).
1
1amara LasL ls a hu candldaLe aL Lhe vu unlverslLy AmsLerdam.
2
1homas Spl[kerboer ls a rofessor of Mlgrauon Law aL Lhe vu unlverslLy AmsLerdam.
Chapter 3 Tracking Deaths in the Mediterranean
86
movlng forward Lowards evldence-based soluuons. lf Lhere are elemenLs Lo
mlgranL morLallLy ln Lhe MedlLerranean LhaL are relaLed Lo pollcles and pracuces
of SLaLe auLhorlues - ln parucular lf a relauonshlp can be esLabllshed wlLh
border conLrol pollcles and pracuces - Lhls would ralse human rlghLs concerns.
As Lhere ls an lncreaslng volume of funds aL Lhe nauonal and Lu levels belng
channelled lnLo border conLrol eorLs, Lhe lnLended and unlnLended eecLs
of such acuvlues should be publlcly known lf Lhese acuvlues are Lo malnLaln
democrauc leglumacy. A lack of rellable lnformauon also hlnders pollcymakers'
and clvll socleLy's engagemenL wlLh Lhe lssue more generally, conLrlbuung Lo Lhe
neuLrallzauon and leglumlzauon of border-relaLed deaLhs LhaL, as Weber (2010)
argues, explalns why Luropean socleues have so long Lurned a bllnd eye Lo Lhe
problem.
llnally, we need Lo know who ls dylng so LhaL we undersLand who faces Lhe rlsk
of deaLh aL Lhe border, wheLher Lhere are parucularly vulnerable groups and,
lmporLanLly, ln order Lo noufy Lhe famllles of Lhe deceased. WlLhouL conrmauon
of Lhe deaLh of Lhelr relauves, famlly members are noL only denled closure buL
may also be unable Lo lnherlL or remarry (CranL, 2011, Moorehead, 2014, and
Weber and lckerlng, 2011).
3.2 Brief historical and geographical overview
1he maln rouLes for lrregular mlgrauon across Lhe MedlLerranean area Lo Lhe Lu
are Lhe followlng: from 1urkey Lo Creece - boLh by sea and by land ln Lhe Lvros
reglon (Lhe LasLern MedlLerranean rouLe), from 1unlsla and Llbya Lo lLaly and
MalLa (Lhe CenLral MedlLerranean rouLe), from Morocco Lo malnland Spaln by
sea, as well as Lo Lhe Spanlsh enclaves, CeuLa and Melllla, by land and sea (Lhe
WesLern MedlLerranean rouLe), and from Lhe WesL Afrlcan coasL (Cabo verde,
MaurlLanla, Morocco and Senegal) Lo Lhe Canary lslands. Less common are Lhe
sea rouLes from LgypL Lo CreLe and lLaly, from Algerla Lo Sardlnla, and from
Algerla Lo Spaln. 1he sea rouLe from Albanla Lo lLaly, whlch was an lmporLanL
rouLe especlally ln Lhe laLe 1990s, no longer plays a very slgnlcanL role. lnsLead,
lrregular mlgranLs crosslng Lhe Adrlauc Sea and Lhe SLralL of CLranLo deparL
from Creece ln an auempL Lo reach norLhern and WesLern Lurope. 1here seems
Lo be llule boaL mlgrauon Lo orLugal and Cyprus, whlch may be relaLed Lo
Lhelr geographlcal locauon and Lo Lhe sea condluons and currenLs along Lhelr
coasLllnes. See llgure 3.1 for deLecuons of lrregular mlgranLs along selecLed
rouLes Lo Lhe souLhern Lu ln 2013.
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
87
Figure 3.1: Detecnons of |||ega| border cross|ng a|ong se|ected routes of entry
|nto southern LU and ma|n nanona||nes detected on these routes,
2013
5ootce. lronLex 8lsk Analysls, 2014.
1he lnLernauonal CenLre for Mlgrauon ollcy uevelopmenL (lCMu), Luropol
and lronLex have creaLed an onllne lnLeracuve anlmauon (lMap
3
) showlng Lhe
shls of mlxed mlgrauon ows Lowards and across Lhe souLhern Lu exLernal
borders over Lhe perlod 2000-2013. lL lllusLraLes how rouLes fade ln and ouL of
use over ume, as sLraLegles are developed by border agencles ln response Lo
lrregular enLry, by mlgranLs and faclllLauon neLworks Lo clrcumvenL obsLrucuons,
leadlng Lo new responses, and so on.
4
llgure 3.2 shows shls ln rouLes based on
lronLex daLa on deLecuons of lllegal border crosslngs.
3
See hup://www.lmap-mlgrauon.org/lndex.php?ld=471&L=020.
4
lor an analysls focuslng on Lhe Canary lslands, see Codenau (2014).
Chapter 3 Tracking Deaths in the Mediterranean
88
Figure 3.2: I|uctuanons |n popu|ar|ty of routes to Lurope, 2009-2013
5ootce. lronLex 8lsk Analysls, 2014.
ln addluon Lo Lravelllng clandesunely by boaL, mlgranLs also use regular means
of LransporL. Many wlll enLer Lhe Lu wlLh, for example, LourlsL vlsas, and Lhen
oversLay, buL Lhey may also Lravel wlLhouL any auLhorlzauon, for example, by
uslng forged documenLs or hldlng from border checks. ln boLh cases, mlgranLs
use regular means of LransporL ln order Lo eecLuaLe lrregular mlgrauon.
Mlgraung clandesunely by boaL ls noL Lhe mosL common mode of mlgrauon,
mlgranLs Lravel by alr, cargo and passenger shlps, and by car, bus, lorry or Lraln.
1he general esumaLe ls LhaL only abouL 10 per cenL of lrregular mlgranLs enLer
Lurope by sea (1rlandafyllldou and vogel, 2010, and ue 8ruycker, ul 8arLolomeo
and largues, 2013). noneLheless, exlsung daLa suggesLs LhaL mlgranL deaLhs
occur overwhelmlngly durlng clandesune sea voyages (klza, 2008:221-224).
1he relauvely low number of mlgranL deaLhs before 1990 may be relaLed Lo Lhe
facL LhaL lL used Lo be much easler Lo reach Lurope by regular means, even ln
Lhe absence of omclal governmenL auLhorlzauon Lo lmmlgraLe. 1he lnLroducuon
of vlsa obllgauons for many counLrles of orlgln, coupled wlLh carrler sancuons,
may have led Lo a shl from regular means of LransporL, such as alrplanes and
ferrles, Lo lrregular means of LransporL llke shlng boaLs. 1he cessauon of boaL
mlgrauon along Lhe Albanla-lLaly rouLe and Lhe subsequenL shl Lo, among
oLhers, passage from Llbya Lo lLaly has been relaLed Lo border conLrol pracuces
(Cumua, 2003, Spl[kerboer, 2007, klza, 2008, and Codenau, 2014).
-10,000
0
10,000
20,000
30,000
40,000
50,000
60,000
70,000
2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
Central Mediterranean sea route
Eastern Mediterranean sea route
Eastern Mediterranean land route
Western Balkan route
Other routes
u
e
L
e
c
u
o
n
s

o
f

l
l
l
e
g
a
l

b
o
r
d
e
r

c
r
o
s
s
l
n
g
s
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
89
As Lo Lhe counLrles of orlgln, exlsung daLa suggesLs LhaL ln Lhe 1990s mlgranLs
on Lhe WesLern and LasLern MedlLerranean rouLes predomlnanLly orlglnaLed
from Morocco and Algerla, and 1urkey and Lhe Mlddle LasL respecuvely (Carllng,
2007, and l8A, 2013). Powever, Lhe orlgln of mlgranLs uslng Lhese rouLes has
dlversled and lncludes people from sub-Saharan Afrlca, Lhe Mlddle LasL and
SouLh Asla. MlgranLs who Lravel clandesunely by sea, ln parucular Lhe CenLral
MedlLerranean rouLe, are oen eelng conlcL zones such as AfghanlsLan,
LrlLrea, Somalla and Lhe Syrlan Arab 8epubllc (llgure 3.3).
Figure 3.3: Detecnons of |||ega| border cross|ng a|ong LU externa| |and and
sea borders by nanona||ty, 2013
5ootce. lronLex Annual 8lsk Analysls, 2014.
ln response Lo lrregular mlgrauon by sea, Luropean counLrles have sLepped
up border conLrol over Lhe pasL Lwo decades. 1hls has Laken varlous forms,
such as lLaly's naval blockade ln Lhe Adrlauc ln Lhe laLe 1990s, Spaln's hlgh-
Lech survelllance sysLem called SlsLema de vlgllancla LxLerlor (SlvL) and lLs
cooperauon wlLh WesL Afrlcan counLrles ln Lhe laLe 2000s, lLaly's conLroverslal
pushbacks of mlgranLs Lo Llbya ln 2009, Lhe razor-wlre fences ln CeuLa and
Melllla, and Lhe demlnlng of Lhe Lvros reglon, followed by Lhe consLrucuon of a
hlgh-Lech fence ln 2013. AL Lhe Lu level, a speclallzed Lu border agency, lronLex,
was creaLed. lronLex has coordlnaLed muluple operauons Lo combaL smuggllng
and Lramcklng and prevenL lrregular mlgrauon aL sea, Lhese operauons lnclude:
Lhe CaLe of Afrlca, whlch LargeLs sLowaways Lravelllng beLween Morocco and
Spaln, Pera, focused on Lhe reglon beLween WesL Afrlca Senegal and MaurlLanla
ln parucular, and Lhe Canary lslands, oseldon, ln maln land and sea crosslng
polnLs beLween Creece and 1urkey, Creece and Albanla, and 8ulgarla and 1urkey,
Permes, beLween 1unlsla, Llbya and Algerla, and Lhe souLhern lLallan lslands of
Lampedusa, Slclly and Sardlnla, Aeneas, ln Lhe lonlan Sea beLween 1urkey and
LgypL, and Lhe lLallan reglons of uglla and Calabrla, lndalo, beLween norLh and
24%
11%
9%
8%
6%
5%
5%
3%
3%
3%
23%
Syrian Arab Republic
Eritrea
Afghanistan
Albania
Kosovo/UNSC 1244
Somalia
Pakistan
noL specled
Nigeria
Algeria
Other
1oLal: 107,363
Chapter 3 Tracking Deaths in the Mediterranean
90
sub-Saharan Afrlca and Spaln, where mlgrauon happens parLly ln response Lo
Lhe proLracLed crlsls ln Mall, and nauulus, ln Lhe reglon beLween Llbya, MalLa
and lLaly.
5
AnoLher slgnlcanL developmenL aL Lhe Lu level ls Lhe lnLroducuon
of Lurosur, an lnLegraLed survelllance and lnLelllgence sysLem for Lhe enure
MedlLerranean.
6
lL seems plauslble LhaL Lhese lnnovauons ln border pollcles and
pracuces have lnuenced Lhe lunerarles of mlgranLs, whlch ln Lurn may have led
Lo a relauvely hlgher mlgranL deaLh Loll, as argued by several auLhors (lekeLe,
2003, Carllng, 2007, Spl[kerboer, 2007, CranL, 2011, and l8A, 2013).
3.3 Risks associated with unauthorized travel
eople who auempL Lo cross Lhe souLhern Lu exLernal borders wlLhouL
auLhorlzauon face a number of rlsks. Cne rlsk Lhey all share ls LhaL of lnLercepuon
by auLhorlues. As unauLhorlzed, lllegallzed" border-crossers, belng caughL by
border guards or oLher SLaLe omclals may resulL ln mlgranLs belng deLalned and/or
deporLed, sub[ecLed Lo vlolence perpeLraLed by Lhese omclals, forced overboard
by smugglers ln fear of belng caughL, or pushed back" (belng removed ouL of
Lhe [urlsdlcuon of Lhe lnLercepung SLaLe wlLhouL any posslblllLy Lo clalm asylum
or humanlLarlan proLecuon). Powever, belng caughL on Lhe "rlghL" slde of Lhe
border can resulL ln rescue and/or an opporLunlLy Lo lodge an asylum clalm.
1he dlerenL modes of unauLhorlzed border-crosslng also carry speclc rlsks. lor
sLowaways ln regular means of LransporL, Lhe rlsks are mosLly relaLed Lo where
mlgranLs hlde Lo avold belng deLecLed and caughL. 1hese places may lnclude:
underneaLh lorrles, where mlgranLs face a danger of falllng among movlng
vehlcles, wheel bays of planes, where mlgranLs are aL rlsk of freezlng Lo deaLh,
suocaung or falllng, sealed conLalners on cargo shlps or on Lhe back of lorrles,
where Lhere ls a danger of suocauon, and englne rooms or propeller bays of
shlps, where mlgranLs are aL rlsk due Lo machlnery and/or suocauon. lor Lhose
who cross Lhe land borders beLween Morocco and Lhe Spanlsh enclaves of CeuLa
and Melllla, Lhe dangers faced are from Lhe razor-wlre fences LhaL forufy Lhese
borders as well as vlolence from Lhe Moroccan pollce and pushbacks by Lhe
Spanlsh Cuardla Clvll. 1he land border beLween Creece and 1urkey ls mosLly
marked by a deep and fasL-owlng rlver, so Lhe rlsks are slmllar Lo Lhose faced
aL sea (whlch ls explalned ln deLall ln Lhe succeedlng paragraph). 1hls border
reglon was also Lhe slLe of Lhousands of unexploded landmlnes unul 2009,
accordlng Lo Lhe Creek CovernmenL, and has vasL areas of dense foresL ln whlch
lL ls easy Lo become losL, and Lhus face Lhe dangers of sLarvauon, dehydrauon
and hypoLhermla, among oLhers.
3
lronLex provldes an overvlew of lLs operauons aL hup://fronLex.europa.eu/operauons/archlve-of-
operauons/.
6
LsLabllshed by 8egulauon 2031/2013, C! 2013 L293/11.
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
91
8elng aL sea (or crosslng Lhe Lvros rlver) carrles a wlde range of rlsks, some
appllcable Lo persons aL sea generally, and oLhers speclc Lo unauLhorlzed
mlgranLs. 1he general rlsks of belng aL sea lnclude bad weaLher, rough seas and
poor vlslblllLy. 1he dangers assoclaLed wlLh such condluons are helghLened for
lrregular mlgranLs for varlous reasons. Whlle faced by all sea vessels, mlgranL
boaLs are aL greaLer rlsk of loslng dlrecuon or runnlng ouL of supplles of food
or, more devasLaungly, drlnklng waLer. Cen every space on a boaL used Lo
carry unauLhorlzed mlgranLs ls reserved for addluonal paylng passengers raLher
Lhan food, waLer or fuel, furLhermore, Lhese boaLs are more llkely Lo geL losL
as Lhey may be operaLed by lnexperlenced capLalns wlLh llule Lo no navlgauon
equlpmenL on board. MlgranL boaLs Lend Lo be of very low quallLy, lncreaslngly
so slnce Lhe llkellhood of conscauon has lncreased wlLh sLrlcLer survelllance.
Slnce Lhe boaL wlll presumably be losL, smugglers have an lncenuve Lo lnvesL
as llule as posslble ln Lhe boaL lLself. 1hose who cross from WesL Afrlca Lo Lhe
Canary lslands may qulLe easlly mlss Lhe mark and drl ouL Lo Lhe ALlanuc. 8oaLs
LhaL run ouL of fuel can drl for weeks, passengers dylng slowly of dehydrauon,
sLarvauon, hypoLhermla or sun sLroke. MlgranL boaLs are also aL greaLer rlsk of
shlpwreck and capslzlng due Lo overcrowdlng, lnexperlenced crew and capLaln,
and subsLandard quallLy of Lhe boaLs, whlch means LhaL leaks and moLor fallure
occur frequenLly.
8escue operauons Lhemselves are lnherenLly qulLe dangerous, especlally ln bad
condluons, because Lhey lnvolve careful manoeuvrlng and Lransfer of passengers
from one vessel Lo anoLher. 8escue of mlgranL boaLs, especlally unseaworLhy
boaLs, ls rlsky because of overcrowdlng and poor sLewardshlp. unauLhorlzed
mlgranLs are also, of course, Lhe LargeL of lnLercepuon operauons, whlch carry
Lhe same rlsks as rescue operauons lf noL more, because border guards are noL
usually Lralned as coasL guards and border paLrol boaLs do noL always carry
rescue equlpmenL. 1he facL LhaL Lhe passengers on board mlgranL boaLs are
noL generally accusLomed Lo belng aL sea, someumes cannoL swlm and may be
fearful of SLaLe auLhorlues conLrlbuLes Lo Lhe rlsk of rescue and lnLercepuon
operauons endlng ln faLallues.
As a resulL of dlspuLes beLween SLaLe auLhorlues over Lhe locauon of rescue and
dlsembarkauon responslblllues, mlgranLs also run Lhe rlsk of noL belng rescued.
ulsLress calls have been known Lo go unanswered or lgnored (SLrlk, 2012, Peller
and ezzanl, 2014). rlvaLe vessels may noL asslsL a mlgranL boaL ln dlsLress due
Lo Lhe relaLed rlsks and nanclal losses LhaL sLand no chance of compensauon,
and because Lhey fear Lhelr asslsLance may lead Lo arresL and prosecuuon for
supposedly asslsung lllegal lmmlgrauon. 8aLher Lhan belng rescued, mlgranL
boaLs may be pushed back" Lo Lhe hlgh seas or Lo anoLher coasL. Puman rlghLs
reporLs lnslsL LhaL Lhls was common beLween lLaly and Llbya/1unlsla,
7
beLween
7
Luropean CourL of Puman 8lghLs, 23 lebruary 2012, appllcauon 27763/09, nltsl Iomoo ooJ otbets v ltoly.
Chapter 3 Tracking Deaths in the Mediterranean
92
Spaln and Morocco (MSl, 2013), and beLween 1urkey and Creece, boLh ln Lhe
Aegean Sea and ln Lhe rlver Lvros (8C AS?L, 2013). 8elng pushed back lncreases
Lhe chances of runnlng ouL of supplles, gemng losL or drllng, Lhus sub[ecung
mlgranLs Lo prolonged exposure aL sea.
3.4 How many die? Existing data and its quality
1he mosL comprehenslve, Lurope-wlde seL of daLa ls Lhe llsL of faLallues of unl1Lu
AgalnsL 8aclsm (unl1Lu), an lnLernauonal non-governmenLal organlzauon
(nCC) based ln AmsLerdam.
8
1hls llsL ls based on medla reporLs, and each enLry
menuons Lhe source on whlch lL ls based.
9
unl1Lu's LlsL of ueaLhs was sLarLed
as a monlLorlng mechanlsm ln 1993 by a neLwork of clvll socleLy acLors Lo record
Lhe deaLhs of refugees and mlgranLs Lhey aurlbuLe Lo Lhe lmmlgrauon and
border conLrol pollcles of lorLress Lurope. 1he laLesL publlshed verslon of Lhe llsL
lncludes 17,306 cases from 1993 Lo november 2012. Powever, unl1Lu uullzes a
broad denluon of border deaLh," lncludlng Lhose who dle ln deLenuon cenLres,
Lhose who dle as homeless people, Lhe vlcums of raclsL auacks ln Lurope, Lhose
who lose Lhelr llves crosslng borders wlLhln Lhe Lu (for lnsLance beLween lrance
and Lhe unlLed klngdom), and anywhere on Lhe [ourney Lo Lurope, meanlng noL
only ln Lhe physlcal border reglon buL also ln Lhe Sahara deserL, for lnsLance.
When lLered for a narrower denluon of "border deaLhs," as Lhose whlch occur
durlng Lhe auempL Lo cross a souLhern Lu exLernal border, Lhe LoLal number
comes Lo around 14,600.
1he oLher frequenLly referenced llsL, whlch ls comparable ln meLhodology, ls
Lhe one of lorLress Lurope, run by lLallan [ournallsL Cabrlele uel Crande slnce
2006.
10
lorLress Lurope uses news medla as lLs prlmary source and clvll socleLy
organlzauons as a secondary source, slmllar Lo unl1Lu. Powever, whlle unl1Lu
llsLs numerous sources for cases whlch were wldely reporLed, lorLress Lurope
only provldes one. 1he lorLress Lurope blog llsLs a LoLal of 19,812 mlgranLs who
dled or wenL mlsslng on Lhelr way Lo Lurope from 1988 Lo Lhe presenL. 1hls LoLal
ls hlgher Lhan LhaL of unl1Lu, whlch ls ln parL due Lo Lhe exLended Lemporal
coverage, and mosLly due Lo Lhe more exLenslve coverage of Lhe Lgypuan
(Slnal)-lsraell border and Lhe Sahara. unl1Lu, on Lhe oLher hand, covers Creece
and Spaln more comprehenslvely (see llgure 3.3). 1he LoLal number of border
deaLhs reporLed by lorLress Lurope for Lhe MedlLerranean reglon only (deaLhs
whlch occur durlng auempLs Lo cross Lhe souLhern Lu exLernal borders wlLhouL
auLhorlzauon) ls 14,737. 1hls gure ls close Lo LhaL of unl1Lu for Lhe same
reglon and denluon of border deaLhs, however, even ln Lhelr coverage of Lhe
MedlLerranean, Lhe Lwo llsLs are far from ldenucal, boLh reveallng gaps ln Lhe
8
See www.unlLedagalnsLraclsm.org.
9
AL Lhe bouom of Lhe LlsL of ueaLhs," all sources on whlch unl1Lu has relled are llsLed.
10
See www.forLresseurope.blogspoL.com.
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
93
accuracy of Lhe oLher. noneLheless, Lhey boLh demonsLraLe a slmllar Lrend ln Lhe
LoLal number of border deaLhs over ume (see llgure 3.4).
Figure 3.4: Compar|son of UNI1LD and Iortress Lurope ||sts of border deaths
|n the Med|terranean, 1993-2011
5ootce: uaLa exLracLed by auLhors from unl1Lu and lorLress Lurope.
1he facL LhaL Lhe Lwo ma[or sources of daLa on border deaLhs are Lhemselves
sourced from news medla ralses slgnlcanL concerns vls-a-vls Lhe rellablllLy
of press reporung. 8lg lncldenLs are generally well recorded: Lhe hlgher Lhe
number of deaLhs, Lhe more auracuve Lhe news sLory ls Lo [ournallsLs. Some
places recelve more medla auenuon Lhan oLhers because Lhey have developed
lnLo border LheaLres" (Cumua, 2014), Lherefore, we can suspecL LhaL deaLhs
ln Lhese places are reporLed more sysLemaucally ln Lhe medla, as ln Lhe case of
Lampedusa. Local medla ls generally more rellable aL reporung lndlvldual bodles
found on beaches, or by local shermen or oLher prlvaLe seafarers. neverLheless,
news medla ls a problemauc source for Lhree reasons:
Medla reporLs news. lf deaLhs happen all Lhe ume, lL sLops belng news. AL
oLher umes, border deaLhs may noL have been consldered as relevanL as Lhey
are now. Someumes Lhey are reporLed as folts Jlvets, as page llers, whlle,
for example, shorLly aer blg accldenLs medla auenuon for lndlvldual deaLhs
may be more lnLense. 1hese facLors lead Lo undercounung.
1he deLalls LhaL are lmporLanL Lo [ournallsLs for Lhe sLory are noL necessarlly
Lhe same deLalls LhaL are lmporLanL Lo soclal sclence or forenslc lnvesugauons.
lor academlc research, deLalled lnformauon abouL Lhe clrcumsLances of
deaLh, Lhe cause of deaLh and Lhe preclse locauon where deaLh presumably
occurred are more lmporLanL Lhan for [ournallsm. 1hls also explalns Lhe
0
500
1,000
1,500
2,000
2,500
3,000
1
9
9
3
1
9
9
4
1
9
9
5
1
9
9
6
1
9
9
7
1
9
9
8
1
9
9
9
2
0
0
0
2
0
0
1
2
0
0
2
2
0
0
3
2
0
0
4
2
0
0
5
2
0
0
6
2
0
0
7
2
0
0
8
2
0
0
9
2
0
1
0
2
0
1
1
UNITED Fortress Europe
Chapter 3 Tracking Deaths in the Mediterranean
94
gaps and dlverslLy of lnformauon found ln Lhe unl1Lu, lorLress Lurope,
1he MlgranLs llles and AuPA llsLs. Moreover, Lhe [ournallsL plcks up on
lnformauon avallable aL Lhe ume of wrlung. As ln Lhe case of envlronmenLal
or lndusLrlal dlsasLers, Lhe lmmedlaLe body counLs or reporLs of how many
are mlsslng are noL oen Lhe mosL accuraLe. lf Lhere ls no follow-up arucle,
Lhe facLs may never be publlshed.
AlLhough lL ls llkely LhaL Lhe LoLal counLs are underesumaLes, Lhere ls a
chance of overcounung when uslng Lhe news medla. lor example, medla
may reporL 10 people mlsslng, and Lhree weeks laLer reporL Lwo bodles found
ln an advanced sLaLe of decomposluon somewhere along Lhe coasL. 1hese
could be Lwo of Lhe 10 mlsslng, buL one cannoL be sure unless a survlvor can
ldenufy Lhem. Should one assume 10 mlgranLs dled, or 12?
ln lLs annual reporL on human rlghLs aL Lhe fronuers of Spaln, Asoclacln ro
uerechos Pumanos de Andalucla (AuPA, Andaluslan Assoclauon for Puman
8lghLs) also publlshes lnformauon abouL mlgranLs who dled or wenL mlsslng on
Lhelr way Lo Spaln. numbers from Lhe AuPA Lend Lo be hlgher Lhan gures from
oLher sources for Lhe WesLern MedlLerranean rouLe. Powever, Lhe AuPA does
noL speclfy Lhe source/s of each case, and lncludes deaLhs of mlgranLs presumed
Lo be on Lhelr way Lo Spaln, buL whlch ln facL occur, for example, ln Lhe deserL ln
nlger (AuPA, 2014:33).
Cver Lhe years, varlous academlcs have used unl1Lu, lorLress Lurope and/or Lhe
AuPA ln comblnauon wlLh oLher sources Lo auempL more accuraLe esumaLes
by checklng and cleanlng Lhe daLa provlded by Lhese daLabases. Local, shorL-
Lerm sLudles (Codenau and ZapaLa Pernndez, 2008, Carllng, 2007, Cumua,
2006) lead Lo hlgher numbers Lhan Lhe ones from unl1Lu and lorLress Lurope
buL for smaller areas (Spaln and Slclly, respecuvely) and for shorL perlods. MosL
llkely, Lhls ls Lhe case because blg nCC neLworks such as unl1Lu rely on nauonal
and reglonal medla, whlle a local sLudy such as Cumua (2003) lncluded all
local Slclllan medla, for lnsLance. klza (2008) revlewed Lhe daLa avallable as of
2008 and bullL a more sclenuc daLabase, MlgvlcLu. uslng Lhe unl1Lu llsL as
a sLarung polnL, klza checked and conrmed Lhe deLalls of each case by addlng
and Lrlangulaung dlerenL sources, and narrowed Lhe focus of Lhe daLabase Lo
Lhose who dled on Lhelr way Lo Lurope, excludlng Lhose who, for example, dled
ln deLenuon cenLres. Slmllarly, ln 2013, a consoruum of [ournallsLs sLarLed 1he
MlgranLs llles, almed aL lmprovlng Lhe accuracy and comprehenslveness of Lhe
unl1Lu and lorLress Lurope daLa, whlch was Lhelr sLarung polnL.
11
Powever, Lhe
resulung daLabases of 1he MlgranLs llles (publlcly avallable) and klza are sull
based prlmarlly on news medla and demonsLraLe slmllar Lrends of faLallues over
ume as Lhe unl1Lu and lorLress Lurope llsLs (see llgure 3.3).
11
See www.[ournallsmfund.eu/mlgranLs-les.
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
93
Figure 3.5: 8order deaths between Afr|ca and Spa|n - compar|son of datasets,
1988-2014
5ootce: unl1Lu, lorLress Lurope, AuPA, Carllng, 2007, klza, 2008.
1he lnformauon provlded ln Lhe unl1Lu llsL ranges accordlng Lo Lhe quallLy and
deLall of Lhe sources. ln some cases, name, gender, age, nauonallLy, place, daLe,
cause and clrcumsLances of deaLh, and how many bodles were found by whom
are provlded, whereas ln oLhers Lhe descrlpuon can be as slmple as Lhe monLh or
year, and an esumaLed number of persons who drowned ln Lhe MedlLerranean".
lorLress Lurope llsLs Lhe daLe, Lhe (supposed) counLry or reglon of orlgln, and
a descrlpuon whlch, agaln, ranges dramaucally ln Lhe amounL of deLall. As
lckerlng and Cochrane (2012) found when auempung a gender analysls of a
daLaseL derlved from Lhe unl1Lu LlsL of ueaLhs, Lhere are lnsumclenL cases wlLh
comparable lnformauon Lo be able Lo draw concluslons abouL who dles where,
of whaL and why.
?eL anoLher lssue ls wheLher Lhe exlsung sources conLaln lnformauon on Lhe
cause of deaLh. lor some, Lhe cause of deaLh ls dlrecLly relaLed Lo Lhe border:
mlnes ln Lvros (unul 2009), razor-wlre fence ln CeuLa and Melllla, shooungs
and malpracuces ln lLaly, Creece and Spaln, shooungs and beaungs by norLh
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1,000
1,100
1,200
1
9
8
8
1
9
8
9
1
9
9
0
1
9
9
1
1
9
9
2
1
9
9
3
1
9
9
4
1
9
9
5
1
9
9
6
1
9
9
7
1
9
9
8
1
9
9
9
2
0
0
0
2
0
0
1
2
0
0
2
2
0
0
3
2
0
0
4
2
0
0
5
2
0
0
6
2
0
0
7
2
0
0
8
2
0
0
9
2
0
1
0
2
0
1
1
2
0
1
2
2
0
1
3
2
0
1
4
UNITED Fortress Europe APDHA Carling (2007) Kiza (2008)
Chapter 3 Tracking Deaths in the Mediterranean
96
Afrlcan border guards. 1he daLa presenLly avallable suggesLs Lhere are more
deaLhs dlrecLly relaLed Lo border conLrol aL land borders Lhan aL sea. lor Lhe vasL
ma[orlLy, however, Lhe cause of deaLh ls only lndlrecLly relaLed Lo border conLrol.
MosL boaL mlgranLs seem Lo dle of drownlng, hypoLhermla and dehydrauon,
whlle mosL sLowaways seem Lo dle of suocauon and dehydrauon. As far as we
can Lell from Lhe daLa currenLly avallable, facLors conLrlbuung Lo causes of deaLh,
boLh dlrecLly and less dlrecLly relaLed Lo border conLrol, are Lhe rlsks assoclaLed
wlLh unauLhorlzed Lravel, amLudes Lowards and dehumanlzauon of "lllegal"
mlgranLs, deLecuon-avoldance Lacucs and proL-drlven behavlour of smugglers,
and lack of experlence of mlgranLs wlLh Lhe open sea.
ln addluon Lo Lhe sources from clvll socleLy, some omclal gures are publlshed.
1he Spanlsh MlnlsLry of lnLerlor has released numbers on an ad hoc basls,
12

probably derlved from operauonal reporLs by Cuardla Clvll and La Socledad de
SalvamenLo y Segurldad Marluma (SASLMA8), Lhe lnLegraLed Spanlsh sea search
and rescue sysLem. When deparLures from Algerla became more common, Lhe
Algerlan CovernmenL announced LoLal gures per year of Lhose known Lo Lhe
Algerlan navy and coasL guard Lo be dead or mlsslng aL sea on Lhe way Lo Lurope
(largues, 2013:14). Powever, Lhls daLa ls noL lndlvlduallzed buL provlded only ln
aggregaLed form, whlch makes lL lmposslble Lo LesL lLs accuracy and Lo compare
lL wlLh unl1Lu and slmllar sources. 1he lLallan Speclal Commlssloner for Mlsslng
ersons has complled a llsL of unldenued corpses and human remalns ln lLaly,
Lhe vasL ma[orlLy of whlch are LhoughL Lo be mlgranLs (Cauaneo eL al., 2010).
Powever, lL ls noL yeL compleLe, and lL wlll noL llsL any ldenued mlgranLs. 1hus,
Lhe publlshed omclal sLausucs ralse more quesuons Lhan Lhey answer. Agencles
LhaL deal dlrecLly wlLh mlgranLs auempung Lo cross Lhe souLhern Lu border
wlLhouL auLhorlzauon, such as Lhe nauonal coasL guards and lronLex, do noL
lnclude daLa on deaLhs ln Lhelr annual reporLs or sLausucs.
As a resulL of Lhe pauclLy of omclal sLausucs, unl1Lu's LlsL of ueaLhs and Lhe
lorLress Lurope blog have remalned Lhe prlmary sources of daLa on border-
relaLed deaLhs ln Lhe MedlLerranean. AlLhough Lhere has been an lncrease ln
vlsuallzauons of daLa (see, for example, Lhe maps produced by Mlgreurop
13
), and
papers and reporLs on Lhe sub[ecL over Lhe lasL 10 years, sources of daLa have
noL developed, Lherefore lL ls quesuonable Lo whaL exLenL knowledge of Lhe
sub[ecL has moved forward ln any subsLanuve way.
Clvll socleLy groups and [ournallsLs have so far Laken on Lhe role of keeplng Lrack
of Lhe number of deaLhs and mlsslng mlgranLs ln Lhe MedlLerranean, wlLhouL
Lhem Lhere would be very llule lnformauon avallable. Powever, lL seems LhaL
unl1Lu has elLher sLopped counung or ls no longer maklng lLs LlsL of ueaLhs
publlc, as Lhe lasL verslon avallable onllne ls daLed 1 november 2012. 1he eorLs
12
uaLa from Lhe Spanlsh MlnlsLry of lnLerlor ls ln owerolnL presenLauons on le wlLh Lhe auLhors.
13
See hup://www.mlgreurop.org/?lang=en.
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
97
of 1he MlgranLs llles [ournallsLs and academlcs such as Carllng (2007) and
klza (2008) seem Lo be focused on cleanlng and checklng pasL cases raLher Lhan
monlLorlng Lhe ongolng sysLem. Local clvll socleLy groups sull record lnformauon
abouL shlpwrecks and oLher lncldenLs lnvolvlng faLallues, buL Lhelr prlmary alm
ls noL Lo generaLe publlc knowledge buL Lo asslsL ln Lhe ldenucauon, burlal and
repaLrlauon of bodles, and ln searches for mlsslng persons.
Some lndlvlduals caughL up ln Lhe process of deallng wlLh border deaLhs or
unauLhorlzed border crosslngs have kepL Lhelr own records. ln Lhe research
Lhey are presenLly underLaklng, Lhe auLhors have dlscovered coroners who keep
daLabases of every auLopsy Lhey have done of lrregular mlgranLs, clvll reglsLrars
who have Laken lL upon Lhemselves Lo creaLe speclal llsLs of cases LhaL come
Lo Lhem for reglsLrauon, and cemeLery omces whlch keep separaLe records
of all Lhe lrregular mlgranLs Lhey have burled. Powever, Lhese acLors do noL
alm Lo publlclze Lhelr daLabases, buL keep Lhem ouL of a sense of professlonal
responslblllLy and Lhe feellng LhaL someday someone mlghL come asklng abouL
Lhem. 1hus, whlle LoLal esumaLes have varled and dlversled, publlcly accesslble
daLa has ln facL reduced over Lhe lasL Lwo years - unl1Lu has ceased Lo puL
new enLrles ln Lhe deaLh llsL onllne for lnsLance - and Lhere has been llule Lo
no publlcauon of omclal governmenL sLausucs Lo supplemenL clvll socleLy
monlLorlng eorLs.
3.5 Methods and sources for a more accurate
and comprehensive count
LsLabllshed sclenuc meLhods of counung deaLhs ln dlmculL conLexLs such as
conlcL zones, namely surveys of random, represenLauve samples of households,
are noL approprlaLe ln Lhe case of border deaLhs due Lo Lhe clandesune naLure
of Lhe border crosslng, Lhe Lransnauonal elemenL of Lhe mlgranLs' deaLhs, and
Lhe dlmculues assoclaLed wlLh locaung famllles ln such a range of counLrles
of orlgln. 1here are, however, numerous poLenual sources of daLa on border
deaLhs Lhrough Lhe generauon of paperwork durlng Lhe process of lnvesugaung,
reglsLerlng and burylng a dead body LhaL ls broughL, by boaL or ude, Lo counLrles
along Lhe MedlLerranean shore. 1he auLhors are carrylng ouL a research uslng
such sources ln Creece, lLaly, MalLa and Spaln. 1hese omclal sources each come
wlLh speclc llmlLauons.
ln Spaln, border deaLhs are counLed as "unnaLural" or "susplclous," whlch means
LhaL a courL musL declare Lhe body [udlclally dead and open an lnvesugauon.
ln lLaly, border deaLhs are consldered unnaLural and Lhe publlc prosecuLor of
Lhe provlnce (Lhe ltocoto) decldes wheLher Lo open an lnvesugauon or noL.
ln MalLa, a maglsLraLe presldes over Lhe lnvesugauon lnLo Lhe cause of deaLh
and - parucular Lo MalLa - Lhe assessmenL wheLher or noL Lhe person dled ln
Chapter 3 Tracking Deaths in the Mediterranean
98
MalLese LerrlLory. ln Creece, Lhe publlc prosecuLor appears Lo play a less acuve
role ln Lhe lnvesugauon, buL noneLheless presldes over Lhe case and auLhorlzes
auLopsles and so on. Slnce Lhe case les of CourLs of lnsLrucuon (Spaln), publlc
prosecuLors (Creece and lLaly) and maglsLraLes (MalLa) conLaln coples of pollce
reporLs, coroner reporLs, orders Lo reglsLer and bury, and oLher paperwork
generaLed durlng Lhe lnvesugauon, Lhey oughL Lo be Lhe ldeal sources of daLa
on border deaLhs. Powever, Lhere are Lwo ma[or problems: rsLly, case les are
noL comprehenslvely archlved and are usually desLroyed aer a perlod of 3 Lo 13
years, so Lhey are dlmculL or even lmposslble Lo locaLe. As border deaLh cases are
noL allocaLed a speclal caLegory or separaLed from oLher case les, even where
daLabases of cases exlsL, Lhere ls no way Lo search for Lhem wlLh Lhe llmlLed
lnformauon we currenLly have. Counung on Lhls source would lnvolve havlng Lo
search Lhrough rooms of chaouc les conLalnlng all case les and perhaps one or
Lwo border deaLh case les. Secondly, even lf all border deaLhs were reglsLered
(whlch mlghL noL always happen ln lLaly or Creece) and Lhe case les could all
be locaLed, such documenLs are generally regarded as condenual and requlre
speclal access permlsslon whlch may noL be granLed on a large-scale basls
necessary Lo ldenufy border deaLh cases. ln all four counLrles, Lhe auLhorlues
lnvolved ln Lhe crlmlnal lnvesugauon do keep dlglLal records, buL ln Lhelr presenL
form Lhese cannoL be used for complllng lnformauon abouL mlgranL deaLhs.
CoasL guards ln Creece collecL sLausucs, buL we do noL know whaL Lhelr
meLhods or lncluslon/excluslon crlLerla are, Lherefore, we do noL know lf Lhere
are meLhodologlcal dlerences beLween unlLs, maklng Lhls source unrellable
for Lhe ume belng. 1he pollce ln all counLrles collecL daLa because Lhey are
always lnvolved ln Lhe process when a body ls found, buL Lhey do noL share Lhelr
meLhods of collecung daLa and wlll noL always be wllllng Lo provlde Lhls daLa, ln
some cases, because Lhe daLa ls slmply noL processed ln any way. lurLhermore,
meLhods mlghL dler beLween unlLs and counLrles.
Coroners are usually lnvolved when a dead body ls recovered buL do noL
necessarlly archlve auLopsy reporLs and even when Lhey do, Lhey cannoL easlly
dlsclose such reporLs glven Lhelr condenuallLy and sensluvlLy. Moreover, Lhese
only conLaln x lnformauon abouL Lhe cause of deaLh and posslbly a few forenslc
clues regardlng Lhe person's ldenuLy. unA samples are now requlred Lo be Laken
from all unldenued bodles ln Creece, and submlued Lo Lhe unA LaboraLory
ln ALhens for prollng, creaung a poLenual source of sLausucs. unforLunaLely,
however, Lhe low number of samples submlued lndlcaLes LhaL noL all coroners
who deal wlLh border deaLhs do Lhls.
8y law, all dead bodles found ln Lhe nauonal LerrlLorles of souLhern Lu Member
SLaLes should be enLered ln Lhe clvll/publlc reglsLry before Lhey can be burled. ln
mosL counLrles, Lhls also exLends Lo any dead body broughL Lo Lhelr shores from
Lhe hlgh seas. ueaLhs are one of Lhe Lhree vlLal evenLs LhaL are sysLemaucally
recorded by Lhe hundreds of local clvll/publlc reglsLrles whose [urlsdlcuons
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
99
cover Lhe Luropean coasLllnes of Lhe MedlLerranean. revlously, Lhese records
had been on paper, buL by May 2013, records were dlgluzed ln all souLhern Lu
counLrles,
14
maklng Lhem easler Lo collecL. Powever, ln Lhelr presenL form, Lhese
cannoL be used for complllng lnformauon abouL mlgranL deaLhs.
1here are no speclc laws deallng wlLh Lhe burlal of unauLhorlzed border-crossers
and Lherefore Lhelr bodles have been scauered among governmenL, rellglous and
speclally deslgnaLed cemeLerles ln all counLrles. Slnce cemeLery omces usually
keep some record of who ls burled where, Lraclng all Lhe burlal slLes would be a
useful approach, Lhls ls a conslderable Lask, Lhough, as declslons over burlals are
a sub[ecL of negouauon beLween local auLhorlues and communlues, wlLh only
occaslonal lnLerference from nauonal or reglonal governmenL auLhorlues. Also,
bones are regularly removed from Lhese cemeLerles - a common pracuce ln
many places for rellglous purposes and Lo creaLe space ln graveyards - and Lhere
ls no obllgauon Lo keep speclal records of mlgranLs. uependlng on Lhe pracuce aL
each lndlvldual cemeLery, records may or may noL speclfy locauon and cause of
deaLh, and may or may noL archlve lnformauon concernlng bodles whose bones
have been removed from Lhe grave. Moreover, some bodles are ldenued and
repaLrlaLed Lo Lhe mlgranLs' famllles and would Lherefore be mlsslng from any
counL based on Lhls source.
AlLhough some courLs, coroners, pollce and coasL guards, clvll reglsLrars and
cemeLerles are wllllng Lo share Lhe lnformauon Lhey have, and oLhers may
be persuaded by permlsslon from a hlgher governmenLal auLhorlLy, Lhere ls a
furLher problem: Lhese sources are scauered across Lhe border reglons of Lhe
MedlLerranean, and Lhere has been no nauonal- or Luropean-level lnluauve Lo
collecL and record Lhese deaLhs sysLemaucally. Moreover, Lhe bodles LhaL wash
up or are broughL Lo Lhe norLh/WesL Afrlcan, 1urklsh and 8alkan coasLs may be
harder Lo Lrace due Lo poorer lnfrasLrucLure for processlng Lhe dead, such as Lhe
poLenual lack of coroners, courLs, clvll reglsLrars or even pollce lnvolved ln Lhelr
processlng and reglsLrauon.
All daLa sources on border deaLhs are llmlLed ln one way or anoLher, so all
sLausucs are lnevlLably lncompleLe. Lach source wlll lead Lo a sample based
on Lhe necessarlly llmlLed lnformauon avallable from LhaL parucular source.
8egardless of Lhe source, yeL anoLher problem ls LhaL some deceased mlgranLs
have "dlsappeared" because nelLher Lhelr deparLure nor Lhelr arrlval was
recorded and Lhelr bodles sank, oLhers may have been (omclally or unomclally)
14
Creece was lasL Lo dlgluze, Lhe Lransluon perlod was compleLed ln May 2013. Spaln has been uslng dlgluzed
deaLh cerucaLes slnce 2006 and lLaly slnce 2001. 8oLh have reLrospecuvely dlgluzed deaLh cerucaLes
for Lhe perlod of lnLeresL for Lhls pro[ecL (1990-2014). valleua ubllc 8eglsLry's dlgluzed daLabase of AcLs
of ueaLh now lncludes all deaLhs golng back Lo Lhe early 1900s. valleua ls Lhe reglsLry for MalLa, as lL also
reglsLers all deaLhs recorded aL Lhe only oLher publlc reglsLry ln MalLa ln Cozo, so Lhls daLabase ls compleLe.
Powever, Lhe common problem among all Lhese dlglLal deaLh reglsLrauon sysLems ls Lhe lack of ablllLy Lo
search for border deaLh cases wlLhouL prlor knowledge of names, places and daLes of blrLh, daLes of deaLh
or daLes of deaLh reglsLrauon.
Chapter 3 Tracking Deaths in the Mediterranean
100
reporLed mlsslng buL Lhelr bodles are never found. lL wlll never be posslble Lo
nd evldence of every body, every person who auempLed Lhe [ourney and dld
noL survlve, even lf mechanlsms are esLabllshed ln Lhe fuLure Lo record mlgranL
deaLhs. 1he lssue of grey numbers" - whlch lnclude people who dled whlle
crosslng Lhe MedlLerranean buL whose bodles were noL recovered or whose
deaLhs were noL recorded - can never be enurely overcome.
ln llghL of Lhls, Lhe alm of daLa collecuon on mlgranL deaLhs has Lo be llmlLed
Lo gemng Lhe mosL rellable number of and lnformauon abouL mlgranL deaLhs.
lf we wanL Lo know how, when, where, how many and why people have dled
auempung Lo cross Lhe souLhern Lu exLernal borders over Lhe lasL Lwo decades
or more, as well as who Lhey are, we have Lo make Lhe besL of Lhe varlous sources
of daLa avallable.
1hls leads Lo Lhree meLhodologlcal challenges:
Counung uslng omclal sources
ln order Lo have comparable daLa on Lhe enure reglon, lL ls necessary Lo ldenufy
avallable LrusLworLhy sources exlsung ln Lhe reglon, whlch use ldenucal or aL
leasL very slmllar meLhods. 1hls makes sources such as local pollucal acLors
or reglonally focused nCCs problemauc. ln addluon, as some nCCs collecL
lnformauon on deaLhs of boLh mlgranLs crosslng Lhe Lu's exLernal borders
and of Lhose who dle once lnslde Lhe Lu (Lhe lnLernal border),
15
lL can be
challenglng Lo lsolaLe only deaLhs LhaL occur aL Lhe exLernal border. Powever,
Lhe lnformauon LhaL ls needed ls already collecLed durlng Lhe governmenL-
led forenslc lnvesugauon and deaLh reglsLrauon process. 1hls lnformauon
ls [usL spread ouL over hundreds of local [urlsdlcuons, maklng lL ume
consumlng and expenslve Lo collecL. ln addluon, Lhe lnformauon ls held by
local governmenL auLhorlues and [udlclal bodles wlLh varylng levels of publlc
accesslblllLy due Lo legal barrlers, such as prlvacy laws, and pollucal concerns,
namely for publlc crluclsm because of Lhe manner ln whlch bodles are dealL
wlLh. 1he presence of such obsLacles and concerns means LhaL Lhe research
wlll, aL besL, Lake longer and aL worsL have a large error margln ln addluon Lo
Lhe grey numbers problem descrlbed above.
8esLorlng ldenuLy Lo "lllegal mlgranLs" and clooJesuoos
As CranL (2011) has argued, anoLher alm of lnvesugaung mlgranL deaLhs ls
Lo resLore Lhe ldenuLy of Lhe deceased and, where posslble, Lo lnform Lhelr
survlvlng relauves. Many mlgranLs do noL carry ldenucauon documenLs
or desLroy Lhem on Lhe way, maklng lL very dlmculL Lo ldenufy Lhem even
ln Lhe cases where Lhelr bodles are found. 8elauves and oLhers searchlng
for mlsslng mlgranLs are also unllkely Lo Lurn Lo Lhe pollce or oLher forenslc
13
See ChapLer 1 for an lnLroducuon Lo Lhe concepL of Lhe exLernal and lnLernal borders.
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
101
lnsuLuuons: lf Lhey are lrregularly ln Lurope Lhey fear Lhey would face
problems wlLh Lhelr lmmlgrauon sLaLus or LhaL Lhey could cause problems
for Lhelr mlsslng relauve lf he or she ls ln facL sull allve, buL Lhey may also be
generally heslLanL Lo Lurn Lo Lhe auLhorlues because of a general mlsLrusL
of governmenL agencles. lamllles searchlng for mlsslng relauves usually
Lurn Lo mlgranL communlLy neLworks, smugglers (kovras and 8oblns, 2013),
and well-known humanlLarlan organlzauons such as Lhe 8ed Cross, whlch
has decades of experlence ln reconnecung dlspersed famllles. Powever,
coordlnauon and lnLer-agency cooperauon ln forenslc lnvesugauons lnLo
unldenued bodles and mlsslng persons, boLh beLween SLaLe auLhorlues and
lnLernauonal organlzauons or clvll socleLy groups, ls parucularly problemauc.
MosL of Lhe forenslc lnvesugauon ls noL accesslble Lo Lhe publlc buL ln closed
courL les, coroners' reporLs, pollce reporLs, unA laboraLorles and so on. Lack
of obllgauon or mouvauon Lo cooperaLe makes lL very dlmculL Lo: (a) maLch
anLemorLem and posL-morLem daLa for ldenucauon, and (b) ldenufy persons
who have been reporLed mlsslng ln one place buL whose bodles are found
elsewhere.
8ecordlng causes of deaLh
knowledge of Lhe causes of deaLh may be relevanL for gurlng ouL ways Lo
reduce Lhe number of mlgranL border-relaLed deaLhs. When pumng LogeLher
such klnd of lnformauon from dlerenL counLrles, Lwo maln problems arlse.
llrsLly, Lhe prlvacy and daLa proLecuon laws of some of Lhe counLrles lnvolved
LreaL Lhe cause of deaLh as a non-publlc lssue, whlch makes collecung and
processlng daLa problemauc as lnformauon on Lhe cause of deaLh ls noL
readlly avallable on deaLh cerucaLes.
16
Secondly, Lhe use of sLandardlzed
codlng for causes of deaLh dlers wldely boLh across and wlLhln relevanL
counLrles (MaLhers eL al., 2003). 1hls weakens Lhe quallLy of Lhe aggregaLed
daLa from dlerenL counLrles.
3.6 Conclusions and recommendations
1he numbers of mlgranL border-relaLed deaLhs currenLly avallable vary
conslderably because Lhey are noL based on Lhe same counung meLhods,
sources or denluons of border deaLhs". lurLhermore, pollucal facLors may
lnuence Lhe counL of border-relaLed deaLhs. 1he underlylng mouvauons of
daLa collecuon eorLs by dlerenL lnsuLuuons may lnuence wheLher gures
are oversLaLed or undersLaLed, and due Lo Lhe amounL of mlsslng and hazy
lnformauon on mlgranL deaLhs, counLs are hardly verlable. All of Lhe presenLly
avallable daLaseLs are based on medla reporLs, whlch - valuable as Lhey are -
16
1hls ls Lhe case ln Spaln as of 1994 and ln lLaly for Lhe enure perlod of lnLeresL (1990-2014). ln Creece and
MalLa, causes of deaLh, where lL was posslble Lo deLermlne, are clearly sLaLed ln deaLh cerucaLes.
Chapter 3 Tracking Deaths in the Mediterranean
102
are lnherenLly problemauc. Such obsLacles can be overcome, Lo some exLenL, by
collecung daLa already avallable ln publlc records ln MedlLerranean counLrles,
mosLly aL Lhe local level. lL ls, however, lmposslble Lo produce wholly accuraLe
gures due Lo Lhe dark number of mlgranLs who have gone mlsslng aL sea. ln
addluon, all sources of lnformauon on mlgranL deaLhs aL Lhe border have speclc
llmlLauons, as ouLllned prevlously.
lL ls, however, lmperauve Lo have mlgranL deaLh daLa LhaL ls as rellable as
posslble, for aL leasL Lwo reasons. llrsL, when deaLh occurs on such a masslve
scale, all acLors lnvolved, lncludlng SLaLes, nCCs and lnLernauonal humanlLarlan
organlzauons, have a responslblllLy Lo lnvesugaLe Lhe causes of such Lragedles ln
order Lo ldenufy posslble lnLervenuons. Second, mlsslng mlgranLs' relauves have
Lhe rlghL Lo know wheLher Lhelr loved ones have dled ln Lhe auempL Lo reach Lhe
desunauon counLry, and lf so where Lhelr remalns are.
ln our own research, we are collecung daLa on mlgranL deaLhs from 1990 Lo
2013 ln ClbralLar, Creece, lLaly, MalLa and Spaln. We seek fundlng Lo add
Cyprus and orLugal, and Lo do plloL sLudles ln Algerla, LgypL, Llbya, MaurlLanla
Morocco, Senegal, 1unlsla and 1urkey, ln order Lo nd ouL how rellable daLa
can be collecLed Lhere. We Lake deaLh cerucaLes ln clvll reglsLrles as our maln
source, on Lhe assumpuon LhaL every dead mlgranL wlll leave a paper Lrall ln
Lhose reglsLrles. ln order Lo ldenufy Lhe cause and locauon of deaLh,
17
and Lo
check wheLher daLa from Lhe reglsLrles ls compleLe, we LrlangulaLe by relylng on
daLa from Lhe publlc prosecuLor (ln Spaln and lLaly), Lhe cemeLerles (ln lLaly), Lhe
coroner (ln MalLa) and Lhe coasL guard (ln Creece). 8y so dolng, we are condenL
LhaL we wlll be collecung daLa - whlch ls as rellable as posslble - on Lhe number
of mlgranLs who were found dead on Lhe Luropean slde of Lhe MedlLerranean,
and were consequenLly burled Lhere. A meLa-analysls of exlsung esumaLes of
mlgranLs who have Lrled Lo cross Lhe MedlLerranean from 1990 Lo 2013 wlll Lhen
enable us Lo esumaLe how mlgranL morLallLy has developed durlng Lhls perlod.
llnally, we wlll Lry Lo esLabllsh wheLher a relauonshlp can be found beLween
Lhe developmenL of border pollcles and pracuces of Luropean SLaLes, and Lhe
evoluuon of mlgranL morLallLy.
Whlle daLa collecuon and ln-depLh research ls ongolng, acLors dlrecLly lnvolved
ln Lhe procedures descrlbed ln Lhls chapLer can do more Lo complle rellable
lnformauon on mlgranL deaLhs and, lmporLanLly, Lhe ldenuues of Lhe dead.
lor one, coasL guards and pollce forces could do more Lo keep records, also
of people reporLed mlsslng by survlvors, coordlnaLe wlLh oLher agencles and
coasL guards Lo ensure Lhere ls no overlap of documenLauon, and communlcaLe
Lhls lnformauon Lo Lhe publlc. lorenslc lnvesugauons lnLo unldenued mlgranLs
whose bodles are found aL sea or along Lhe coasLs should make blgger eorLs
17
1hls ls cruclal ln order Lo dlsungulsh border-relaLed deaLhs from oLhers LhaL are unrelaLed, for lnsLance, lf a
mlgranL drowns whlle worklng as a llfe guard - Laken from our eld work ln MalLa.
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
103
Lo esLabllsh ldenuLy, worklng LogeLher wlLh organlzauons LhaL famllles of Lhe
dead are more llkely Lo LrusL. Clear proLocols for lnvesugaung deaLhs should
be deslgned for pollce and oLher forenslc acLors Lo be able Lo respond Lo Lhe
Lransnauonal and clandesune naLure of Lhese parucular unnaLural" deaLhs.
1hls may necesslLaLe cooperauon wlLh embassles, lnLernauonal organlzauons or
acLors ln oLher counLrles, perhaps Lhrough frameworks such as Lhose provlded
by Lhe lnLernauonal Commluee of Lhe 8ed Cross (lC8C) or Lhrough clvll socleLy
neLworks. ln any case, for places LhaL have been recelvlng mlgranLs, boLh dead
and allve, for Lwo decades now, lL ls remarkable LhaL no speclallzed procedures
have been developed by SLaLe auLhorlues for ldenufylng and respecung Lhe
dead and Lhelr relauves ln Lhls conLexL.
ln addluon, auenuon should be focused on enforclng exlsung regulauons ln Lhls
area. lor lnsLance, all mlgranL deaLhs should be properly reglsLered ln a place
where Lhelr bodles are found or broughL Lo land from Lhe sea, uslng any and all
forenslc lnformauon avallable Lo compleLe reglsLrauon forms. All bodles should
be Lraceable from Lhe momenL Lhey are found Lo Lhelr burlal, uslng a conslsLenL
labelllng sysLem ln Lhe case of unldenued bodles. MandaLory unA sampllng of
unldenued bodles should be sLandard pracuce, and faclllues should be creaLed
Lo enable famllles Lo provlde unA samples Lo run for maLches. 1here should
be a clear procedure and chaln of responslblllLy for collecung, reglsLerlng and
sLorlng personal possesslons found wlLh Lhe body, as Lhey are oen vlLal for
ldenucauon. Crganlzauons such as Lhe lC8C and Medeclns Sans lronueres
have conslderable experuse whlch Luropean SLaLes have Lhe opporLunlLy Lo
draw upon ln deslgnlng and enforclng procedures ln Lhls area.
llnally, as Lhe chapLer has lllusLraLed, Lhere are muluple opporLunlues for SLaLes
Lo collecL and process daLa on border-relaLed deaLhs. now LhaL deaLh reglsLrles
ln souLhern Lu Member SLaLes have been dlgluzed, lL would be relauvely easy for
daLa on deaLh cerucaLes Lo be collecLed cenLrally for Lhe purpose of generaung
deLalled sLausucs golng beyond Lhe number of mlgranL deaLhs per year per
counLry. nauonal sLausucs omces would be llkely candldaLes for underLaklng Lhls,
ln parucular because Lhey already use lnformauon gaLhered from clvll reglsLrles
Lo produce nauonal demographlc and healLh sLausucs. Powever, some mlghL
quesuon wheLher Lhe SLaLe ls Lhe rlghL acLor Lo be collecung and publlshlng
Lhls klnd of daLa. As we noLed above, SLaLe lnsuLuuons may have sLakes ln
Lhe ouLcomes of daLa collecuon on border-relaLed deaLhs, as do all acLors,
evldenced by Lhelr currenL excluslon of mlgranL morLallLy from Lhe volumes
of lrregular lmmlgrauon-relaLed sLausucs on arrlvals, lnLercepuons, rescues,
asylum appllcauons, deLenuon and deporLauon. 1herefore, an alLernauve
would be Lo enLrusL an lndependenL body aL Lhe nauonal level, such as Lhe
omclal human rlghLs monlLorlng lnsuLuuon, wlLh collecung such lnformauon. As
mlgranL morLallLy ln Lhe MedlLerranean appears Lo be a Luropean phenomenon
relaLed Lo Luropean pollcles, lL would make sense Lo puL ln place a Luropean
Chapter 3 Tracking Deaths in the Mediterranean
104
CbservaLory, posslbly as parL of Lhe lundamenLal 8lghLs Agency, Lo oversee daLa
collecuon and ensure sLausucs generaLed aL Lhe nauonal level remalns sclenuc
and ob[ecuve. 1hls would enable Lhe phenomenon ln Lhe reglon as a whole Lo be
monlLored by an lnsuLuuon noL dlrecLly llnked Lo border conLrol. 1hls lnsuLuuon
could also lnvesugaLe posslble pollcy responses Lo reduce Lhe rlsk of deaLh for
mlgranLs auempung Lo cross Lhe exLernal Lu borders wlLhouL auLhorlzauon.
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Asoclacln ro uerechos Pumanos de Andalucla (AuPA)
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Carllng, !.
2007 Mlgrauon conLrol and mlgranL faLallues aL Lhe Spanlsh-Afrlcan
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Cauaneo, C. eL al.
2010 unldenued bodles and human remalns: An lLallan gllmpse Lhrough
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Cumua, .
2003 uelocallzauon of mlgrauon conLrols Lo norLh Afrlca. aper presenLed
aL Lhe workshop 1he Luropeanlsauon of nauonal lmmlgrauon
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Luropean Academy, 8erlln, 1-3 SepLember.
2006 ll conLrollo dell'lmmlgrazlone Lra nordafrlca e lLalla. ln: Llbro blanco:
l cenLrl dl permanenza Lemporanea e asslsLenza ln lLalla un'lndaglne
promossa dal gruppo dl lavoro sul C1A ln lLalla (n. uenuco and M.
Cressl, eds.), 8ome.
2014 8orderlzlng Lhe lsland: Semng and narrauves of Lhe Lampedusa
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ue 8ruycker, ., A. ul 8arLolomeo and . largues
2013 MlgranLs smuggled by sea Lo Lhe Lu: lacLs, laws and pollcy opuons.
MC 8esearch 8eporL 2013/09, Mlgrauon ollcy CenLre-Luropean
unlverslLy lnsuLuLe, San uomenlco dl llesole.
Luropean unlon Agency for lundamenLal 8lghLs (l8A)
2013 looJomeotol klqbts ot otopes 5ootbeto 5eo 8otJets. l8A,
Luxembourg/vlenna.
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
103
largues, . (ed.)
2013 u NelqbbootbooJ Mlqtouoo kepott 201J. Mlgrauon ollcy
CenLre-Luropean unlverslLy lnsuLuLe, San uomenlco dl llesole.
lekeLe, L.
2003 ueaLh aL Lhe border - Who ls Lo blame? lkk otopeoo koce 8olleuo,
!uly.
Codenau, u.
2014 lrregular marlume lmmlgrauon ln Lhe Canary lslands: LxLernallzauon
and communauLarlsauon ln Lhe soclal consLrucuon of borders.
Iootool of lmmlqtoot ooJ kefoqee 5toJles, 12:123-142.
Codenau, u. and v.M. ZapaLa Pernndez
2008 1he case of Lhe Canary lslands (Spaln): A reglon of LranslL beLween
Afrlca and Lurope. ln: lmmlqtouoo llows ooJ tbe Moooqemeot
of tbe us 5ootbeto Motlume 8otJets (C. lnyol, ed.). Avallable
from www.cldob.org/en/conLenL/download/8449/86208/le/doc_
mlgraclones_17.pdf.
CranL, S.
2011 8ecordlng and ldenufylng Luropean fronuer deaLhs. otopeoo
Iootool of Mlqtouoo ooJ low, 13(2):133-136.
Peller, C. and L. ezzanl
2014 Case: 1he le-Lo-dle boaL. utlf, 638-637. Avallable from www.
forenslc-archlLecLure.org/case/le-dle-boaL/.
klza, L.
2008 1oJllcbe Cteozeo. ule lotoleo Alswltkooqeo eotopolscbet
2owooJetooqspolluk. LlL verlag, Zurlch/MunsLer.
kovras, l. and S. 8oblns
2013 Mlsslng mlgranLs: ueaLhs aL sea and addresslng mlgranL bodles ln
Lesbos. ln: 8otJet ctossloqs (P. uonnan, M. Purd and C. LeuLlo-
CrandlLs, eds.). ManchesLer unlverslLy ress, ManchesLer.
MaLhers, C.u. eL al.
2003 Counung Lhe dead and whaL Lhey dled from: An assessmenL of Lhe
global sLaLus of cause of deaLh daLa. lotetoouoool Iootool of lobllc
neoltb, 83(3):171-177.
Chapter 3 Tracking Deaths in the Mediterranean
106
Medeclns Sans lronueres (MSl)
2013 vloleoce, voloetoblllty ooJ Mlqtouoo. 1toppeJ ot tbe Cotes of
otope. A tepott oo tbe sltoouoo of sob-5obotoo mlqtoots lo oo
ltteqolot sltoouoo lo Motocco. MSl, Ceneva. Avallable from www.
msf.le/documenL/vlolence-vulnerablllLy-and-mlgraLlon-Lrapped-
gaLes-europe.
Moorehead, C.
2014 Mlsslng ln Lhe MedlLerranean. lotelllqeot llfe Moqozloe, May-!une.
Avallable from morelnLelllgenLllfe.com/conLenL/feaLures/carollne-
moorehead/losL-medlLerranean.
lckerlng, S. and 8. Cochrane
2012 lrregular border-crosslng deaLhs and gender: Where, how and why
women dle crosslng borders. 1beoteucol ctlmlooloqy, 17:27-48.
8C AS?L
2013 losbeJ 8ock. 5ystemouc nomoo klqbts vlolouoos Aqolost kefoqees
lo tbe Aeqeoo 5eo ooJ ot tbe Cteek-1otklsb looJ 8otJet. 8C
AS?L, lrankfurL/Maln. Avallable from www.proasyl.de/leadmln/
fm-dam/l_Lu_lluechLllngspolluk/proasyl_pushed_back_24.01.14_
a4.pdf.
Spl[kerboer, 1..
2007 1he human cosLs of border conLrol. otopeoo Iootool of Mlqtouoo
ooJ low, 9(2):127-139.
SLrlk, 1.
2012 Llves losL ln Lhe MedlLerranean Sea: Who ls responslble? 8eporL
12893 of Lhe arllamenLary Assembly of Lhe Councll of Lurope, 11
Aprll.
1rlandafyllldou, A. and u. vogel
2010 lrregular mlgrauon ln Lhe Luropean unlon: Lvldence, facLs and
myLhs. ln: ltteqolot Mlqtouoo lo otope. Mytbs ooJ keollues
(A. 1rlandafyllldou, ed.). AshgaLe, larnham, p. 291-299.
Weber, L.
2010 knowlng-and-yeL-noL-knowlng abouL Luropean border deaLhs.
Aosttolloo Iootool of nomoo klqbts, 13(2):33-38.
Weber, L. and S. lckerlng
2011 Clobollzouoo ooJ 8otJets. ueotb ot tbe Clobol ltoouet. algrave
Macmlllan, Pampshlre.
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
107
Crossing the Mediterranean
Louay kha||d ed from the v|o|ent outbreak |n the Syr|an Arab kepub||c v|a
Lebanon and Lgypt, eventua||y end|ng up |n L|bya. Aher work|ng there for a
year, he dec|ded to |eave the troub|ed country. Unab|e to return to h|s home
country or to bring his family to Libya, Louay Khalid planned his crossing to
Lurope. nowever, he was comp|ete|y unaware of the r|sks of the [ourney. 1he
boat on wh|ch he crossed the Med|terranean trag|ca||y sank on 10 Cctober
2013.
18
Aer paylng a smuggler 1,300 Llbyan dlnars (abouL uSu 1,073) for Lhe Lrlp,
Louay khalld was locked ln a house for abouL Lwo weeks wlLh around 430 oLher
asplrlng mlgranLs. 1hey were noL allowed Lo leave Lhe house and were Lold LhaL
lf Lhey dld Lhey would be shoL. LvenLually, Lhey were loaded onLo Lrucks before
belng sLued onLo a heavlly overloaded boaL LhaL was sLeered by oLher mlgranLs.
Cnce l saw Lhe vessel . . . l could lmmedlaLely Lell LhaL we were Loo many
people. 1hey were people everywhere you could look - people ln Lhe
englne room, people on Lhe masL even - llLerally everywhere.
ShorLly aer deparLure, pollce approached
Lhe boaL Lwlce, urglng Lhe vessel Lo reLurn.
Powever, Lhe mlgranLs conunued Lhelr
[ourney unul marlume pollce appeared.
1he pollce requesLed Lhe vessel Lo sLop lLs
[ourney, buL Lhe vessel kepL on movlng, aL
whlch polnL, Lhe pollce red shoLs and began
Lo round" Lhe vessel, Lhrowlng ropes Lo [am
Lhe englne fan. Lven Lhough passengers were
crylng and parenLs holdlng Lhelr chlldren
closely Lo Lhem, Lhe rlng conunued unul Lhe cabln broke down. uurlng Lhe
commouon, Lwo women gave blrLh. llnally, Lhe pollce le. 1he followlng day, Lhe
mlgranLs called Lhe 8ed Cross ln Lampedusa for help. When an alrplane arrlved
aer four hours, Lhe people on board auempLed so desperaLely Lo auracL lLs
auenuon LhaL Lhe vessel capslzed. When Lhe plane reLurned wlLh llfe buoys,
many of Lhe people had already drowned.
l was wearlng a llfe [ackeL . . . LhaL saved my llfe. 1he people who were
lnslde Lhe boaL all dled.
llnally, a hellcopLer provlded llfe [ackeLs, and Lwo speedboaLs rescued some of
Lhe women and chlldren. lloaLs were provlded for approxlmaLely 40 survlvors,
who walLed anoLher day and nlghL before belng Laken lnLo cusLody ln MalLa.
18
1hls sLory summarlzes Lhe encounLer glven by Louay khalld Lo lCM MalLa's Marune Cassar. lL ls adapLed
from Lhe LranscrlpL of Lhe orlglnal lnLervlew aL Lhe Pal lar CenLer, MalLa, ln Aprll 2014.
l wos weotloq o
llfejocket . . . tbot soveJ
my llfe. 1be people wbo
wete loslJe tbe boot
oll JleJ.
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
109
ChrlsLopher Porwood
1
wlLh conLrlbuuons from Arezo Malakoou
2
/AlLal Consulung
4.1 Introduction
1he sub-Saharan Afrlcan mlgraLory ows golng norLh from boLh Lhe wesLern
and Lhe easLern (lncludlng Lhe Porn of Afrlca) sldes of Lhe conunenL have been
changlng ln recenL years, parLly ln response Lo varlable mlgrauon pollcles and
Lhe modlcauon of conLrol and represslon measures along Lhe rouLe. 1hese
changes have Lraced new marlume and overland rouLes for lrregular mlgranLs,
organlzed by crlmlnal neLworks uslng local go-beLweens and smugglers, and
lnvolvlng colluslon beLween Lhemselves, and aL umes pollce, soldlers and oLher
sLakeholders.
1he demand by sub-Saharan lrregular mlgranLs Lo move norLh has been
predomlnanLly drlven by lnLeresL ln Lhe beuer opporLunlues oered by Lhe
Maghreb counLrles, parucularly Llbya, buL more lmporLanLly by Lhe facL LhaL LgypL,
Llbya and Morocco oer Lhe besL sprlngboards for crosslng Lhe MedlLerranean.
Accordlng Lo Lhe (Cmce of Lhe) unlLed nauons Plgh Commlssloner for 8efugees
(unPC8), over 63,000 mlgranLs (noL only sub-Saharan Afrlcans) made Lhe sea
crosslng ln 2013 alone. ln Lhe rsL slx monLhs of 2014 over 60,000 arrlved ln lLaly
alone, Lhe Luropean counLry recelvlng Lhe vasL ma[orlLy of arrlvals.
3
lLallan coasL
guards rescued" 3,000 mlgranLs ln a slngle weekend ln laLe !une, ln anoLher
rescue auempL a few days laLer, Lens of mlgranLs were found Lo have suocaLed
on board a vessel (88C, 2014). Cbservers and experLs warn LhaL Lhese ows
are seL Lo lncrease ln Lhe medlum Lo long Lerm. 1he mosL obvlous measure of
Lhe human cosL of Lhe smuggllng of mlgranLs - and ln some lnsLances, human
Lramcklng - ls Lhe number of people who lose Lhelr llves every year whlle
auempung Lo Lravel. 1hls chapLer conLexLuallzes Lhe relevanL mlgraLory ows
from sub-Saharan Afrlca Lo norLh Afrlca and oers a Lopography of Lhe mosL
prevalenL causes and locauons of deaLh.
*

1he vlews expressed ln Lhls chapLer are Lhose of Lhe auLhors and do noL necessarlly represenL Lhose of Lhe
lnLernauonal Crganlzauon for Mlgrauon (lCM).
1
AL Lhe Llme of wrlLlng, ChrlsLopher Porwood ls Lhe loundlng CoordlnaLor of Lhe 8eglonal Mlxed
MlgraLlon SecreLarlaL (8MMS), based ln nalrobl and parL of Lhe uanlsh 8efugee Councll (u8C). See
www.reglonalmms.org for more lnformaLlon on Lhe 8MMS.
2
AL Lhe Llme of wrlLlng, Arezo MalakooLl ls Senlor ConsulLanL aL AlLal ConsulLlng. See www.
alLalconsulLlng.com for more lnformaLlon on AlLal ConsulLlng.
3
ln lLs 2014 8lsk Analysls, lronLex clLes deLecLlon of 32,419 crosslngs from malnland Afrlca Lo
Luropean desLlnaLlons ln 2013, from a number of dlfferenL rouLes.
From Sub-Saharan Africa
through North Africa:
Tracking Deaths
along the Way Chapter 4
Chapter 4 From Sub-Saharan Africa through North Africa: Tracking Deaths along the Way
110
Figure 4.1: Migratory routes from Sub-Saharan Africa
5ootce: AdapLed from unCuC, 1be Clobollzouoo of ctlme. A 1toosoouoool OtqoolzeJ ctlme 1bteot Assessmeot,
2010, and lMap, 2012 M1M Map on lrregular and Mlxed Mlgrauon 8ouLes.
4.2 Brief historical and geographical background:
The migration context
4.2.1 Similarities and differences between the two routes
Analysls of Lhe mlgrauon conLexL from LasL Afrlca and Lhe Porn of Afrlca, and
from WesL and CenLral Afrlca (sub-Saharan Afrlca) reveal some slmllarlues and
cerLaln clear dlerences.
8oLh areas have fasL-rlslng populauons and large numbers of lmpoverlshed
youLh, who are ready Lo Lake greaL rlsks Lo nd lmproved llvellhood and securlLy
opuons Lhrough mlgrauon. Whlle Lhose comlng from Lhe Porn of Afrlca are
predomlnaLely eelng lnsecurlLy and searchlng for asylum, and Lhe WesL and
CenLral Afrlcans are more llkely Lo be economlc mlgranLs, all are drawn Lo Llbya
and oen onward Lo Lurope for Lhe economlc opporLunlues LhaL exlsL Lhere as
well.
8oLh reglons also have a Lhrlvlng and organlzed mulumllllon-dollar mlgranL
smuggllng Lrade. Accordlng Lo Lhe unlLed nauons Cmce on urugs and Crlme
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
111
(unCuC), each year, some 33,000 mlgranLs are LhoughL Lo be smuggled from
LasL, norLh and WesL Afrlca lnLo Lurope, generaung abouL uSu 130 mllllon ln
revenue for crlmlnals" (unCuC, 2014). 1he smuggllng neLworks are almosL
lmposslble Lo pollce, monlLor or resLraln, whlch ls compounded by Lhe facL LhaL
SLaLe omclals from securlLy, border conLrol and lmmlgrauon auLhorlues may be
compllclL enablers of Lhe smuggllng buslness. Where Lramcklng exlsLs, ln some
cases auLhorlues have also been lmpllcaLed.
4
MlgranLs dle predomlnanLly ln deserLs and aL sea, as Lhese are Lhe mosL
dangerous parLs of Lhe [ourney. 1hese deaLhs are generally Lhe resulL of
dellberaLe mlsLreaLmenL, lndlerence, or LorLure by smugglers, or mlsadvenLure
by mlgranLs Lhemselves. Along all rouLes, cases of sexual vlolence agalnsL female
mlgranLs are commonly reporLed - parucularly concernlng Lhose from Lhe Porn
of Afrlca - as well as expllclL sexual explolLauon and frequenL dlsappearances
of glrls and women.
3
ln Lhe Slnal, sexual vlolence agalnsL males has also been
documenLed (Puman 8lghLs WaLch, 2014a).
Along wlLh Lhese slmllarlues, Lhere are also dlerences beLween Lhe experlences
of mlgranLs from LasL Afrlca/Porn of Afrlca and WesL/CenLral Afrlca, Lo and
from norLh Afrlca: Lhe mlgrauon conLexL ln LasL Afrlca and Lhe Porn of Afrlca
ls resLrlcuve and lnLoleranL desplLe reglonal frameworks and agreemenLs LhaL
should make movemenL beLween SLaLes permlsslble. ln Lhe absence of free or
regular moblllLy, mlgranL smuggllng ls Lhe domlnanL mode of moblllLy because
mosL mlgranLs have Lo break lmmlgrauon laws Lo cross lnLernauonal borders
wlLhln Lhe reglon.
8y conLrasL, ln WesL and CenLral Afrlca, Lhe level of lnLrareglonal moblllLy ls hlgh.
ln Lhe Lconomlc CommunlLy of WesL Afrlcan SLaLes (LCCWAS)
6
reglon, abouL
8 mllllon mlgranLs reslde ln counLrles noL of Lhelr orlgln, ln a conLexL where
smugglers have llule relevance because cluzens share free movemenL proLocols
(lCM, 2014). LxplolLauon of mlgranLs and Lramcklng may exlsL, buL movemenL
wlLhln Lhe LCCWAS ls noL resLrlcLed and Lherefore Lhe level of refoulemenL,
deporLauon, expulslon and hosullLy ls arguably lower Lhan ln LasL Afrlca and
Lhe Porn of Afrlca. 1hls freedom of movemenL also makes Lhe [ourneys less
clandesune ln naLure and, agaln, Lherefore arguably creaLes a safer conLexL
for Lhe mlgranLs (AlLal Consulung, 2013:37). Cnce mlgranLs from WesL and
CenLral Afrlca arrlve ln nlger, Lhough, smugglers become more relevanL, Lhey
4
lor example, see lluP, 2012.
3
1hls ls lncreaslngly a problem for female mlgranLs from Lhe Porn of Afrlca, parLlcularly ln Lhe conLexL
of kldnapplng and exLorLlon, and ls well documenLed. lor WesL Afrlcan female mlgranLs, sexual
abuse appears Lo be sysLemaLlc and opporLunlsLlc ln Lerms of smugglers and offlclals abuslng Lhelr
power whlle movlng or encounLerlng mlgranLs, ln some cases, women and glrls are forced lnLo
shorL- or medlum-Lerm sexual servlLude. Pere, agaln, smuggllng can become Lrafflcklng.
6
1he 13 member SLaLes of Lhe Lconomlc CommunlLy of WesL Afrlcan SLaLes (LCCWAS) are 8enln,
8urklna laso, Cabo verde, CLe d'lvolre, Lhe Cambla, Chana, Culnea, Culnea-8lssau, Llberla, Mall,
nlger, nlgerla, Senegal, Slerra Leone and 1ogo.
Chapter 4 From Sub-Saharan Africa through North Africa: Tracking Deaths along the Way
112
are requlred Lo lead mlgranLs Lhrough Lhe Sahara and Lo help Lhem enLer Llbya.
Smuggllng ln Lhls area has become more esLabllshed Lhan lL ls ln LasL Afrlca and
Lhe Porn of Afrlca, Lhe pootuets or les qbeuos ln Lhe Lowns where mlgranLs
accumulaLe, and Lhe lnvolvemenL of pollce, soldlers and border omclals appear
Lo be more "normallzed" and accepLed Lhan ln Lhe LasL, where human smuggllng
across Sudan and lnLo Llbya ls a relauvely new phenomenon. Much of Lhls
can be aurlbuLed Lo Lhe facL LhaL many of Lhe local economles are now hlghly
dependenL on smuggllng, encouraglng auLhorlues Lo Lurn a bllnd eye (AlLal
Consulung, 2013:66).
ln Lerms of Lhe asplrauons and lnLenuons of mlgranLs, Lhere ls also a dlerence
beLween Lhose golng norLh from WesL and CenLral sub-Sahara, who are noL
necessarlly Lrylng Lo cross over Lo Lurope - alLhough Lhls Lrend ls sLarung Lo
change - and Lhose comlng from LasL Afrlca and Lhe Porn of Afrlca, who are
far more llkely Lo wanL Lo cross Lhe MedlLerranean as soon as posslble (AlLal
Consulung, 2013:72-76). Many WesL and CenLral Afrlcans wlll nd long-Lerm or
seasonal work ln Lhe rlcher, mlddle-lncome Maghreb counLrles, whlle mlgranLs
from Lhe Porn of Afrlca golng norLh and wesL Lend Lo only be Lranslung and
look Lo Lurope for safeLy and proLecuon, many of Lhem ndlng Lhe raclsm and
abuse Lhey suer ln Llbya, also experlenced by many WesL and CenLral Afrlcans,
exLreme and lnLolerable (AlLal Consulung, 2013:72-76). revlously, when Lhe
lsraell border was passable ln Lhe Slnal deserL, mlgranLs Lravelled Lo LasL Afrlca
and Lhe Porn of Afrlca Lo LgypL ln order Lo enLer lsrael Lo boLh remaln ln lsrael
and Lo move onward lnLo Lhe Mlddle LasL and Lurope.
AnoLher ma[or dlerence beLween Lhe Lwo geographlcal conLexLs ls Lhe range of
ways mlgranLs may perlsh durlng Lhelr [ourneys. ln addluon Lo causes assoclaLed
wlLh Lhe hardshlp of [ourneys, mlgranLs leavlng LasL Afrlca and Lhe Porn of Afrlca
Lowards Lhe norLh commonly dle from a wlde range of vlolauons and slLuauons
of dellberaLe murder by smugglers and handlers. 1hese deaLhs may be llnked
Lo Lhe rlse ln cases of kldnapplng and abducuon of mlgranLs for exLoruon.
8y conLrasL, norLh-bound mlgranLs orlglnaung from WesL and CenLral Afrlca
normally dle ln Lhe deserL or aL sea, and due Lo Lhe dangers lnherenL ln crosslng
such challenglng Lerraln. Cases of dellberaLe murder or kldnapplng by Lramckers
and oLher crlmlnals (aparL from cases lnvolvlng women and glrls) Lend Lo be
more rare.
4.2.2 Key drivers
Slnce Lhe 1990s, when Llbya, rldlng hlgh on oll wealLh, professed an lncluslve,
open-border pan-Afrlcanlsm, hundreds of Lhousands of sub-Saharan and norLh
Afrlcan mlgranL workers ocked Lo Lhe counLry for employmenL. Cmclal esumaLes
of mlgranLs ln Llbya puL Lhe number aL 2.3 mllllon before Lhe overLhrow of Lhe
reglme ln 2011 (lCM, 2011a). 8y 2000, pan-Afrlcanlsm had soured, and was
replaced by raclsm and xenophobla agalnsL black mlgranLs LhaL has, lf anyLhlng,
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
113
become more enLrenched slnce Moammar Cadha's overLhrow and deaLh ln
2011. neverLheless, Lhe lmpresslon LhaL Llbya can provlde good employmenL
opporLunlues for sub-Saharan Afrlcans conunues Lo draw Lens of Lhousands of
mlgranLs every year. Many have no lnLenuon Lo cross over Lo Lurope when Lhey
rsL seL ouL from Lhelr counLrles of orlgln, however, a greaLer share are now
crosslng Lhe MedlLerranean, pushed ouL by Lhe harsh and lll LreaLmenL from
auLhorlues and locals ln posL-revoluuon Llbya (AlLal Consulung, 2013:109).
Moreover, compeuuon for low-skllled [obs has lncreased wlLh Lhe larger ows of
low-skllled mlgranLs enLerlng Lhe counLry, meanlng Lhe avallablllLy of [obs ls noL
always as sLrong as Lhose arrlvlng may have lmaglned.
ln addluon Lo Lhe lack of economlc opporLunlues ln counLrles of orlgln, many
of Lhese counLrles are also plagued by pollucal lnsLablllLy, whlch ln some cases
becomes Lhe prlmary reason for deparLure. AL any one ume, among Lhe dozens
of sub-Saharan counLrles, Lhere have been and conunue Lo be comblnauons
of oppresslve reglmes, clvll wars, falllng or falled SLaLes and chronlc complex
emergencles, all causlng movemenL and/or lghL.
7
MlgranLs from Lhese counLrles
ee ln search of asylum ln safer envlronmenLs and Lend Lo come Lo Llbya as a
LranslL polnL Lo Lurope. 1he lack of a framework for asylum ln Llbya, coupled
wlLh arblLrary deLenuon and harassmenL, pushes Lhem ouL and on Lo Lurope.
Addluonally, changlng cllmauc condluons, naLural dlsasLers, and Lhe pervaslve
lnuence of poor governance and endemlc poverLy compel people Lo move ln
whaL are lncreaslngly regarded as mlxed and complex ows. Seasonal mlgrauon
Lo Llbya ls common for mlgranLs orlglnaung from Sahellan SLaLes who suer Lhe
consequences of recurrenL droughL ln Lhe area.
Moreover, Lhls Lrend of mlgrauon Lo Llbya, as nal desunauon or LranslL counLry,
ls llkely Lo conunue. Sub-Saharan Afrlcan counLrles have some of Lhe hlghesL
ferullLy raLes ln Lhe world, wlLh 40 of Lhe hlghesL 30 ln Lhe world locaLed ln
sub-Saharan Afrlca. Accordlng Lo un calculauons, Lhe currenL populauon of sub-
Saharan Afrlca ls over 900 mllllon and, wlLh currenL growLh raLes, ls expecLed
Lo more Lhan double, reachlng over 2 bllllon by 2030. 1he end-of-cenLury
expecLauon ls 3.8 bllllon. CurrenLly, people under 13 years old accounL for
43 per cenL of Lhe populauon of sub-Saharan Afrlca and Lhe youLh bulge" ln
all sub-Saharan counLrles ls seL Lo lncrease as populauon gures rlse (un uLSA,
2012).
1he pressures Lhese demographlcs pose for economles, food securlLy, physlcal
securlLy, servlces and faclllues wlll be, and ls already, huge. When compounded
by rlslng lnequallues ln access Lo and opporLunlues ln [ob markeLs, as well as an
absence of equlLable dlsLrlbuuon of lncome and resources, lL seems clear LhaL
7
Cver Lhe lasL decade, Lhe WesL and CenLral reglon has been characLerlzed by confllcLs ln Llberla,
Slerra Leone, and more recenLly Lhe CenLral Afrlcan 8epubllc, CLe d'lvolre, Mall and nlgerla.
Meanwhlle, ln LasL Afrlca and Lhe Porn of Afrlca, confllcL ln 8urundl, 8wanda, Somalla and now
SouLh Sudan, and reporLedly oppresslve reglmes ln LLhlopla and LrlLrea have compelled mllllons of
people Lo move as forced mlgranLs.
Chapter 4 From Sub-Saharan Africa through North Africa: Tracking Deaths along the Way
114
Lhe fuLure managemenL of Lhls large, expecLanL populauon wlll be problemauc
Lo say Lhe leasL. Cne ouLcome LhaL can be fully expecLed wlll be Lhe compulslon
Lo seek beuer opporLunlues ouLslde sub-Sahara - ouLmlgrauon. As long as such
movemenL ls resLrlcLed and lllegal, lrregular, clandesune and smuggler-managed
movemenL wlll conunue.
4.2.3 West and Central Africa context
West Africa
WesL Afrlca provldes Lhe sLrongesL example of lnLrareglonal mlgrauon ows
ln sub-Saharan Afrlca, wlLh an esumaLed 70 per cenL of mlgraLory movemenLs
Laklng place wlLhln Lhe subreglon, malnly llnked Lo employmenL. Accordlng Lo Lhe
lnLernauonal Crganlzauon for Mlgrauon (lCM) (2014), ln recenL years lrregular
mlgrauon aL Lhe lnLerreglonal level beLween WesL and CenLral Afrlca Lowards
Lurope vla Lhe norLhern coasL of malnland Afrlca has lncreased subsLanually.
Many counLrles ln Lhe reglon whlch were prevlously consldered as counLrles of
orlgln are lncreaslngly becomlng LranslL and desunauon counLrles, and lrregular
mlgrauon ls on Lhe agenda of mosL governmenLs ln Lhe reglon. 1he [ourney from
WesL Afrlca Lo Lurope ls noL always made all aL once: Lhe ma[orlLy of mlgranLs
remaln ln norLh Afrlca for dlerenL perlods of ume, oen Lo earn more money
Lo nance furLher movemenL.
Mlgrauon from WesL and CenLral Afrlca ls noL new. ln parucular, every coasLal
counLry has lLs own mlgrauon hlsLory. lor example, mlgrauon from Senegal
daLes back Lo Lhe colonlal era, when lrance governed lLs Afrlcan colonles, many
Senegalese were Lralned as clvll servanLs, Leachers and crasmen, and senL Lo
work across WesL Afrlca as auxlllarles Lo Lhe colonlal admlnlsLrauon. 1hen, ln Lhe
1980s Lhe exodus Lo Lurope began as a resulL of successlve droughLs, deepenlng
economlc problems and fasL-paced urbanlzauon (l8ln, 2006). 1ens of Lhousands
of Senegalese Lraversed Lhe Sahara deserL Lo cross Lhe MedlLerranean from
MaurlLanla and Morocco, oen endlng up ln Lhe lnformal labour secLor of
lrance or lLaly, even lf Lhose counLrles were noL Lhelr rsL porL of enLry. 8uL
when Lhose Lwo counLrles, aL Lhe end of 2003, lncreased paLrols Lo lnLercepL
lrregular mlgranLs, many Senegalese mlgranLs opLed for Lhe longer and oen
leLhal sea [ourney Lo Lhe Canary lslands (Spanlsh LerrlLory) lnsLead. Slnce 2007
and 2008, due Lo hlgh numbers of deaLhs aL sea and lncreased anu-Lramcklng
and anu-smuggllng lnluauves, mlgranLs have been elLher golng overland wlLh
Lhe lnLenuon Lo break lnLo Spanlsh LerrlLory Lhrough Lhe enclaves of CeuLa and
Melllla, or have been uslng boaLs Lo cross Lhe MedlLerranean. Lach counLry and
each group of mlgranLs have Lhelr own hlsLory and speclc conLexL, buL nauonal
elaborauon ls beyond Lhe scope of Lhls chapLer.
uaLa on Lhe number of mlgranLs emlgraung ouL of WesL Afrlca ls nelLher avallable
nor collecLed ln any formal way. Powever, Lhe number of mlgranLs seen ln Llbya
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
113
and Morocco and Lhe number of Lhose crosslng Lhe MedlLerranean glve an
lndlcauon and rough esumaLes suggesL numbers could be as hlgh as 100,000 or
more every year.
WesL Afrlcan mlgranLs headlng norLh Lo Llbya, wheLher lnLendlng Lo cross Lhe
MedlLerranean or noL, Lyplcally Lravel Lo elLher Mall or nlger and from Lhere
Lhey elLher enLer Llbya dlrecLly, or vla Algerla (AlLal Consulung, 2013:36). 8eseau
Lxodus, a pro[ecL LhaL worked wlLh Lhe pollce ln nlger Lo collecL daLa on reglsLered
mlgranL ows Lowards Llbya, recorded [usL over 40,000 people leavlng Agadez
Lravelllng norLh over nlne monLhs ln 2013.
lL may be useful Lo see Lhe rouLes Laken norLh separaLed lnLo Lhree generlc
grouplngs:
8
MaurlLanla and Senegal Lo Lhe Canary lslands
1he wesLernmosL of Lhe Lhree ma[or rouLes used by lrregular mlgranLs from WesL
Afrlca Lowards Lurope ls focused on porLs on Lhe ALlanuc coasL, where boaLs can
be sLeered Lo Lhe Canary lslands or even Lo Lhe Spanlsh malnland. Aer belng
dlsrupLed by sLrlcLer enforcemenL ln recenL years, deparLure polnLs have been
successlvely pushed souLhwards and Lhe ALlanuc rouLe has decllned rapldly.
Powever, beLween 1998 and 2007 Lhe sea rouLe from MaurlLanla or Senegal Lo
Lhe Canarles was Lhe premler cholce of many mlgranLs. Accordlng Lo a reporL by
unCuC, 31,678 lrregular mlgranLs, Lhe peak gure, arrlved ln Lhe Canary lslands
ln 2006 wlLh hlgh levels of marlume morLallLy (unCuC, 2011).
WesLern overland rouLe Lo norLh Afrlca
1he wesLern MedlLerranean overland rouLe from norLh Afrlca Lo Lurope can
sLarL ln any clLy ln WesL or CenLral Afrlca. 1he maln overland rouLes of Lhe
wesLern MedlLerranean rouLe run from Senegal Lhrough MaurlLanla Lo Morocco,
or vla Cao ln Mall norLh Lo Algerla and Morocco. lrregular mlgranLs from WesL
Afrlca who arrlve ln Morocco by one of Lhe varlanLs of Lhls rouLe may remaln
Lhere for years, maklng auempLs (mosL oen repeaLed) Lo enLer Lurope vla
Spaln - lncludlng forclng enLry and sLormlng Lhe enclaves of CeuLa and Melllla.
Whlle 2003 was a peak year for forced enLry by mlgranLs, 2013 and 2014 saw
a resurgence of groups enLerlng Lhrough fence-sLormlng. A surprlslngly hlgh
number of group sLormlng evenLs are successful and can lnvolve more Lhan a
Lhousand mlgranLs, Lhese oen cause ln[urles and someumes faLallues.
9
8
1hese Lhree caLegorles borrow from Lhe unCuC (2011) separaLlon of rouLes. lor more recenL and
more deLalled descrlpLlons of speclflc rouLes used, fees pald and vulnerablllLles faced on dlfferenL
rouLes, refer Lo AlLal ConsulLlng, 2013.
9
lor lnsLance, see: 88C, Afrlcan mlgranLs sLorm lnLo Spanlsh enclave of Melllla" (88C, 28 lebruary
2014), avallable from www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-26382389, Cnn, Would-be lmmlgranLs
sLorm Spanlsh enclave on Moroccan coasL" (Cnn, 19 March 2014), avallable from hLLp://edlLlon.
cnn.com/2014/03/19/world/europe/spaln-lmmlgranLs-melllla-morocco/.
Chapter 4 From Sub-Saharan Africa through North Africa: Tracking Deaths along the Way
116
LasLern overland rouLe Lo norLh Afrlca
1he easLernmosL of Lhe overland rouLes commonly used by mlgranLs from WesL
and CenLral Afrlca ls Lhe cenLral MedlLerranean rouLe, accessed vla Agadez ln Lhe
nlger and Cao ln Mall. 1hese Lwo Lowns are key deparLure polnLs for access Lo
Lhe Maghreb, especlally vla 1amanrasseL Lo Lhe SLralL of ClbralLar and on Lo Spaln
or, more popular slnce 2011, vla Sabha Lo Lhe Llbyan coasL, for Lhose lnLendlng
Lo reach lLaly. Accordlng Lo some un sLudles, Lhere are subsLanual numbers of
WesL Afrlcans who, havlng reached norLh Afrlca by one or anoLher rouLe across
Lhe deserL, move from one counLry Lo anoLher ln norLh Afrlca ln search of work
or on Lhe lookouL for an opporLunlLy Lo nd a boaL Lo Lurope" (unCuC, 2011).
When cerLaln rouLes are obsLrucLed or border conLrol ls well enforced, smugglers
have a vasL reglon of alLernauve unmonlLored rouLes Lo choose from. 1he Sahara
deserL sLreLches from Lhe easL Lo Lhe wesL llke a wlde band beLween sub-Saharan
Afrlca and Lhe Maghreb, oerlng numerous, albelL Lreacherous, rouLes hldden
from auLhorlues. MlgranLs from boLh Lhe WesL and Lhe LasL (and Porn) have Lo
cross Lhe deserL. A crackdown by Spanlsh and Afrlcan auLhorlues on Lhe Canary
lsland rouLe over recenL years has meanL more Lramc Lhrough Lhe Sahara.
Central Africa
unllke ln WesL Afrlca, mlgrauon ln CenLral Afrlca ls mosLly assoclaLed wlLh conlcLs
and subsequenL populauon dlsplacemenL. 1he ma[orlLy of mlgranLs from Lhe
reglon elLher remaln wlLhln Lhe Afrlcan conunenL or move Lowards Lurope.
1he Lconomlc CommunlLy of CenLral Afrlcan SLaLes (LCCAS) lncludes, among
lLs lnsLrumenLs, a proLocol of free movemenL and Lhe rlghL of esLabllshmenL
of LCCAS cluzens, buL Lhe lmplemenLauon of Lhese proLocols, unllke Lhose ln
LCCWAS, ls weak. neverLheless, Lhe oll and umber lndusLrles have recenLly
made LquaLorlal Culnea and Cabon lnLo counLrles of desunauon for mlgranL
workers. lurLher norLh, nlger and Chad recelve a slgnlcanL number of mlgranLs
from Lhe reglon auempung Lo reach Llbya and, ln many cases, Lurope.
Mgront proles
WesL Afrlcan mlgranLs ln Llbya Lend Lo be malnly lrregular economlc mlgranLs of
worklng age. 1hey are Lyplcally auracLed Lo Llbya because of Lhe employmenL
opporLunlues LhaL lL presenLs, and Lhe prospecL of hlgher wages. usually mlgranLs
come from poor, rural areas and possess low educauon and sklll levels. A 32-year-
old nlgerlan mlgranL from Lhe reglon of Zlnder explalned: l used Lo work as a
shepherd ln nlger, buL Lhere are noL enough cows anymore Lo make a llvlng so
l had Lo leave and nd work elsewhere" (AlLal Consulung, 2013:78). As Llbya
ls a resource-rlch counLry wlLh a hlgh Cu per caplLa, cerLaln lndusLrles suer
from labour shorLage, maklng Lhe counLry an obvlous desunauon for economlc
mlgranLs. Powever, compeuuon for low-skllled [obs ln Llbya has become lnLense,
and noL all mlgranLs are able Lo nd work.
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
117
MlgranLs who come from nelghbourlng Sahellan counLrles, such as Chad, Mall,
nlger and Sudan, oen engage ln seasonal mlgrauon. 1hls ls perpeLuaLed by
recurrenL droughL ln Lhe Sahel, whlch leads Lo food lnsecurlLy. MlgranLs Lend
Lo sLay close Lo Lhe border and work Lhe land ln agrlculLural areas, Lhey are
very unllkely Lo move Lo Lhe ma[or clues. Whlle Lhe ma[orlLy of Lhese mlgranLs
enLer Lhe counLry lrregularly, Lhey Lend Lo cross Lhe border relauvely more easlly
because Lhey have creaLed cerLaln relauonshlps aL checkpolnLs, along Lhe rouLe
and wlLh local Lrlbes LhaL conLrol Lhe borders, whlch helps faclllLaLe Lhelr enLry
(AlLal Consulung, 2013:80).
1here are also unaccompanled mlnors comlng from WesL Afrlca ln lncreaslng
numbers. 1hey are usually senL Lo Llbya by Lhelr famllles ln order Lo make money
LhaL Lhey can send back home Lo Lhe famlly. Someumes when Lhey arrlve ln Llbya,
Lhey hear abouL Lurope and declde Lo Lry Lhelr chances Lhere, buL Lhe ma[orlLy
of Lhese mlnors have llule lnLenuon Lo move on Lo Lurope (AlLal Consulung,
2013).
A smaller number of women Lravel from WesL Afrlca Lo Llbya, generally maklng
Lhe [ourney Lo [oln Lhelr husbands who are already Lhere. 1hls was observed
among Mallan and nlgerlan women, and ln Lhese cases Lhelr husbands organlzed
Lhe [ourneys for Lhem from afar, wlLh a LrusLed chaperone or smuggler.
4.2.4 East Africa and the Horn of Africa context
1he naLure of mlgrauon ln LasL Afrlca and Lhe Porn of Afrlca reglon ls complex,
wlLh counLrles ln Lhe reglon slmulLaneously hosung and asslsung lnLernally
dlsplaced persons, refugees, reLurnees, vlcums of Lramcklng and labour
mlgranLs. Accordlng Lo lCM's 2013 analysls, Lhe reglon had Lhe largesL lncrease ln
Lhe number of refugees globally ln 2012, brlnglng lLs refugee (lncludlng refugee
sLock) and lu populauon Lo over 9 mllllon ln 2013.
Powever, a hlgh number of economlc mlgranLs also move wlLhln or ouL of
Lhe reglon. When lnLervlewed, many who mlghL apply (and be accepLed) for
asylum elsewhere or ln Lurope also made lL clear LhaL economlc necesslLy was a
common and crlucal facLor for Lhelr movemenL.
lor example, ln recenL years as many as 80,000 LLhloplans are recorded per
annum as arrlvlng on Lhe shores of ?emen. Addluonally, beLween 2,000 and
3,000 LrlLreans leave Lhelr counLry every monLh and aL leasL 20,000 Somalls
and LLhloplans make Lhe [ourney Lo SouLh Afrlca, accordlng Lo recenL esumaLes
and sLausucs (8MMS, 2013). 1here are also ows of LLhloplans movlng Lo Llbya
vla Sudan. As such, Lhe reglon ls characLerlzed by mlxed mlgrauon ows,
10

orlglnaung from or Lranslung wlLhln LasL Afrlca or Lhe Porn of Afrlca Lo a much
10
MlxeJ (mlqtotloo) flows ls deflned ln lCM's 2011 Clossary on MlgraLlon as, complex mlgraLory
populaLlon movemenLs LhaL lnclude refugees, asylum-seekers, economlc mlgranLs and oLher
mlgranLs, as opposed Lo mlgraLory populaLlon movemenLs LhaL conslsL enLlrely of one caLegory of
mlgranLs".
Chapter 4 From Sub-Saharan Africa through North Africa: Tracking Deaths along the Way
118
hlgher degree Lhan WesL Afrlca, where currenLly mosL mlgranLs can be dened
as economlc mlgranLs. MlgranLs move ouL of Lhe reglon ln all dlrecuons, buL
Lhree key desunauons are Lhe LargeLs for Lhe ma[orlLy of Lhem: SouLhern Afrlca,
normally Lhrough a comblnauon of kenya, Lhe unlLed 8epubllc of 1anzanla,
Malawl, Zlmbabwe, Zambla and Mozamblque, Lhe Culf SLaLes, malnly Saudl
Arabla vla ?emen, and Llbya and Lhe norLh Afrlcan MedlLerranean coasL. 1he
Lhlrd rouLe, Lo Lhe norLh coasL of Afrlca, and Lhe deadly rlsks and vulnerablllues
mlgranLs face maklng Lhls Lrlp are Lhe focus of Lhls chapLer.
11
An unknown number of mlgranLs from LasL Afrlca and Lhe Porn of Afrlca
make Lhelr way norLh and norLh-wesL Lo Lhe MedlLerranean coasL. 1here ls
no mechanlsm Lo monlLor numbers: Lhey Lravel clandesunely, wlLh smugglers
Lhrough Lhe mosL remoLe areas, oen avoldlng Lowns and checkpolnLs. A new
reporL by Lhe 8eglonal Mlxed Mlgrauon SecreLarlaL (8MMS) (2014) uLled Coloq
west. cootempototy MlxeJ Mlqtouoo 1teoJs ftom tbe noto of Aftlco to llbyo
ooJ otope lndlcaLes ln lLs summary:
ln parucular, Lhls reporL responds Lo Lhe sense LhaL Lhe wesLward"
dlrecuon ls lncreaslngly belng used by smuggled mlgranLs who nd
Lhemselves LhwarLed when Lrylng Lo use alLernauve (and prevlously
exLenslvely used) rouLes LhaL Lake Lhem easL (?emen Lo Saudl Arabla) and
norLh (Lhrough LgypL lnLo lsrael). 1he souLhern rouLe ls sull open" and
much used by smuggler/mlgranLs, buL lnformauon and research lndlcaLes
LhaL Lhe new Lrend ls Colng WesL".
Some lndlcauon of Lhe wesLern rouLe's rlslng popularlLy can be found ln Lhe
numbers of LLhloplan, Somall and parucularly LrlLreans found on boaLs crosslng
Lhe MedlLerranean, and mlgranL clalms LhaL large numbers of compaLrloLs
are ln Llbya, walung Lo cross. ln 2013, deLecuons of LrlLreans and Somalls ln
Lhe MedlLerranean LoLaled 16,922, or 16 per cenL of all deLecuons ln Lhe
MedlLerranean LhaL year, Lhe vasL ma[orlLy of whlch deparLed from Llbya
(lronLex, 2014).
Mgront proles
Sub-Saharan mlgranLs are, noL surprlslngly, malnly male and of young, worklng
age. Accordlng Lo AlLal Consulung's 2013 sLudy, 80-83 per cenL were male and
Lhey Lended Lo be beLween Lhe ages of 18 and 33, alLhough Lhere are lncreaslng
numbers of unaccompanled mlgranLs found ln Lhe ows of economlc mlgranLs
(AlLal Consulung, 2013, 8MMS, 2013).
MlgranLs from LasL Afrlca and Lhe Porn of Afrlca move for a varleLy of reasons,
a characLerlsuc of Lhe mlxed naLure of Lhe ows. Somalls have been eelng war
and lnsLablllLy for years, and whlle Lhey are known Lo be adepL aL esLabllshlng
economlc enLerprlses, Lhey are prlmarlly refugees from conlcL and have
11
lor a deLalled accounL of flows Lo SouLh Afrlca and ?emen, please see ChapLer 3.
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
119
en[oyed prlma facle refugee sLaLus (ln Lerms of group deLermlnauon) for over
Lwo decades.
MlgranLs eelng forced mlllLary conscrlpuon and rellglous or pollucal persecuuon,
parucularly ln LrlLrea, are noL only seeklng asylum buL also looklng Lowards
desunauons LhaL provlde economlc opporLunlues. MlgranLs headlng for Llbya
from Somallland, on Lhe oLher hand, are normally educaLed youLh from mlddle-
class famllles as well as poorer famllles who do noL see any fuLure ln Somallland,
as Lhey cannoL nd [obs Lo meeL Lhelr educauonal levels or asplrauons. Whlle
some LLhloplans clLe Lrlbal Lenslons (locallzed conlcL ln Lhe Cgaden reglon) and
pollucal oppresslon (parucularly by members of Lhe Cmoro Llberauon lronL)
as reasons for eelng Lhe counLry, Lhe bulk of LLhloplan mlgranLs Lend Lo be
uneducaLed young men from subslsLence communlues searchlng for beuer
employmenL and llvellhood opporLunlues.
unllke WesL Afrlcan mlgranLs golng norLh Lo Llbya, many of whom lnLend
Lo work ln Llbya for some ume before reLurnlng home, mosL mlgranLs from
Lhe Porn of Afrlca have no lnLenuon of llvlng and worklng ln Sudan or Llbya,
buL lnsLead seL Lhelr LargeLs on Lurope. 1hls ls llkely because Lhe facLors LhaL
caused Lhem Lo ee Lhelr counLrles of orlgln encourage Lhem Lo search for
locauons where Lhey can recelve proLecuon and bulld new llves, ln some cases
Lhey are followlng neLworks of frlends and relauves LhaL have prevlously been
seL up ln Luropean counLrles. LrlLrean and Somall mlgranLs arrlvlng ln Lurope
are usually provlded wlLh some form of proLecuon, for example, 86 per cenL
of Lhose granLed lnLernauonal proLecuon ln MalLa ln 2012 were from Somalla
and 12 per cenL were from LrlLrea (AlLal Consulung, 2013). LLhloplan mlgranLs
looklng for seasonal or perlodlc employmenL purely for lncome are more
llkely Lo Lry Lhelr chances ln Lhe Culf SLaLes and ?emen, where many mlgranLs
recycle"
12
Lhemselves desplLe Lhe very hlgh rlsks Lhey face on Lhe easLern
rouLe".
4.3 Calculating deaths
Accordlng Lo a recenL reporL by Lhe unCuC (2011:136), exlsung esumaLes
concernlng numbers of sub-Saharan Afrlcan mlgranLs who have dled auempung
Lo go norLh are llkely Lo serlously underesumaLe Lhe Lrue gures. 1he reporL
suggesLs LhaL any esumaLes of morLallLy gures would llkely need Lo be muluplled
by Lhree ln order Lo come Lo a more accuraLe esumaLe. noLe LhaL Lhls reporL also
predaLes Lhe currenL lncreaslng mlgranL ows and hlghllghLs Lhe complexlLy of
Lrylng Lo assess numerlcally Lhe human cosL of mlgrauon. Whlle many mlgranLs
clalm Lo have seen corpses ln Lhe deserL or Lo know of frlends who dlsappeared
12
MlgranLs recycle Lhemselves when Lhey Lry Lo mlgraLe agaln desplLe belng deporLed or expelled
or oLherwlse prevlously LhwarLed. MlgranLs who recycle Lhemselves are Lhose who prevlously
mlgraLed, reLurned volunLarlly for reunlflcaLlon wlLh Lhelr famllles or for oLher reasons, and are
Lrylng agaln Lo mlgraLe lrregularly.
Chapter 4 From Sub-Saharan Africa through North Africa: Tracking Deaths along the Way
120
or were kllled en rouLe, Lhe evldence ls anecdoLal and cannoL easlly be LranslaLed
lnLo gures, even lf deaLhs aL sea appear Lo be more sysLemaucally documenLed.
8efore conslderlng acLual deaLhs of sub-Saharan mlgranLs, cerLaln speclal
conLexLs creaung an envlronmenL ln whlch deaLh ls posslble, and even probable,
deserve menuon. 1he abuses LhaL Lhrlve ln Lhe smuggllng Lrade, Lhe speclal case
of LrlLrean commodluzauon and vlcumlzauon, and Lhe parucular condluons ln
Llbya seL Lhe scene for undersLandlng how and why deaLhs occur as sub-Saharan
mlgranLs move norLh.
4.3.1 Smuggling: The protection-free underworld
8rokers, xers and unomclal Lravel agenLs" are oLher names for smugglers who
openly sollclL cusLomers ln numerous Lowns and clues ln sub-Saharan Afrlca
ln an open manner. ln many cases, Lhese smugglers are soughL ouL by Lens of
Lhousands of mlgranLs who demand Lhelr servlces (AlLal Consulung, 2013). Aer
dlscusslng rouLes and fees, Lhe mlgranLs are ln Lhe hands of Lhe smugglers and
on Lhelr way. Cnce Lhe [ourney beglns, mlgranLs enLer a world where Lhey lose
Lhelr freedom and safeLy, Lhey are normally sLrlcLly conLrolled, have no more
declslonal power or rlghLs, and are oen bruLallzed. Smugglers are usually armed,
and essenually own" Lhe mlgranLs unul Lhey declde Lo release Lhem, blurrlng
Lhe llnes beLween smuggllng and Lramcklng ln some cases (8MMS, 2013).
CounLless Lesumony and wlLness sLaLemenLs from mlgranLs Lesufy Lo beaungs,
mlsLreaLmenL, negllgence, and Lhe lack of food, waLer, space, alr, medlcal
provlslons or shelLer, whlch Lhey endure ln Lhe care of Lhelr smugglers. MlgranLs
are oen decelved, mlsled and cheaLed. Men are beaLen and abused, women
can be raped and forced lnLo sexual servlLude Lo repay cuuous debLs. MlgranLs
may be abandoned ln Lhe deserL, glven false dlrecuons, only Laken a poruon of
Lhe agreed dlsLance, forced lnLo unpald labour, handed over Lo gangs, mllluas
or border omclals, and face an uncerLaln fuLure ln deLenuon, wlLh abuse and
posslble deporLauon (AlLal Consulung, 2013). When and why Lhls abuse crosses
over lnLo deaLh or murder aL Lhe hands of Lhe smugglers ls dlmculL Lo dene
or enumeraLe, buL lL ls probably closely connecLed Lo Lhe economlc value Lhe
mlgranL represenLs for Lhe smuggler.
Smuggllng ls a robusL and vlgorous lndusLry," where demand seems lnexhausuble
and growlng, and where Lhose who are seL Lo resLrlcL or end smuggllng are
Loo oen corrupLly proung from Lhe Lrade Lhrough compllclLy. Accordlng Lo
a reporL on nlger, mlgranLs, dlplomaLs and an lnLernal governmenL reporL all
suggesL LhaL oen, Lhe very people meanL Lo pollce Lhe lmmlgranL rouLes are
lnvolved ln Lhe buslness Lhemselves," and LhaL could be repeaLed ln mosL oLher
counLrles where mlgranL smugglers operaLe (Lewls, 2014). 1he corrupuon wlll
never end," sald Lhe presldenL of Agadez 8eglonal Councll ln 2014, ln reference
Lo acuvlues surroundlng smuggllng (Lewls, 2014). ln LgypL, LrlLrea and Sudan,
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
121
varlous reporLs and lnvesugauons have shown LhaL some omcers ln all parLs
of Lhe nauonal securlLy apparaLus work closely wlLh smugglers and Lramckers
(Lewls, 2014).
LorLs Lo curLall Lhe smuggllng of WesL Afrlcan lrregular mlgranLs Lhrough
Lhe Sahara have rarely had a lasung lmpacL. An exLracL from a recenL medla
lnvesugauon ln nlger ls emblemauc of Lhe reslllence of Lhe smuggllng Lrade all
across sub-Sahara:
ollce ralded dozens of LranslL houses, where would-be emlgranLs sLay
unul headlng o across Lhe deserL for norLh Afrlca and Lurope, and
arresLed a handful of smugglers and omclals. AbouL 30 pollcemen ln Lhe
reglon around Agadez were replaced. nlger's CovernmenL says large-
scale mlgranL smuggllng, whlch ln eecL was omclally LoleraLed for years,
has now ended. 8uL lnLervlews wlLh mlgranLs, smugglers and omclals
ln Agadez and ln Lhe caplLal nlamey Lell a dlerenL sLory. . . . noLhlng
has changed," sald 8achlr Amadou, who works as a gulde for Chanalans
headed for Llbya. An omclal aL a reglonal bus company sald LhaL followlng
a dlp ln numbers aer Lhe crackdown, Lhe ow [of mlgranLs] ls up
agaln.". . . 1hese neLworks are reorganlzlng Lhemselves and becomlng
sLronger." (Lewls, 2014)
noL surprlslngly, ln such a proLecuon-free envlronmenL, where mlgranLs are
moved clandesunely and as mere commodlues Lo earn proL for Lhe smugglers,
abuses Lake place wlLh lmpunlLy. Powever, Lhe mosL egreglous abuses
perpeLraLed agalnsL mlgranLs Lend noL Lo happen on Lhe much older esLabllshed
rouLes Laken by WesL Afrlcan mlgranLs, buL only along newer rouLes from Lhe
Porn of Afrlca golng norLh, Lo LgypL, and wesL lnLo Sudan and Llbya.
4.3.2 Special case of commoditization and victimization
of Eritreans
A markedly vlolenL form of Lramcklng - ln cases where Lhe domlnanL Lrend ls for
human smuggllng Lo Lurn lnLo Lramcklng - has developed ln recenL years ln LgypL
and Sudan. Pere, smugglers, Lramckers and local omclals work LogeLher Lo prey
on LrlLrean mlgranLs leavlng Lhelr counLry Lhrough LgypL, LLhlopla and Sudan,
and lncreaslngly Lhrough Llbya Lo LgypL. MlgranLs are decelved and kldnapped
on Lhelr [ourneys, or even snaLched from refugee camps (ln easLern Sudan and
norLhern LLhlopla) and someumes from Lhe sLreeLs of Calro.
13
1hey are held for
ransom by vlolenL crlmlnals who sell Lhem up a chaln LhaL normally Lakes Lhem
lnLo Lhe Slnal deserL. MlgranLs are frequenLly held ln compounds of houses for
weeks or monLhs whlle Lhelr capLors LorLure Lhem unul frlends or relauves,
13
Accordlng Lo unPC8's reporL, lncldences of kldnapplng from refugee camps have reduced
dramaLlcally by mld-2014, as camp securlLy and monlLorlng as well as lnLernaLlonal supporL of local
pollce has been lmproved.
Chapter 4 From Sub-Saharan Africa through North Africa: Tracking Deaths along the Way
122
malnly ln Lhe dlaspora, pay hlgh ransoms, Lhe average paymenL per mlgranL
released has been a sLaggerlng uSu 22,000, alLhough ln some lndlvldual cases
uSu 30,000 has reporLedly been pald (van 8elsen, LsLefanos and 8l[ken, 2013).
lurLhermore, on release, lndlvldual vlcums may be sold on Lo oLher smugglers
and forced Lo pay a furLher ransom. 1here appears Lo be an lncreaslng Lrend
of LrlLreans belng held capuve ln Sudan (ln addluon Lo and as an alLernauve Lo
Lhe Slnal), as Lhe appeuLe for Lradlng mlgranLs as commodlues spreads, and as
condluons ln Lhe Slnal become less favourable for Lramckers.
14
A recenL sLudy uLled 1be nomoo 1to[ckloq cycle. 5lool ooJ 8eyooJ (van 8elsen,
LsLefanos and 8l[ken, 2013) esumaLes LhaL beLween 23,000 and 30,000 LrlLreans
became vlcums of Lramcklng ln Lhe Slnal beLween 2009 and 2013, and LhaL
10,000 dled Lhere, alLhough Lhese esumaLes have been Lhe source of debaLe.
1here are no esumaLes avallable for 2013 alone, buL uslng Lhe conservauve
esumaLe and dlvldlng lL evenly over ve years, LhaL would mean 3,000 vlcums of
Lramcklng ln 2013 wlLh 2,000 deaLhs (8MMS, 2014b).
13
1hls means, on average,
ve Lo slx mlgranLs do noL [usL dle buL are kllled by Lhelr capLors every day. lL ls
also esumaLed LhaL Lhe ransoms pald Lhe Slnal Lramcklng lndusLry" over Lhe lasL
ve years amounL Lo, conservauvely, uSu 600 mllllon.
1hese esumaLes suggesL Lramcklng was and may sull be a hlghly lucrauve
buslness. 8uL Lhe level of vlolence and LorLure smugglers and Lramckers use
seems Lo be llmlLless, and Lhe survlvor sLaLemenLs make for grlm and palnful
readlng. ln addluon Lo Lhe general vlolence used agalnsL all kldnapped mlgranLs,
women ln parucular, and also males, face exLenslve sexual abuse lncludlng
gang rape over susLalned perlods. Much publlclzed clalms of organ Lhe have
noL been verled buL may also be Laklng place. lL appears LhaL whlle reporLs of
LorLure camps and vlcums of LorLure from Lhe Slnal are decreaslng, lncreaslng
Lesumony from mlgranL survlvors Lell of "new" LorLure camps ln Llbya.
LLhloplan smuggled mlgranLs crosslng from u[lbouu and Somallland lnLo ?emen
- over 200,000 beLween 2011 and 2013 lncluslve - face slmllar LreaLmenL aL Lhe
hands of ?emenl Lramckers/crlmlnals. Lqually exLraordlnary levels of vlolence
and abuse are used buL Lo exLracL far lower ransoms - beLween uSu 300 and
uSu 1,000 per person (unSC, 2012).
koosom, collobototots ooJ cottopuoo. 5lool 1to[ckloq ooJ 1toosoouoool
Netwotks, a 2013 reporL from 1us unlverslLy (!akobsen, 2013), resLaLed Lhe
ndlngs of oLher observers LhaL Lramcklng neLworks operaLe wlLh Lhe close
14
1he Lrafflckers have been dlsrupLed and dlsLurbed by mlllLarlzaLlon ln Lhe Slnal LhaL sLarLed ln early
2013 and conLlnues. Many of Lhe Lrafflcklng compounds are close Lo Lhe lsraell border where Lhe
LgypLlan army has been pursulng lnsurgenLs. 1he dlsrupLlon of Lhe Lrafflckers' Lrade" has noLhlng
Lo do wlLh pollce acLlon agalnsL Lhem. uesplLe Lhe facL LhaL Lhe LgypLlan CovernmenL has been glven
names and addresses, Lhere are no vehlcle reglsLraLlon numbers or oLher ldenLlfylng lnformaLlon of
all Lhe ma[or Lrafflckers ln Lhe Slnal. lnsLead, Lhese people operaLe wlLh compleLe lmpunlLy.
13
Powever, mlllLary acLlvlLles ln Lhe area have dlsrupLed Lrafflcklng and smuggllng neLworks
conslderably, suggesLlng Lhls esLlmaLe may be on Lhe hlgh end.
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
123
lnvolvemenL of cerLaln SLaLe omclals from LgypL, LrlLrea and Sudan. A reporL
from Lhe unlLed nauons SecurlLy Councll (unSC) ln 2012, uLled kepott of tbe
Mooltotloq Ctoop oo 5omollo ooJ tltteo, speclcally lmpllcaLed senlor LrlLrean
mlllLary omcers, noL only ln cross-border Lransacuons, and movemenL and sale
of mlgranLs Lo Lramckers, buL also ln Lhe abducuon and subsequenL sale of
LrlLreans from wlLhln Lhe counLry.
Lven Lhough lsrael compleLely sealed lLs border wlLh LgypL ln early 2013,
eecuvely endlng LhaL rouLe as a posslblllLy for sub-Saharan mlgranLs golng
norLh, reporLs lndlcaLe LhaL Lramcklng and kldnapplng of LrlLreans conunues.
MonLhs of Lgypuan mlllLary acuon ln Lhe Slnal have also reporLedly dlsLurbed and
reduced Lhe crlmlnal acuvlues relaung Lo mlgranLs, buL new reporLs suggesL Lhe
same manner of vlcumlzauon and commodluzauon of LrlLreans (and LLhloplans)
conunues ln parLs of LgypL, ln Sudan and also ln Llbya (8MMS, 2014b), even
lf ln some cases Lhe number of referrals of asslsLance for vlcums of LorLure ls
decllnlng.
4.3.3 Libya: No protection
16
8efore Lhe revoluuon sLarLed ln early 2011, an esumaLed 1.3-2.3 mllllon forelgn
workers were conLrlbuung Lo Llbya's economy, among a LoLal populauon of
approxlmaLely 6.4 mllllon (lluP, 2012). lrom Lhe onseL of Lhe conlcL LhaL
lgnlLed Lhe revoluuon, mlgranLs were parucularly LhreaLened and sLarLed eelng
en masse. Accordlng Lo lCM, nearly 800,000 mlgranLs ed Lo nelghbourlng
counLrles durlng Lhe revoluuon (quoLed ln lluP, 2012).
As Lhe CovernmenL of Llbya currenLly malnLalns no asylum process, all mlgranLs
who enLer Lhe counLry wlLhouL omclal auLhorlzauon are LreaLed as lrregular
mlgranLs and deLalned, some of Lhem deporLed. Many mlgranLs reporL havlng
been deLalned ln Llbya wlLhouL any reason glven for Lhelr deLenuon and wlLhouL
belng lnformed of how long Lhelr deLenuon would lasL. Many mlgranLs have
spoken of ununlformed" pollce omcers deLalnlng Lhem (AlLal Consulung,
2013:103, 8MMS, 2014b).
Accordlng Lo Lhe lnLernauonal lederauon for Puman 8lghLs (2012), ln Lhe
conLexL of pollucal fragmenLauon, admlnlsLrauve chaos and mlllLarlzauon LhaL
characLerlzes posL-revoluuon Llbya, ex-rebel groups (koubos) Look lL upon
Lhemselves Lo assume responslblllLy for malnLalnlng law and order, beyond Lhe
conLrol of governmenL auLhorlues. 1hls 'mlsslon' Laken on by former rebels,
based on securlLy conslderauons agalnsL a backdrop of raclsm and xenophobla,
resulLs ln wldespread pracuces of arblLrary arresL and deLenuon of mlgranLs and
asylum-seekers, ln LoLal dlsregard of human rlghLs" (lluP, 2012). Accordlng Lo Lhe
lederauon's ndlngs from 2012, based on vlslLs Lo Lhousands of mlgranLs held
16
unless oLherwlse referenced, Lhe deLalls ln Lhls secLlon are exLracLed from Lhe AlLal ConsulLlng,
2013.
Chapter 4 From Sub-Saharan Africa through North Africa: Tracking Deaths along the Way
124
ln numerous, scauered deLenuon cenLres, a key lnsLrumenL of Llbyan mlgrauon
pollcy" was arblLrary arresL wlLh slgnlcanL levels of vlolence ln deLenuon.
17
ln addluon Lo deLenuon, mlgranLs also speak of belng harassed and robbed by
gangs and mlllua ln Llbya, oen vlolenLly: We have been robbed many umes,
Lhey rald Lhe house and sLeal our Lhlngs," sald a 49-year-old nlgerlan woman ln
Llbya. An 18-year-old man from Culnea explalned: 1he maln rlsk ls Lhe lnsecurlLy
here ln Llbya, Lhere ls vlolence, shooung, raclsm and Lhe" (AlLal Consulung,
2013).
8y laLe 2013 and lnLo 2014, AmnesLy lnLernauonal (2013) found LhaL Lhe Llbyan
CovernmenL had Laken over mosL of Lhe deLenuon cenLres, llsung 17 cenLres
acuvely holdlng approxlmaLely 3,000 "lllegals" (l.e. lrregular mlgranLs).
4.3.4 Dying to migrate north
1he appeuLe of sub-Saharan mlgranLs Lo make Lhe [ourney Lhrough Lhe Sahara,
someumes Laklng years, and cross Lhe sea only appears Lo be growlng. Agencles
descrlbe a 300 per cenL lncrease ln Lhe number of lrregular mlgranLs crosslng
Lhe MedlLerranean ln Lhe rsL four monLhs of 2014, compared wlLh gures from
Lhe same perlod ln 2013 (lronLex, 2014). WlLh Lhese rlslng numbers, deaLh Loll
lncreases, Loo:
. . . Many people are so desperaLe LhaL Lhey are wllllng Lo Lake Lhelr
chances. 1haL cosL more Lhan 300 people Lhelr llves on CcLober 3rd [2013],
when a boaL orlglnaung from Llbya was so overloaded and unsLable LhaL
lL capslzed when a re on board Lhe vessel caused lLs passengers Lo panlc.
MosL of Lhose who drowned were LrlLreans. (lelLgen, 2013)
uurlng some perlods of 2014, Lhe lLallan CoasL Cuard lnLercepLed Lhousands of
would-be mlgranLs ln muluple boaLs ln a slngle day. llgures released aL Lhe end
of !uly from lLaly's Mare nosLrum operauon showed some 93,000 mlgranLs had
been rescued slnce Lhe sLarL of 2014.
18
1he lncrease ln Lhls ow from Llbya and across Lhe MedlLerranean seems Lo be
aurlbuLable Lo Lwo maln facLors. 1he rsL ls LhaL many sub-Saharan mlgranLs
see Lhe posL-revoluuon chaos ln Llbya as an opporLune ume Lo make Lhe sea
crosslng from Lhe Llbyan coasL, glven Lhe less sLrlngenL monlLorlng of Lhe borders
and coasLllne. 1hls, of course, ls sLarung Lo change wlLh Llbya havlng omclally
closed four of lLs borders. 1he second facLor ls LhaL mlgranLs currenLly ln Llbya,
even Lhose who have llved and worked Lhere for some years, are lncreaslngly
belng pushed ouL and onLo Lurope by Lhe growlng lnsLances of raclsm, vlolence,
arblLrary arresL and harassmenL ln Lhe counLry.
17
lL ls rumoured LhaL lndependenL mlllLla groups open deLenLlon cenLres ln order Lo creaLe Lhe markeL
for Lhelr smuggllng endeavours.
18
As quoLed ln medla. lor example, see: www.Llmesllve.co.za/world/2014/08/11/lLaly-rescued-
nearly-100000-mlgranLs-aL-sea-Lhls-year.
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
123
Death in the desert crossing
ln addluon Lo deaLhs aL sea, crosslng Lhe deserL ls also rlfe wlLh dangers. 1he
rouLes leadlng from Lhe Porn of Afrlca and WesL Afrlca Lo Llbya (and oLher norLh
Afrlcan desunauons) necessarlly pass Lhrough Lhe deserL, elLher Lhe Sahara or
Lhe Algerlan deserL, dependlng on whlch rouLes mlgranLs follow. 1hls leaves
mlgranLs vulnerable. When deaLhs do occur, Lhey are usually due Lo Lhe perllous
naLure of deserL crosslng, and also Lo mlgranLs' conLacL wlLh unscrupulous
smugglers, Lramckers, cerLaln SLaLe omclals and, ln some cases, vlolenL non-
SLaLe acLors.
Sub-Saharan mlgranLs dle ln unknown numbers ln Lhe deserL. Accordlng Lo a
mlgranL lnLervlewed ln nlamey, deserL condluons are very dlmculL:
Lnure lorrles full of mlgranLs dlsappear. . . . lL ls a Lragedy, a real Lragedy.
(unCuC, 2011:63)
1he Sahara deserL ls a vasL band LhaL mlgranLs from LasL Afrlca and Lhe Porn
of Afrlca as well as WesL and CenLral Afrlca musL cross Lo reach Lhe norLh
Afrlcan seaboard counLrles. 1he oLher deserL of relevance ls Lhe Slnal, LgypL,
where prevlously (before !anuary 2013, when Lhe border was hermeucally
sealed beLween lsrael and LgypL) mlgranLs passed Lhrough Lo geL lnLo lsrael.
now mlgranLs, malnly LrlLrean, dle ln Lhe Slnal predomlnanLly from vlolence aL
Lhe hands of Lramckers and oLher crlmlnals, havlng been Laken lnLo Lhe Slnal
dellberaLely Lo be exLorLed, as explalned prevlously.
MlgranLs dle ln deserLs from a comblnauon of mlsLreaLmenL, lndlerence,
mlsadvenLure and lack of preparedness. 1hey may also dle from vlolence ln Lhe
deserL Lhrough bandlLry, aL Lhe hands of SLaLe omclals and smugglers, or vehlcle
accldenLs due Lo overcrowdlng, bad roads and dangerous drlvlng. Powever, as
mosL, buL noL all, mlgranLs move Lhrough deserLs under Lhe aegls of smugglers
or lndependenL LransporLers, Lhelr deaLhs cannoL be merely seen as accldenLs.
Smugglers are clearly culpable dlrecLly or lndlrecLly for many, lf noL mosL, of Lhe
faLallues.
A recenL sLudy by AlLal Consulung (2013), whlch lncluded deLalled mlgranL
lnLervlews, conLalned numerous reporLs of LhlrsL and exhausuon durlng deserL
[ourneys, someumes leadlng Lo deaLh: MlgranLs reporLed havlng Lo brlng Lhelr
own food for Lhe [ourney, so Lhey oen carrled, and subslsLed on, blsculLs and
daLes because Lhey were easy Lo carry. Coupled wlLh Lhe low nuLrluonal value
of Lhelr dleL, mlgranLs oen dld noL have enough waLer Lo drlnk, as Lhls was
provlded by Lhe smuggler. 1here were also some reporLs of smugglers addlng
peLrol Lo waLer ln order Lo alLer Lhe LasLe so LhaL mlgranLs wouldn'L drlnk Loo
much. Many of Lhe mlgranLs spoke of dehydrauon and exhausuon, some also
spoke of frlends or fellow passengers dylng as a resulL."
Chapter 4 From Sub-Saharan Africa through North Africa: Tracking Deaths along the Way
126
1he deserL cllmaLe, parucularly Lhe cold ln Lhe nlghLs, reporLedly leads Lo
slckness among some mlgranLs. lor some, Lhe lack of medlcal LreaLmenL and
Lhelr general level of exhausuon may lead Lo deLerloraung healLh and, evenLually,
deaLh. lf mlgranLs become slck, lL ls noL unusual for smugglers Lo dump Lhem
ln Lhe deserL ln order Lo prevenL Lhe slckness from spreadlng Lo Lhe resL.
A 33-year-old man from Mall explalned:
1wo persons ln Lhe group dled when Lhe smuggler le Lhem ln Lhe deserL.
(AlLal Consulung, 2013)
1he unCuC sLaLes LhaL: Whlle gures on faLallues can be dlmculL Lo ascerLaln,
medla reporLs lndlcaLe LhaL beLween 1996 and 2011, aL leasL 1,691 people dled
whlle auempung Lo cross Lhe Sahara" (AlLal Consulung, 2013). lL ls probable LhaL
Lhe Lrue LoLal ls far hlgher.
knowledge of deaLhs of mlgranLs ls normally learned Lhrough medla coverage, as
Lhere are no omclal sLausucs or groups sysLemaucally collecung Lhls lnformauon.
lL should be assumed LhaL Lhe cases of deaLh reachlng nauonal and lnLernauonal
medla or omclal auenuon are only a poruon of Lhe real gures. lL seems LhaL
when a dozen or more mlgranLs are found dead LogeLher ln Lhe deserL, news
of Lhe Lragedy" ls known. 8ehlnd Lhese publlclzed cases, numerous lndlvldual
cases or smaller groups are probably never made known, excepL Lhrough sLorles
of survlvlng mlgranLs. Many mlgranLs dlsappear and are never found. ln such
remoLe and harsh cllmaLes, bodles le behlnd soon dlsappear leavlng almosL no
Lrace.
ln May 2014, a reporL from one medla source lllusLraLes Lhe dlmculues of ndlng
remalns and deLermlnlng preclse numbers of faLallues:
AL leasL 13 of Lhe dozens of mlgranLs from nlger abandoned by smugglers
ln Lhe Sahara deserL lasL week have been found dead ln souLhern Algerla,
a local omclal and a mlllLary source ln nlger sald on lrlday. . . . AnoLher
33 people from Lhe same convoy of malnly women and chlldren were
belleved Lo have dled elsewhere buL Lhelr bodles had noL been found
yeL. "1hese people appear Lo have gone looklng for shelLer buL dled from
Lhe lack of food and waLer," a nlger mlllLary source Lold 8euLers. . . . 1he
source puL Lhe esumaLe for Lhe dead aL 30. (8euLers, 2014)
Lqually, deaLhs of mlgranLs ln groups where smugglers remaln wlLh Lhe survlvors
are less llkely Lo be publlcly known, as Lhe smugglers make every eorL Lo keep
Lhe deaLhs secreL. More oen Lhan noL, Lhe publlclzed cases are groups of
abandoned mlgranLs who dle and are Lhen found laLer by oLhers. 8arely, lf ever,
are Lhose responslble apprehended, and lnvesugauons are noL conducLed Lo
esLabllsh who ls responslble for mlgranL deaLhs.
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
127
Cnn was one of many medla acLors coverlng a dramauc dlscovery of muluple
mlgranL deaLhs ln SepLember 2013. Clven LhaL aL leasL 48 of Lhose found dead
were chlldren or Leenagers, lL ls posslble Lhey were on Lhelr way Lo nd low-
paylng [obs ln nelghbourlng Algerla:
SLranded ln Lhe unforglvlng expanses of nlger's Sahara ueserL aer Lhelr
vehlcles broke down, scores of people, almosL all of Lhem women and
chlldren, slowly dled of LhlrsL. 1he mlgranLs had been Lrylng Lo reach
Algerla. . . . lnsLead, Lhey dled of dehydrauon, unable Lo escape Lhe sandy
wasLes of Lhe Sahel. A LoLal of 92 bodles have been found, nlger securlLy
forces Lold Cnn on 1hursday. . . . Many of Lhe bodles were severely
decomposed and appeared Lo have been parually eaLen by anlmals.
(SmlLh-Spark and uamon, 2013)
lncreaslngly, as more ls known of mlgranLs golng wesL from Lhe Porn of Afrlca
Lo Llbya, deaLhs of mlgranLs ln Lhe deserL are belng reporLed. Cne such reporL
ln Aprll 2014 lllusLraLes LhaL Lhe abandonmenL and deaLh of smuggled mlgranLs,
lncludlng LLhloplans, LrlLreans and Sudanese, ls far from unusual:
nlne lmmlgranLs have dled among around 300 abandoned by smugglers ln
Lhe scorchlng Sudanese-Llbyan deserL, wlLh Lhe oLhers ln poor condluon.
. . . 1he smugglers le Lhem ln Lhe deserL, on Lhe border beLween Sudan
and Llbya. (Al !azeera, 2014)
ln anoLher wlLness reporL from a Somall man ln Lhe neLherlands who Lraveled
wlLh smugglers across Lhe Sahara:
ln Lhe mlddle of Lhe deserL [souLh easLern Llbya] Lhey Lhrew away 20
persons. 1he deserL ls very dangerous, Lhere ls no waLer, Lhere ls no food,
lL ls 30 degree Celslus. LlghL of Lhem [mlgranLs ln Lhe group Lhe he was ln]
dled. Some of Lhem drank Lhelr urlne. 1he Llbyan pollce was [slc] paLrolllng
Lhe area and saw Lhem buL Lhey dld noL help. (8MMS, 2014b:43)
Cne 20-year-old Somallland woman Lold 8MMS abouL her [ourney from
Somallland Lo 1rlpoll. She was parL of a group of 36 young Somalllanders Laken
Lo Llbya by smugglers. Cf Lhe 36, only 22 survlved. 1he smugglers leL Lhem
walk Lhrough Lhe deserL ln Sudan for days, and people who dled from ln[urles
or dehydrauon were le behlnd. 1hls hlgh proporuon of deaLhs ls probably
unLyplcal, buL wlLhouL more daLa we cannoL be cerLaln, Lhls polnLs Lo Lhe greaL
challenge of collaung accuraLe gures of sub-Saharan mlgranLs who dle ln Lhe
deserL as Lhey Lravel norLh.
Chapter 4 From Sub-Saharan Africa through North Africa: Tracking Deaths along the Way
128
Death in the sea crossing
1bete wosot eoooqb toom joo tbe boot] bot locklly we moJe lt to lompeJoso.
1bete ote 25 ot J0 people oo tbese smoll boots. lf yoo ote locky yoo moke lt, lf
oot yoo eoJ op lo tbe wotet. (lotetvlew wltb oo tltteoo mlqtoot lo 5wltzetlooJ)
(C'uea, 2012)
1he deLalls of Lhe scale of deaLh aL sea (parucularly ln Lhe MedlLerranean)
lnvolvlng lrregular mlgranLs ls covered ln deLall ln ChapLer 3, buL an ouLllne of
Lrends and examples ls presenLed here as deaLh ls a common parL of Lhe mlgranL
sLory from norLh Afrlca Lo Lurope.
As wlLh calculaung numbers of mlgranL deaLhs ln Lhe deserL, esumaung faLallues
aL sea ls problemauc. navles and sea paLrols operaung ln Lhe MedlLerranean,
nauonal auLhorlues ln norLh Afrlca, and Lhose on Lhe shores of Creece, lLaly and
MalLa are only able Lo enumeraLe Lhe Lhousands of deaLhs Lhey come across, buL
whaL of Lhose of whlch Lhere ls no Lrace?
lollowlng Lhe wldely reporLed drownlng of over 200 mlgranLs Lravelllng from
Llbya Lo Lurope ln March 2009,
19
sLorles of deaLhs crosslng Lhe norLhern sea
passage (Lhe MedlLerranean) have become lncreaslngly common. 8efore Lhen
Lhe dramauc sLorles of deaLhs and eorLs Lo enumeraLe LoLals concerned Lhe
ALlanuc crosslng from malnland Afrlca Lo Lhe Canary lslands (Spanlsh LerrlLory).
Whlle Lravelllng wesL" geographlcally, Lhese WesL Afrlcan mlgranLs were golng
norLh ln so far LhaL landlng on Lhe Canarles was Lhelr uckeL lnLo Lurope:
More Lhan 27,000 lllegal mlgranLs have Lurned up on Lhe Spanlsh Canary
lslands o Lhe WesL Afrlcan coasL Lhls year alone, Lhousands more Lhan
ln 2003, accordlng Lo Lhe lnLernauonal Crganlzauon for Mlgrauon (lCM).
Spanlsh auLhorlues say Lhe bodles of more Lhan 300 suspecLed mlgranLs
have been found Lhls year ln Lhe ocean around Lhe Canarles. (l8ln, 2006)
A 2006 reporL from lCM suggesLed LhaL Lhousands of deaLhs aL sea had occurred
ln one year alone. Cver 31,000 people Lrled Lo reach Canary lslands lllegally from
WesL Afrlca lasL year, accordlng Lo lCM. Cf Lhose, aL leasL 6,000 dled on Lhe way.
We crammed onLo a boaL LhaL should normally L abouL 30 people.
Lveryone was praylng [usL Lo make lL Lo Lhe lslands. eople were
vomlung, some were seelng vlslons and splrlLs. 1wo men, dellrlous from
dehydrauon, [umped o Lhe boaL on Lhe way. 1en oLhers dled on board
and were Lhrown lnLo Lhe sea, ape sald. (l8ln, 2007)
19
See, for example: 1he Cuardlan aL www.Lheguardlan.com/world/2009/mar/31/mlgranLs-llbya-
drown-lLaly, or n8C news aL www.nbcnews.com/ld/29967891/ns/world_news-mldeasL_n_afrlca/L/
hundreds-feared-dead-mlgranL-boaL-slnklng/.
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
129
AgreemenLs beLween MaurlLanla and Morocco wlLh lLaly and Spaln puL pressures
on Lhe wesLward sea rouLe, whlch has led Lo Lhe rlse ln cross-Sahara mlgraLory
rouLe and Lhe deadly MedlLerranean passage.
As of !une 2014, lLaly had already recelved roughly 60,000 arrlvals, and ln one
weekend ln Aprll, lLaly plcked up around 4,000 mlgranLs ln Lhe MedlLerranean
(Schemm, 2014). Accordlng Lo reporLs from unPC8, approxlmaLely 300 mlgranLs
dled or wenL mlsslng as Lhey auempLed Lhe crosslng ln 2012. ln 2011, aL Lhe
helghL of unresL ln Llbya and 1unlsla, more Lhan 1,300 mlgranLs were reporLed
as dead or mlsslng (uocklns, 2013).
Medla reporLs sLaung how, over a shorL perlod of ume, a weekend, for lnsLance,
lLallan auLhorlues rescue" hundreds lf noL Lhousands of mlgranLs, lllusLraLe how
rapldly Lhe numbers are escalaung.
20
As menuoned, deaLhs ln Lhe MedlLerranean
are noL Lhe focus of Lhls chapLer and are examlned ln more deLall ln ChapLer 3.
Deoth ot the honds o( tro(ckers
norLhbound sub-Saharan mlgranLs dle from gun wounds, LorLure and exLreme
vlolence, and/or neglecL whlle held by Lramckers. AparL from cases of deaLh,
Lhere are Lhousands more ln whlch mlgranLs suer sexual vlolence and oLher
severe human rlghLs abuses LhaL may lnclude organ Lhe.
21
1hls ls a problem
prlmarlly assoclaLed wlLh Lhe vlcumlzauon of LrlLrean and oLher mlgranLs from
Lhe Porn of Afrlca, and occurs malnly ln LgypL and Sudan. Some analyses, as
menuoned prevlously, esumaLe LhaL as many as 10,000 mlgranLs have been
kllled or have dled ln Lhe Slnal aL Lhe hands of Lramckers ln a four-year perlod
(2009-2013) alone (van 8elsen, LsLefanos and 8l[ken, 2013).
ln an exLraordlnary sLaLemenL, one Slnal human Lramcker Lold researchers ln
2013 LhaL he was responslble for Lhe deaLh of 1,000 LrlLreans and oLher sub-
Saharan nauonals (van 8elsen, LsLefanos and 8l[ken, 2013). ln a Puman 8lghLs
WaLch reporL ln 2014, anoLher Lramcker clalmed:
l LorLure Lhem so Lhelr relauves pay me Lo leL Lhem go. . . . 1hree of
Lhem dled because l beaL Lhem so hard. l released Lhe one who pald.
(van 8elsen, LsLefanos and 8l[ken, 2013:63)
20
Slnce CcLober 2013, almosL 43,000 people have been rescued by Lhe lLallan navy (unPC8, CenLral
MedlLerranean Sea lnlLlaLlve AcLlon lan, unPC8 8ureau for Lurope, updaLed 13 May 2014).

Cn 13-18 !uly 2014, lLaly's search and rescue mlsslon saved more Lhan 1,700 mlgranLs ln Lhe
MedlLerranean (www.LrusL.org/lLem/20140713143834-k89d[/?source=flCLhernews3).

ln Lhe laLesL Lragedy lnvolvlng mlgranLs, up Lo 19 persons are LhoughL Lo be dead as a boaL carrylng
asylum-seekers found lLself ln dlfflculLles around 80 mlles from Lampedusa. (www.malLaLoday.com.
mL/news/world/41382/19_mlgranLs_dle_ln_laLesL_boaL_Lragedy_#.u8vy3vZS--g)
21
As dlscussed ln ChapLer 3, Lhe lssue of deaLh by organ LhefL ls conLroverslal. 1here have been regular
reporLs from Lhe Slnal LhaL organ removal ls pracLlced by crlmlnals agalnsL mlgranLs. 1here appears
Lo be evldence LhaL numerous mlgranLs (normally LrlLreans) have been kllled for Lhelr body parLs
and organs, accordlng Lo some sources. Powever, some academlcs, acLlvlsLs and human rlghLs
organlzaLlons worklng ln Lhe reglon are doubLful of Lhe veraclLy of Lhe evldence from LgypL and
Lhose presenLlng lL, desplLe Lhe facL LhaL Lhe World PealLh CrganlzaLlon ln a recenL reporL called
LgypL a reglonal hub for Lhe Lrade.
Chapter 4 From Sub-Saharan Africa through North Africa: Tracking Deaths along the Way
130
MlgranL wlLness reporLs from Llbya also suggesL LhaL kldnapplng and exLoruon
of mlgranLs from Lhe Porn of Afrlca ls a rlslng phenomenon. 1here appears Lo be
a ne llne beLween SLaLe omclals and non-SLaLe mllluas, and even Lhe acuons
of clvlllans:
1hey [mlgranLs] llve ln fear, Lhey are aL Lhe mercy of Lhe whlms of Lhose -
Llbyan armed forces, mllluas or clvlllans - who hold Lhem ln Lhelr power,
and Lhey are vlewed as a useful commodlLy Lo be broughL, sold and
explolLed as forced labour. (!8S MalLa, 2014)
Pundreds, lf noL Lhousands, of mlgranLs have been, and conunue Lo be, held by
mlllua groups who lnlually clalmed Lo be defendlng Lhe lnLegrlLy of Lhe counLry's
borders agalnsL pro-Cadha black mlgranLs (AlLal Consulung, 2013, lluP,
2012). lncreaslngly, lL seems some of Lhese armed non-SLaLe acLors deLalnlng
and handllng" Lhe large ows of mlgranLs may also be proung from Lhelr
capuves Lhrough labour and sexual explolLauon, holdlng Lhem for ransom and
oLher Lramcklng acuvlues. CerLalnly, much vlolence, sexual abuse, raclsm and
xenophobla ls reporLed by survlvlng mlgranLs. Some reporLs menuon faLallues
occurrlng ln Lhese unomclal deLenuon cenLres due Lo bruLallLy, neglecL or ouLrlghL
murder. As descrlbed prevlously, mlgranL deLenuon cenLres are scauered around
Llbya, and lL seems LhaL Lhose who Lry Lo escape run a hlgh rlsk of belng shoL.
l saw how a pregnanL woman Lrled Lo escape prlson ln Llbya aer she
gave blrLh. 1he guards shoL her dead and kllled Lhe baby by sLepplng on
lL. (8MMS, 2014b:36)
Calculaung numbers of people who are kllled by Lramckers and non-SLaLe acLors
ls fraughL wlLh dlmculues due Lo Lhe clandesune naLure of Lhelr acuvlues, Lhe
lnablllLy of oLhers Lo scruunlze Lhe crlmlnals' behavlour, and Lhe culLure of
lmpunlLy compounded by Lhe sLrong anu-mlgranL and raclsL amLudes Lowards
sub-Saharan mlgranLs ln LgypL and Llbya.
Deoth by Stote o(cols
1hls caLegory of deaLh lncludes cases where mlgranLs are shoL by securlLy
guards and border omclals. 1hese cases are reporLed by mlgranLs Lranslung or
enLerlng Spanlsh LerrlLory ln Morocco (CeuLa and Melllla), as well as ln Morocco
lLself, LgypL, LrlLrea, Llbya and Sudan. ln rare lnsLances, Lhe news of mlgranL
shooung reaches lnLernauonal medla, as wlLh Lhe case ln lebruary 2014, when
13 mlgranLs drowned aer Spanlsh guards shoL rubber bulleLs aL Lhem as Lhey
Lrled Lo swlm lnLo Lhe enclave of CeuLa (Schemm, 2014).
22
Lvery year Lhousands of mlgranLs enLer Morocco lrregularly and perlodlcally
auempL mass break-lns Lhrough or over Lhe Lrlple-layer fence surroundlng Lhe
Lwo Spanlsh enclaves. Many are successful, buL boLh Lhe Moroccans and Spanlsh
22
ApparenLly, Lhese mlgranLs were noL dlrecLly kllled by Lhe bulleLs, buL crlLlcs of Lhe shooLlng clalm
LhaL Lhe fear and ln[urles caused by Lhe shooLlng caused Lhe drownlng.
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
131
guards use force Lo prevenL Lhe mass lnuxes and forclbly reLurn Lo Morocco or
Lhe Algerlan border Lhose Lhey can caLch ln Lhe acL".
uozens are wounded wlLh every auempL. 1here are oen faLallues," clalmed
one reporL LhaL conunued Lo quoLe a mlgranL saylng, noLhlng ln Lhe world ls as
hard as LhaL fence and Lhere ls always a loss of llfe" (8MMS, 2014b).
When LrlLrean and oLher sub-Saharan mlgranLs Lrled Lo enLer lsrael Lhrough
Lhe Slnal, Lhere were regular reporLs of bulleL ln[urles and faLallues along Lhe
border where Lgypuan soldlers appeared Lo re aL mlgranLs wlLhouL resLralnL.
1he LrlLrean border guards are apparenLly llcensed Lo shooL on slghL any person
who Lry Lo leave Lhelr LerrlLory Lhrough unomclal meLhods, buL Lhe auLhors are
noL aware of recorded faLallues.
MlgranLs may also dle whlle held (and abused) ln formal or lnformal deLenuon,
ln a wlde varleLy of locauons LhroughouL Lhe Maghreb and Sahel counLrles
where - due Lo Lhelr lrregular sLaLus - Lhey have Lo face deLenuon, deporLauon,
senLenclng and punlshmenL. 1here are few sLorles of Lhls naLure buL lL ls known
LhaL oen ln remoLe locauons, behlnd closed doors, cerLaln SLaLe omclals
LreaL mlgranLs as Lhey choose, convlnced Lhere wlll be no lnvesugauon or
accounLablllLy demanded lf mlgranLs go mlsslng or dle ln Lhelr hands. More
oen, lf some SLaLe omclals are pracuslng exLoruon and abuse, or are compllclL
ln crlmlnal acuvlues, Lhey become parL of Lhe wlder machlne LhaL commoJluzes,
explolLs and someumes causes Lhe deaLh of mlgranLs. A dead mlgranL needs
Lo be dlsposed of and even covered up whlle a mlgranL who ls allve may be
explolLed for proL and/or sold on Lo oLhers.
ln 2011 and 2012, mllluas ln Llbya held large ad hoc deLenuon cenLres for sub-
Saharan mlgranLs. ln 2013, Lhese were osLenslbly Laken over by Lhe new"
MlnlsLry of Lhe lnLerlor, buL a grey zone remalns beLween Lhe acuvlues of Lhe
SLaLe and Lhe armed mllluas who sull wleld power. AmnesLy lnLernauonal
esumaLed ln 2013 LhaL approxlmaLely 3,000 mlgranLs, asylum-seekers and
refugees were held ln 17 deLenuon cenLres ln prlson-llke condluons lndenlLely
for mlgrauon-relaLed oences pendlng deporLauon" (AmnesLy lnLernauonal,
2013:3). As lL elaboraLed lLs ndlngs, AmnesLy lnLernauonal wenL on Lo descrlbe
dlerenL cenLres:
ln Lhe holdlng cenLres ln Sabha, deLalned mlgranLs appear Lo have been
sysLemaucally sub[ecLed Lo LorLure and oLher forms of lll-LreaLmenL.
1here ls no esumauon of Lhe number of deaLhs LhaL may have occurred buL
mlgranL reporLs, especlally from Lhose who have reached Lurope and feel free Lo
dlscuss Lhelr sLorles, suggesL kllllngs were noL lnfrequenL ln Llbya. CerLalnly, Lhey
Lalk of close compllclLy of SLaLe omclals wlLh crlmlnal elemenLs. 1he followlng
quoLes are Laken from lnLervlews conducLed for Lhe 8MMS Coloq west sLudy of
mld-2014:
Chapter 4 From Sub-Saharan Africa through North Africa: Tracking Deaths along the Way
132
1he pollce Lake Lhe money and release Lhese people. 8uL Lhe pollce
Lhemselves call anoLher group and Lhen Lhe mlgranLs are arresLed agaln
by anoLher group, noL Lhe pollce and noL Lhe governmenL, buL Lhe mlllua.
1hey Look us for four monLhs and held us ln a small vlllage. (Somall man,
lnLervlewed ln Lhe neLherlands, who Lravelled from Somalla Lo Lurope)
very senlor omclals and mlllua are lnvolved and even Lhe CovernmenL
cannoL sLop Lhem. [1here ls a] need for Lhe cenLral CovernmenL Lo be
sLronger. (Senlor Somall communlLy leader ln 1rlpoll, Llbya)
Cmclals of Lhe Llbyan navy have a connecuon wlLh Lhe connecuon men".
1hey share Lhe money wlLh Lhem, every connecuon man has a connecuon
wlLh Lhe army or navy. lf Lhey quarrel Lhey wlll capLure Lhe boaLs and puL
Lhe people ln prlson. (LrlLrean man ln lLaly)
4.4 Conclusions: Methodological challenges
and information gaps
Whlle we have a clear grasp of Lhe leLhal rlsks mlgranLs face maklng Lhese
[ourneys, Lhere are evldenLly serlous gaps ln Lerms of our ablllLy Lo enumeraLe
human rlghLs vlolauons or acLual faLallues. lor all Lhe wlLness sLaLemenLs,
mlgranL lnLervlews and medla coverage, a close approxlmauon of Lhe number
of deaLhs ls hard Lo reach. ueaLhs aL sea are perhaps beuer recorded due Lo
Lhe prevalence of paLrols, survelllance, Lhe frequency of shlpplng Lramc, Lhe
lncreaslng lnLeresL demonsLraLed by wesLern medla, and Lhe greaLer accesslblllLy
Lo lnformauon and lmages deplcung Lragedles.
MeLhodologlcally, Lhe closure of Lhese lnformauon gaps ls very problemauc.
MosL deaLhs occur ln remoLe locauons or clandesune slLuauons, and frequenLly
where local omclals and oen local communlues are elLher compllclL wlLh
perpeLraLors or lndlerenL Lo Lhe faLe of mlgranLs.
1he mosL eecuve way Lo collecL lnformauon on mlgranL deaLhs may be Lo
complle lL from lnLervlews wlLh mlgranLs aL sLraLeglc polnLs of Lhe [ourney, and
aer Lhelr arrlval ln Lurope. lf Lhe lnformauon collecLed ls relauvely fresh, Lhe
deLalls of each case may prevenL dupllcauon, and for dlscreLe perlods of revlew
a snapshoL" mlghL be collecLed. lor example, for a one-monLh perlod ln one
year resources could be deployed Lo capLure lnformauon from dlrecL lnLervlews
wlLh mlgranLs and oLher sources, such as hosplLals, pollce records and morgues.
1he exerclse may prove Lo be cosLly and lnsumclenL, buL could go some way
Lo lncrease our knowledge of Lhe number of deaLhs, kllllngs and oLher human
rlghLs vlolauons LhaL occur along mlgrauon rouLes ln Lhe reglon.
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
133
1he secondary, and arguably far more compllcaLed, problem wlll be Lo LranslaLe
lncreased knowledge of faLallues lnLo a mulu-counLry, mulusecLoral pollcy
response almed aL reduclng deaLhs and lrregular mlgrauon. CurrenL and pasL
eorLs ln Lhe reglon Lo suppress or curLall undocumenLed human movemenL and
Lhe supporL neLworks" LhaL oen faclllLaLe lL (smugglers and oLher assoclaLed
acLors) have evldenLly noL been successful, and as long as lnLervenuons are noL
comprehenslve or collaborauve lL ls unllkely Lhey wlll achleve much. AL besL Lhey
slmply shl Lhe rouLes elsewhere, and aL worsL Lhey lncrease cosL and rlsk Lo
mlgranLs, many of whom are deLermlned Lo move aL any cosL and aL any rlsk.
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2013 lmmlgrauon: ueaLh beLween Afrlca and Lurope. 1he Afrlca 8eporL,
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kootes ftom Aftlco to otope ooJ utlvets of Mlqtouoo lo
lost-tevolouoo llbyo. AlLal Consulung/unlLed nauons Plgh
Commlssloner for 8efugees 1rlpoll, 1rlpoll. Avallable from www.
refworld.org/docld/32b43f394.hLml.
AmnesLy lnLernauonal
2013 5copeqoots of leot. klqbts of kefoqees, Asylom-seekets ooJ
Mlqtoots AboseJ lo llbyo. AmnesLy lnLernauonal, London.
88C
2014 lLaly nds 30 bodles ln mlgranL boaL. 88C, 30 !une. Avallable from
www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-28082969.
uocklns, .
2013 lLaly accldenL draws auenuon Lo Afrlcan mlgranLs' pllghL. vCA
news, 3 CcLober. Avallable from www.voanews.com/conLenL/lLaly-
accldenL-draws-auenuon-Lo-afrlcan-mlgranL-pllghL/1762329.hLml.
Luropean Agency for Lhe ManagemenL of Cperauonal Cooperauon aL Lhe
LxLernal 8orders of Lhe Member SLaLes of Lhe Luropean unlon (lronLex)
2014 Aooool klsk Aoolysls 2014. 8lsk Analysls unlL-lronLex, Warsaw.
Chapter 4 From Sub-Saharan Africa through North Africa: Tracking Deaths along the Way
134
Cuardlan, 1he
2013 Afrlca: ueaLhs aL sea. 1he Cuardlan, 3 CcLober. As posLed on www.
afrlcafocus.org/docs13/mlgr1310.php.
Puman 8lghLs League of Lhe Porn of Afrlca (P8LPA)
2013 Llbya: 1housands of refugees ln llfe-LhreaLenlng. Avallable from
hLLp://humanrlghLsleague.com/2013/09/llbya-Lhousands-of-
refugees-ln-llfe-LhreaLenlng/. P8LPA, 1oronLo.
Puman 8lghLs WaLch
2006 llbyo. 5temmloq tbe llow. Aboses Aqolost Mlqtoots, Asylom 5eekets
ooJ kefoqees. Puman 8lghLs WaLch, new ?ork.
2014a l wooteJ to lle uowo ooJ ule. 1to[ckloq ooJ 1ottote of tltteoos
lo 5oJoo ooJ qypt. Puman 8lghLs WaLch, new ?ork.
2014b Spaln/Morocco: roLecL mlgranLs, asylum seekers. Avallable from
www.hrw.org/news/2014/03/24/spalnmorocco-proLecL-mlgranLs-
asylum-seekers.
2014c emeos 1ottote comps. Abose of Mlqtoots by nomoo 1to[ckets lo
o cllmote of lmpoolty. Puman 8lghLs WaLch, new ?ork.
lnLernauonal CenLre for Mlgrauon ollcy uevelopmenL (lCMu)
2010 A comptebeoslve 5otvey of Mlqtouoo llows ooJ losutouoool
copoblllues lo llbyo. lCMu, vlenna.
lnLernauonal lederauon for Puman 8lghLs (lluP)
2012 Llbya: 1he houndlng of mlgranLs musL sLop. lluP, 11 CcLober.
Avallable from www.dh.org/en/norLh-afrlca-mlddle-easL/llbya/
Llbya-1he-houndlng-of-mlgranLs-12233.
lnLernauonal Crganlzauon for Mlgrauon (lCM)
2011a PumanlLarlan response Lo Lhe Llbyan crlsls: lebruary-uecember
2011 reporL. lCM, Ceneva.
2011b 8esulLaL de l'analyse des enreglsLremenLs eL prols soclo-
economlques des mlgranLs nlgerlens reLournes sulLe a la crlse
Llbyenne. lCM, nlamey.
2013 romouonal brochure. lCM, Ceneva. Avallable from www.lom.lnL/
les/llve/slLes/lom/les/CounLry/docs/Mlxed-Mlgrauon-PCA.pdf.
2014 WesL and CenLral Afrlca. Avallable from www.lom.lnL/cms/wesL-
afrlca.
l8ln
2006 Senegal: Semng slghLs across Lhe sea. l8ln, 31 CcLober. Avallable
from www.lrlnnews.org/reporL/61433/senegal-semng-slghLs-
across-Lhe-sea.
2007 WesL Afrlca: overLy, search for sLaLus drlvlng mlgrauon Lo Lurope.
l8ln, 4 !uly. Avallable from www.lrlnnews.org/reporL/73079/wesL-
afrlca-poverLy-search-for-sLaLus-drlvlng-mlgrauon-Lo-europe.
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
133
!acobsen, k., S. 8oblnson and L. Ll[nders
2013 koosom, collobototots, cottopuoo. 5lool 1to[ckloq ooJ
1toosoouoool Netwotks. A cose 5toJy of tbe tltteoo Mlqtouoo
5ystem ftom tltteo to lstoel. lelnsLeln lnLernauonal CenLre, 1us
unlverslLy, Medford, unlLed SLaLes.
!esulL 8efugee Servlce MalLa (!8S MalLa)
2014 8eyooJ lmoqloouoo. Asylom 5eekets 1esufy to llfe lo llbyo. !8S
MalLa, 8lrklrkara.
Lewls, u.
2014 Speclal reporL: uesplLe deaLhs, crackdown, Sahara mlgranL Lrall
Lhrlves. 8euLers, 13 May. Avallable from www.reuLers.com/
arLlcle/2014/03/13/us-europe-lmmlgraLlon-nlger-speclalrepor-
lduS88LA4L08W20140313.
Mekonnen, u.8. and M. LsLefanos
2012 lrom Sawa Lo Lhe Slnal deserL: 1he LrlLrean Lragedy of human
Lramcklng. Asmarlno lndependenL, 23 May. Avallable from www.
asmarlno.com/arLlcles/1411-from-sawa-Lo-Lhe-slnal-deserL-Lhe-
erlLrean-Lragedy-of-human-Lramcklng6.
C'uea, C.
2012 LrlLreans brave exLreme [ourney for new llfe. SWl, 16 lebruary.
Avallable from www.swlsslnfo.ch/eng/pollucs/LrlLreans_brave_
exLreme_[ourney_for_new_llfe.hLml?cld=32080100.
lelLgen, l.
2013 'Sea of deaLh': Cn paLrol wlLh Lurope's border agency ln Lhe
MedlLerranean. Cnn, 30 CcLober. Avallable from www.cnn.
com/2013/10/30/world/europe/fronLex-paLrol-plelLgen/.
8eglonal Mlxed Mlgrauon SecreLarlaL (8MMS)
2013 Mlqtoot 5moqqlloq lo tbe noto of Aftlco & emeo. 1be lollucol
cooomy ooJ ltotecuoo klsks. 8MMS, nalrobl.
2014a 8lloJeJ by nope. koowleJqe, AmtoJes ooJ ltocuces of tbloploo
Mlqtoots. 8MMS, nalrobl.
2014b Coloq west. cootempototy MlxeJ Mlqtouoo 1teoJs ftom tbe noto
of Aftlco to llbyo & otope. 8MMS, nalrobl.
8eseau Lxodus
2014 uaLa on reglsLered mlgranL ows Lowards Llbya. As accessed
aL www.exodus-programma.org/ and as quoLed ln u. Lewls,
Speclal reporL: uesplLe deaLhs, crackdown, Sahara mlgranL Lrall
Lhrlves, 8euLers, 13 May, avallable from www.reuLers.com/
arLlcle/2014/03/13/us-europe-lmmlgraLlon-nlger-speclalrepor-
lduS88LA4L08W20140313.
Chapter 4 From Sub-Saharan Africa through North Africa: Tracking Deaths along the Way
136
8euLers
2014 13 mlgranLs found dead ln Sahara. 8euLers, 9 May. As posLed on
www.lol.co.za/news/afrlca/13-mlgranLs-found-dead-ln-sahara-
1.1686133#.u30egmSzuL.
Schemm, .
2014 Afrlcan mlgranLs rlsk llves Lo reach Lurope. AssoclaLed ress, 9
Aprll. As posLed on www.humngLonposL.com/2014/04/09/afrlcan-
mlgranLs-europe_n_3117033.hLml?vlew=prlnL&comm_ref=false.
SmlLh-Spark, L. and A. uamon
2013 Sahara deserL deaLhs: 92 mlgranLs perlsh ln nlger aer vehlcle
breakdowns. Cnn, 31 CcLober. Avallable from hup://edluon.cnn.
com/2013/10/31/world/afrlca/nlger-bodles/.
unlLed nauons ueparLmenL of Lconomlc and Soclal Aalrs (un uLSA), opulauon
ulvlslon
2012 Wall charL of currenL and fuLure populauons. Avallable from www.
un.org/en/developmenL/desa/populaLlon/publlcaLlons/pdf/
Lrends/W2012_WallcharL.pdf.
unlLed nauons Cmce for urugs and Crlme (unCuC)
2011 1be kole of OtqoolzeJ ctlme lo tbe 5moqqlloq of Mlqtoots ftom
west Aftlco to tbe otopeoo uoloo. unCuC/un, vlenna/new ?ork.
2014 Smuggllng of mlgranLs: 1he harsh search for a beuer llfe. Avallable
from www.unodc.org/Loc/en/crlmes/mlgranL-smuggllng.hLml.
unlLed nauons SecurlLy Councll (unSC)
2012 8eporL of Lhe MonlLorlng Croup on Somalla and LrlLrea pursuanL Lo
SecurlLy Councll resoluuon 2002 (2011). unSC, new ?ork.
van 8elsen, M., M. LsLefanos and C. 8l[ken
2012 nomoo 1to[ckloq lo tbe 5lool. kefoqees betweeo llfe ooJ ueotb.
Wolf Legal ubllshers, ClsLerwl[k .
2013 1be nomoo 1to[ckloq cycle. 5lool ooJ 8eyooJ. Wolf Legal
ubllshers, ClsLerwl[k.
Woldermarlam, ?.
2009 1he pllghL of LrlLrea's boaL people: Why LrlLrea's refugees shouldn'L
accepL Lhelr faLe. lombozoko News, lssue 433, 29 CcLober.
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
137
Death in the desert
W|thout hopes of gemng a good [ob aher schoo|, 20-year-o|d Ayan dec|ded to
|eave secondary schoo| |n Soma|||and and try her |uck |n Lurope. ner [ourney
turned out to be much harsher than she had expected, and she saw many die
on the way. Lventua||y, she returned home.
23
Ayan dld noL Lell anyone abouL her deparLure. She used her own money Lo reach
Addls Ababa, where she arrlved wlLhouL a penny le ln her pockeL. When she
found a group of smugglers who dld noL demand money unul reachlng Llbya, she
began her [ourney Lhrough Lhe deserL. Aer a slx-day walk, whlch Lhe smugglers
lndlcaLed would be only 30 mlnuLes, Lhe Lravellers were LransporLed Lhrough Lhe
deserL Lowards 1rlpoll on four-wheel drlve vehlcles.
Cn Lhe way a pregnanL lady dled. We Lrled Lo bury her, buL Lhe smugglers
sald LhaL now we should [usL Lhlnk of ourselves.
Cne day, Lhe Lroop was chased by rlval smuggler bands known Lo sell human
organs. ln Lhe dark, everyone was loaded o Lhe vehlcles and hldden ln Lhe deserL
for Lwo hours. 1hls way, Lhe drlvers Lrlcked Lhe organ smugglers lnLo bellevlng
Lhe Lrucks were empLy. 1hroughouL Lhe resL of Lhe [ourney Lhey conunued Lo
encounLer obsLacles, Lhe group slowly shrank. Whereas Ayan deparLed ln a
group of 36, only 22 survlved. 1he oLhers dled one aer Lhe oLher on Lhe way,
some of sLarvauon or dehydrauon, oLhers goL sLuck ln deep mud or were le
behlnd when ln[ured. nlneLeen members of Lhe group dled ln a car accldenL.
Cne lady from Lhe group sank down ln Lhe soll. 1hey Lrled Lo drag her up
buL ln Lhls auempL Lo help her, one leg beneaLh Lhe knee was cuL o and
she laLer dled of her ln[urles.
When Lhey arrlved ln 1rlpoll, Lhe survlvlng
men were LorLured wlLh elecLrlc shocks,
and Lhe women were raped. Ayan had
gone Lhrough an operauon before sLarung
her [ourney, and Lhe wound had become
lnfecLed. Lucklly, she was released when
her famlly pald Lhe cosL of her Lrlp Lo Lhe
smugglers. Per famlly arranged for her Lo be
Laken Lo a hosplLal for LreaLmenL, and senL
her money Lo reLurn home. 1raumauzed and
dlscouraged, she declded Lo reLurn and sLay
home. She ls Lhankful Lo be allve and hopes
Lo go Lo unlverslLy.
23
1hls sLory ls based on an lnLervlew conducLed by Lhe 8eglonal Mlxed MlgraLlon SecreLarlaL ln !uly
2013.
l teollzeJ tbot tbe
Jlqolty l bove bete lo my
bomelooJ ooJ tbe Jlqolty
l met lo otbet cooottles
wos oot tbe some.
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
139
ChrlsLopher Porwood
1
Figure 5.1: Migratory routes in the Horn of Africa
5ootce: unPC8, 2013.
5.1 Introduction
1hls chapLer focuses on Lhe complex, dynamlc and fasL-changlng conLexL of
mlgrauon orlglnaung ln Lhe Porn of Afrlca. lL ls complex because, posslbly more
so Lhan ln oLher reglons, mlgranL ows are mlxed, wlLh a huge number of forced
*

1he vlews expressed ln Lhls chapLer are Lhose of Lhe auLhors and do noL necessarlly represenL Lhose of Lhe
lnLernauonal Crganlzauon for Mlgrauon (lCM).
1
ChrlsLopher Porwood ls Lhe foundlng coordlnaLor of Lhe 8eglonal Mlxed Mlgrauon SecreLarlaL (8MMS)
based ln nalrobl. Pe may be reached aL: chrls.horwood[reglonalmms.org.
Deaths en Route from
the Horn of Africa to
Yemen and along the
Eastern Corridor from
the Horn of Africa to
South Africa Chapter 5
Chapter 5 Deaths en Route from the Horn of Africa to Yemen
and along the Eastern Corridor from the Horn of Africa to South Africa
140
mlgranLs mlngllng wlLh economlc mlgranLs. lL ls dynamlc because Lhe number
of people on Lhe move ls hlgh and has been rlslng ln recenL years, and Lhe
rouLes Laken by mlgranLs polnL ln all dlrecuons. lL ls fasL-changlng because Lhe
securluzauon of Lhe reglon, coupled wlLh envlronmenLal fraglllLy and changlng
mlgrauon pollcles, means Lhe ows are sub[ecL Lo sudden changes and aecLed
by muluple facLors.
ln addluon Lo Lhese characLerlsucs, Lhe prevalenL experlence of Lhose movlng
wlLhln, or ouL of, Lhe Porn of Afrlca ls one of hardshlp, neglecL, bruLal vlcumlzauon
and, for some, deaLh. 1hls chapLer shows LhaL whlle deaLh ls a common ouLcome
for some mlgranLs, far less ls known abouL Lhe scale of faLallLy Lhan ls known
regardlng Lhe scale of abuse and vlcumlzauon. Abuse and deaLh may occur durlng
mlgrauon ln Lhe reglon noL only due Lo Lhe harsh envlronmenLal condluons of
many mlgrauon rouLes buL also as a resulL of Lhe soclal economy" LhaL has
developed around mlgrauon, namely smuggllng, Lramcklng and oLher forms of
crlmlnallLy, whlch may be compounded by colluslon wlLh cerLaln SLaLe omclals.
5.2 Brief historical and geographical background:
The migration context
MlgranLs from LLhlopla, LrlLrea and Somalla (lncludlng Somallland and unLland
sLaLes) make up Lhe overwhelmlng ma[orlLy of Lhose on Lhe move ln Lhe reglon.
1hose movlng wlLhln Lhe Porn of Afrlca and leavlng Lhe Porn of Afrlca from
Lhese Lhree LerrlLorles are Lhe ones who mosLly face abuse and deaLh. AparL
from Lhe mllllon (plus) Somall refugees and asylum-seekers ln ?emen, kenya
and LLhlopla (comblned), Lhere are hundreds of Lhousands of Somalls who have
moved as lrregular, normally economlc, mlgranLs ln recenL years, and Lens of
Lhousands who conunue Lo move every year. 1he mlgrauon conLexLs relaung
Lo Lhe Lhree LerrlLorles dler conslderably and need Lo be brley descrlbed Lo
beuer undersLand how and where mlgranLs face abuse and deaLh durlng Lhelr
[ourneys.
5.2.1 The Ethiopian exodus
ueLalled lnLervlews from mlgranL coasL paLrol Leams ln ?emen show LhaL lrregular
mlgranLs from LLhlopla are Lyplcally young males aged 28-33 from rural areas
who lack formal educauon. lerullLy raLes ln LLhlopla are among Lhe hlghesL ln
Lhe world, and wlLh a populauon of over 92 mllllon
2
and wealLhy nelghbourlng
counLrles ln Lhe reglon and beyond, lL ls noL surprlslng LhaL smugglers have a
sLeady ow of young men and women seeklng Lhelr servlces.
More Lhan 600,000 LLhloplans are esumaLed Lo have le Lhe counLry ln recenL
decades as emlgranLs and currenLly make up Lhe LLhloplan dlaspora, mosLly
2
World 8ank 2014 esumaLe.
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
141
ln norLh Amerlca, Lurope and Lhe Mlddle LasL (Puman 8lghLs WaLch, 2013a).
LLhloplans have le Lhelr counLry for a mlx of reasons LhaL can be broadly
classled lnLo pollucal, revoluuonary" or eLhnlc as well as economlc or survlval
necesslLy. Addluonally, many are drawn Lo work ouLslde Lhelr counLry as Lhe
culLure of mlgrauon" has become sLrongly embedded.
SlgnlcanL mlgrauon from LLhlopla Lo counLrles beyond Lhe Porn of Afrlca began
aer Lhe 1974 revoluuon, ln addluon Lo Lhe mass exodus of Cgadenl Somall
LLhloplans Lo Somalla ln 1977. Cne calculauon ln 2008/2009 suggesLed LhaL Lhe
ma[orlLy of Lhe esumaLed 17,000-20,000 smuggled mlgranLs enLerlng SouLh
Afrlca every year were LLhloplans (Porwood, 2009). More recenLly, Lhe LLhloplan
Lmbassy ln SouLh Afrlca Lold Lhe lnLernauonal Labour Crganlzauon (lLC) LhaL
beLween 43,000 and 30,000 LLhloplans were llvlng ln SouLh Afrlca ln 2011, of
whlch 93 per cenL had enLered Lhe counLry lrregularly (lLC, 2011).
Some use SouLh Afrlca as a sprlngboard Lo y Lo SouLh Amerlca and norLh
Amerlca, AusLralla or Lurope. 1he souLhern rouLe can Lake many monLhs and
normally passes Lhrough dlerenL comblnauons of counLrles lncludlng kenya,
Malawl, Mozamblque, 8wanda, Lhe unlLed 8epubllc of 1anzanla, uganda,
Zambla and Zlmbabwe. MlgranLs may Lravel by fooL, boaL, conLalner Lrucks and
buses. AlmosL all move uslng smuggler neLworks wlLh hlgh proLecuon declLs.
Slnce 2010, SouLh Afrlca has become less welcomlng Lo lrregular mlgranLs and
asylum-seekers, whlle Lhe popular senumenL has dlsplayed lncreaslngly vlolenL
anu-mlgranL and xenophoblc Lendencles for some years. ln 2008, parucularly
sLrong expresslons of haLred agalnsL mlgranLs resulLed ln rloLs and muluple
deaLhs Lhrough publlc lynchlng.
Powever, more commonly ln Lhe lasL decade, LLhloplan lrregular mlgranLs go
easL Lo ?emen (en rouLe Lo Saudl Arabla) vla u[lbouu or Somallland. A smaller
number go wesL Lhrough Sudan Lo Llbya or norLh Lo LgypL, and mosL of Lhem
wlLh Lhe lnLenuon Lo cross Lhe MedlLerranean lnLo Lurope. Accordlng Lo lLC
reporLs, Lhe LLhloplan MlnlsLry of lorelgn Aalrs esumaLes LhaL 73,000-100,000
LLhloplans mlgraLe lrregularly Lo Llbya annually (lLC, 2011). 1o whaL exLenL Lhe
change of reglme ln Llbya has lmpacLed Lhls ow ls noL yeL known, alLhough
reporLs of deaLhs and rlghLs vlolauons ln Llbya, as well as Lhe presence of
LLhloplans ln boaLs arrlvlng ln lLaly beLween 2012 and 2014, suggesL LhaL Lhe
numbers are rlslng.
3
LLhloplans domlnaLe lrregular mlgrauon ows Lo ?emen. 1he cumulauve
number of LLhloplans arrlvlng ln ?emen over Lhe pasL seven and a half years ls
aL leasL 300,000, a conservauve esumaLe based on ndlngs of Lhe dally coasL
monlLorlng paLrols organlzed by non-governmenLal organlzauons (nCCs) and
Lhe (Cmce of Lhe) unlLed nauons Plgh Commlssloner for 8efugees (unPC8)
(8MMS, 2013a:34). 1he real gure ls reckoned Lo be hlgher due Lo monlLorlng
3
1hls ls repeaLedly clLed ln press reporLs ln 2013 and 2014 documenung rescue aL sea, deaLhs aL sea and
arrlvals on lLallan LerrlLory.
Chapter 5 Deaths en Route from the Horn of Africa to Yemen
and along the Eastern Corridor from the Horn of Africa to South Africa
142
llmlLauons and because mosL new arrlvals do noL reglsLer buL are kldnapped
by crlmlnal gangs and/or LransporLed lmmedlaLely Lo LorLure camps" or norLh
Lowards Saudl Arabla ln enforced smuggllng".
ln an lnLervlew wlLh MlgranL-8lghLs.org, Alda Awel, Chlef 1echnlcal Advlser on
mlgranL domesuc workers for Lhe lLC Addls Ababa omce, sald LhaL lCM and
governmenL daLa shows LhaL Lhe LoLal number of reLurnees have reached
163,018, of whlch 100,688 are men, 33,732 are women and 8,398 are chlldren".
1he recenL crackdown on lrregular LLhloplan mlgranLs ln Saudl Arabla - wlLh
160,000 mlgranLs rough-handled ln forced reLurn Lo Lhelr homeland beLween
november 2013 and lebruary 2014 - ls an lllusLrauon of how lmporLanL Lhe
Saudl lnformal labour markeLs are Lo LLhloplans.
4
uesplLe Lhls, aer a shorL and
sLeep drop ln LLhloplans belng smuggled Lo ?emen ln early 2014, by Aprll 2014
Lhose recenLly expelled were Lrylng agaln Lo cross lnLo u[lbouu and cross Lhe 8ed
Sea looklng for work. lL appears smugglers and Lramckers can be reassured LhaL
Lhelr buslness ls rapldly reLurnlng Lo lLs normal lucrauve levels. 8y comparlson,
LLhloplan asylum-seekers ln Canada, Lurope and Lhe unlLed SLaLes of Amerlca
3

are now relauvely few (and falllng), numberlng noL more Lhan a few hundred
every year.
6

Accordlng Lo lLC (2011), 1he 'culLure of mlgrauon' ls anoLher key facLor
underlylng hlgh levels of Lramcklng [and mlgrauon]. Cross-border mlgrauon
ls consldered as personal, soclal, and maLerlal success ln mosL communlues,
creaung wrong [slc] role models for Lhe younger generauon." 8ecenL sLudles
of knowledge, amLudes and pracuces of LLhloplan mlgranLs show LhaL desplLe
knowledge of Lhe hlgh llkellhood of belng sub[ecL Lo rlghLs vlolauons, bruLallLy
and even deaLh, Lhe commlLmenL Lo mlgraLe appears Lo be as sLrong as ever
(8MMS, 2014c).
5.2.2 The Eritrean exodus
LLhlopla's nelghbour, LrlLrea, ls also one of Lhe world's pooresL counLrles and
ls a closed and hlghly securluzed SLaLe, wldely regarded as represslve and
auLhorlLarlan. Accordlng Lo Puman 8lghLs WaLch, ln LrlLrea, cluzens experlence
arblLrary and lndenlLe deLenuon, LorLure, lnhumane condluons of connemenL,
resLrlcuons on freedom of speech and press, movemenL and bellef, and lndenlLe
conscrlpuon and forced labour ln nauonal servlce (Puman 8lghLs WaLch, 2013b).
LrlLrea has Lroubled relauons wlLh boLh Lhe Afrlcan unlon and Lhe unlLed
nauons, as well as Lhe lnLergovernmenLal AuLhorlLy on uevelopmenL (lCAu),
from whlch lL was suspended ln 2007. 1he CovernmenL ls frequenLly Lhe LargeL
4
See www.mlgranL-rlghLs.org/2014/04/lnLervlew-Lhe-llos-alda-awel-on-Lhe-fuLure-of-eLhloplas-160000-reLurnlng-
mlgranLs/ for Lhe full LexL of Lhe lnLervlew.
3
Perelnaer referred Lo as Lhe unlLed SLaLes.
6
ln 2011, 2,379 LLhloplans applled for asylum ln Lurope and 1,318 LLhloplans applled for asylum ln Lhe
unlLed SLaLes and Canada. ln Lhe rsL half of 2012, Lhere were [usL 863 asylum appllcauons by LLhloplans ln
Lurope, and 626 ln Lhe unlLed SLaLes and Canada. ln: 8MMS, Mlxed mlgrauon ln Porn of Afrlca and ?emen:
!une 2013" (nalrobl, 8MMS, 2013).
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
143
of lnLernauonal censure by human rlghLs organlzauons and oLher bodles. A
large share of lLs 6 mllllon cluzens have soughL Lo emlgraLe, oen aL greaL rlsk Lo
Lhemselves.
7
Conscrlpuon ls mandaLory and oen greaLly exceeds Lhe 19-monLh llmlL on
acuve duLy lald ouL ln Lhe 1993 roclamauon.
8
8eporLs suggesL LhaL condluons
durlng mlllLary servlce are severe, wlLh lnadequaLe food, shelLer and equlpmenL,
LogeLher wlLh long days of forced manual labour and exLenslve sexual explolLauon
of female recrulLs (Puman 8lghLs WaLch, 2014a:114).
MosL of Lhe 33,000 LrlLrean asylum-seekers ln lsrael have ed conscrlpuon or
deserLed Lhe army.
9
8ecause of Lhe recognlzed severlLy of Lhe condluons, some
WesLern nauons oer asylum Lo LrlLreans escaplng and evadlng mlllLary servlce.
ln 2012, 90 per cenL of Lhe almosL 30,000 LrlLrean asylum clalms led around Lhe
world were granLed (unPC8, 2013). 8uL Lhe cosL of mlgrauon ls hlgh noL only ln
Lerms of rlsks mlgranLs may face on Lhelr [ourney buL also Lo famlly members
remalnlng ln LrlLrea. lnLervlewed LrlLrean refugees ln Lhe dlaspora clalm LhaL
relauves of Lhose who had le Lhe counLry are sub[ecL Lo nes of approxlmaLely
uSu 3,330 for each mlsslng famlly member (un Puman 8lghLs Councll, 2014).
1he exodus of LrlLreans ls hlgh ln number buL auracLs llule lnLernauonal auenuon.
MlgranLs malnly leave Lhe counLry lllegally, by land and head dlrecLly lnLo Sudan,
wlLhouL obLalnlng Lhe requlred exlL permlL/vlsa LhaL would Lyplcally be denled
Lo mosL of Lhose deparung. unomclal deparLure or evadlng mlllLary conscrlpuon
ls regarded as an acL of defecuon, Lreachery and pollucal dlssenL LhaL can resulL
ln serlous lndlvldual censure by LrlLrean auLhorlues (8MMS, 2014a). LrlLrean
auLhorlues also reporLedly adopL a shooL-on-slghL pollcy Lowards people found
ln locauons LhaL are o-llmlLs, such as areas close Lo Lhe nauonal borders, or
lnLercepLed "escaplng" by sea (Puman 8lghLs WaLch, 2013b). LrlLrean lrregular
mlgranLs and asylum-seekers who are repaLrlaLed from oLher counLrles are also
deLalned, as Lhey are consldered LralLors.
10
Accordlng Lo lreedom Pouse (2013)
reporLs, Lhey may even face llfe lmprlsonmenL or Lhe deaLh penalLy as a resulL.
7
Some mlgranLs are noL mlgranLs aL all buL Lramcked persons someumes abducLed wlLhln LrlLrean LerrlLory.
Accusauons of Lhls naLure were made ln 2012 ln Lhe unlLed nauons SecurlLy Councll 8eporL of Lhe MonlLorlng
Croup on Somalla and LrlLrea. ln: unSC, 8eporL of Lhe MonlLorlng Croup on Somalla and LrlLrea pursuanL
Lo SecurlLy Councll resoluuon 2002 (2011)" (new ?ork, unSC, 2012).
8
under Lhe roclamauon of nauonal Servlce (no. 82/1993), persons aged 18 Lo 30 years have Lhe obllgauon
of performlng Lhls nauonal servlce. lor persons aged 18 Lo 40, Lhls obllgauon conslsLs of slx monLhs of
mlllLary Lralnlng and 12 monLhs of acuve duLy mlllLary servlce, for a LoLal of 18 monLhs, persons over 40 are
consldered Lo be on reserve sLaLus lf Lhey have performed acuve duLy servlce.
9
Accordlng Lo Lhe omclal CcLober 2013 gures from lsrael's opulauon, lmmlgrauon and 8order AuLhorlLy,
33,636 asylum-seekers are ln lsrael. Cf Lhese, 33,000 orlglnaLed from LrlLrea, whlle Lhe ma[orlLy of oLhers
are from Sudan, wlLh a handful from oLher Afrlcan SLaLes. See, for example, hups://www.opendemocracy.
neL/3030/zlna-smlLh-and-davld-sheen/Laklng-mask-o-asylum-seekers-ln-lsrael.
10
lrom laLe 2011 on, Lhere have been lncreaslng reporLs of forclble reLurns of LrlLreans by Lhe Sudanese
CovernmenL. AmnesLy lnLernauonal urged Sudan Lo comply wlLh lLs lnLernauonal legal obllgauons and
sLop all forced reLurns of refugees and asylum-seekers Lo LrlLrea. ln: AmnesLy lnLernauonal, Sudan musL
end forced reLurns of asylum seekers Lo LrlLrea", publlc sLaLemenL, Al8 34/039/2012 (London, AmnesLy
lnLernauonal, 2012).
Chapter 5 Deaths en Route from the Horn of Africa to Yemen
and along the Eastern Corridor from the Horn of Africa to South Africa
144
ConsequenLly, many LrlLreans who wlsh Lo leave have Lo resorL Lo uslng
smugglers. up Lo 2011, Sudan hosLed more Lhan 80,000 LrlLrean refugees ln Lhe
elghL refugee camps ln easLern Sudan along Lhe LLhloplan border, buL due Lo Lhe
rlsk of kldnapplng and abducuon by crlmlnal gangs Lhe number reporLedly fell
ln 2012 (Puman 8lghLs WaLch, 2014c). 8y early 2013, approxlmaLely 300,000
LrlLrean refugees and asylum-seekers llved ln Sudan, LLhlopla, lsrael and Lurope
(lbld.). Accordlng Lo unPC8 and as quoLed ln varlous reporLs by Lhe agency and
oLhers, Lhe monLhly number of forced and economlc mlgranLs leavlng LrlLrea
was ln Lhe range of 2,000-3,000 ln early 2012.
11
A recenL deLalled sLudy of Lhe vlcumlzauon of LrlLrean mlgranLs suggesLed a
more reallsuc esumaLe of Lhose leavlng LrlLrea - approxlmaLely 3,000 per monLh
(8MMS, 2014b). lf Lhls ls Lhe case, Lhen up Lo 60,000 may be leavlng annually,
however, an esumaLed Lwo Lhlrds or more may noL reglsLer wlLh unPC8 as Lhey
are seeklng Lo seule elsewhere (lbld.). Many hope Lo geL Lo Lurope where Lhey
know Lhey have a hlgh chance of belng accepLed as refugees, and where Lhelr
llves wlll llkely be conslderably beuer Lhan ln a refugee camp ln easLern Sudan
or norLhern LLhlopla, noL leasL because kldnapplng from Lhose camps or on Lhe
way Lo Lhose camps, parucularly ln easLern Sudan, has become a ma[or hazard ln
recenL years. lor many Lhe camps are used as a sLaglng posL and clearlng house
for secondary movemenL. Smugglers are repuLed Lo operaLe ln and around Lhe
camps oerlng mlgranLs dlerenL deals.
5.2.3 The Somali exodus
lor many years, Somalls from SouLh-CenLral Somalla have been on Lhe move.
MosL appear as refugees ln Lhe reglon and beyond, buL many are also economlc
mlgranLs and move lrregularly where Lhey cannoL move as refugees. As a resulL
of vlcumlzlng each oLher ln seemlngly endless clan and lnLerneclne conlcLs,
Somall mlgranL ows have been Lhe mosL numerous and conslsLenL ln Lhe lasL
Lwo decades.
lully maklng use of Lhelr prlma facle group sLaLus as refugees ln varlous counLrles,
lncludlng Lhelr lmmedlaLe nelghbours, Somall mlgranLs are normally aorded
lnLernauonal proLecuon as refugees. 1hls allows Lhem Lo move more openly wlLh
less long-Lerm dependence on smugglers and clandesune operaLors. 1hey may
face oLher problems as refugees, buL Lhe lmmedlaLe ouLcome of Lhls dlerence
ls LhaL Lhey are arguably less commonly vlcums of some of Lhe causes of deaLh.
1here are several reasons behlnd Lhe conunued ow of Somalls leavlng as
refugees and lrregular mlgranLs, namely landmark soclopollucal changes slnce
Lhe demlse of Lhe lslamlc CourLs ln 2006 and Lhe lnLervenuon of Lhe LLhloplan
11
lor example, ln CcLober 2013, Shella keeLharuLh, un Speclal 8apporLeur on Lhe slLuauon of human rlghLs
ln LrlLrea, sald: 1he currenL numbers are beLween 2,000 and 3,000 LrlLreans eelng Lhe counLry every
monLh" (www.reuLers.com/arucle/2013/10/24/us-erlLrea-un-rlghLs-lduS88L99n1P220131024). ln !une
2014, she reporLed LhaL Lhe number lncreased Lo 4,000 per monLh.
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
143
army from uecember of LhaL year, Lhe resurgence of warlordlsm and clvll war,
Lhe rlse of Al Shabab, Lhe mulunauonal lnLervenuon by Lhe Afrlcan unlon
Mlsslon ln Somalla (AMlSCM) and Lhe un-sponsored elecuons esLabllshlng a
Somall cenLral governmenL ln 2012, whlle many parLs of Lhe counLry are sull
domlnaLed by exLremlsLs. 1he severe droughL of 2011 and 2012 ln Lhe mldsL of
pollucal and mlllLary conlcL caused huge splkes ln gures of Lhose eelng Lo
LLhloplan and kenyan refugee camps.
AparL from Lhe seuled Somall dlaspora - currenLly esumaLed Lo be 1-2 mllllon
sLrong - Lhere are, ln mld-2014, over 1 mllllon Somalls llvlng ln refugee camps
or urban cenLres ouLslde Lhelr homeland ln Lhe Porn of Afrlca reglon, malnly
ln u[lbouu, LLhlopla, kenya and ?emen. Conslderlng Lhe Somall populauon ls
approxlmaLely 9 mllllon, Lhese gures represenL an unusually large proporuon
of Somalls on Lhe move or dlsplaced (Al-Sharmanl, 2007).
1he seemlngly unendlng rlvers of mlgranLs owlng from a droughL-ravaged and
lnsecure Somalla of 2011 and 2012 have now mosLly sLopped. ln 2013 and 2014
Lhe debaLe ln kenya ls of refugee reLurn, as kenya reels from successlve pro-Al
Shabab Lerror auacks ln lLs clues, and as anu-mlgranL and anu-refugee senumenL
grows.
Powever, Somalls sull conunue Lo leave as condluons ln Somalla remaln harsh.
1hey also move Lo escape speclc and personal persecuLory LhreaLs as a resulL
of Lhelr pollucal amllauon, clan membershlp and gender, Lo evade forced
conscrlpuon or because ghung has prevenLed Lhem from havlng access Lo
lnLernauonal asslsLance LhaL may have provlded some baslc needs such as food,
medlcal servlces, healLh care and llvellhoods (lCM eL al., 2008).
Addluonally, Lhe role of Lhe dlaspora has become plvoLal ln Lerms of creaung
chaln mlgrauon" Lhrough Lhe crlucal mass of exLernal and economlcally capable
Somalls wllllng Lo fund and encourage Lhe mlgrauon of relauves and frlends sull
lnslde Somalla. Llke LLhlopla, a sLrong coltote of mlqtouoo now exlsLs, whlch can
be expecLed Lo conunue long aer peace and prosperlLy Lake rooL ln Lhe counLry.
ln Lerms of desunauons and rouLes, a conslderable number move norLh from
SouLh-CenLral Somalla lnLo unLland sLaLe where Lhey may sLay as lnLernally
dlsplaced" and/or choose secondary movemenL Lowards ?emen. ln Lhe pasL elghL
years, Somalls have been crosslng Lhe Culf of Aden (malnly from 8ossasso) aL an
average of 22,300 people per year. ln elghL years, over 180,000 have arrlved,
alLhough Lhe peak years were 2008 and 2009 (average 33,000), and decllnlng
numbers are now chooslng Lhls rouLe, daLa from 2013 suggesLs [usL 11,000
enLered ?emen. Somalls can llve as refugees ln urban cenLres ln ?emen, and
Lhere are approxlmaLely 230,000 reglsLered, alLhough on average 20,000 reslde
ln Lhe remoLe and poorly resourced refugee camp of Al kharez. 1he ?emenl
CovernmenL clalms Lhere are many hundreds of Lhousands more unreglsLered
Chapter 5 Deaths en Route from the Horn of Africa to Yemen
and along the Eastern Corridor from the Horn of Africa to South Africa
146
Somalls llvlng ln Lhe counLry.
12
Accordlng Lo mlgranL daLa collecLed ln ?emen
ln recenL years, Lhe Lyplcal dlvlslon beLween male and female mlgranLs ls on
average 80 per cenL/20 per cenL, wlLh mosL mlgranLs falllng ln Lhe 18-33 age
range.
13
An unknown number of Somalls reslde ln kenya as refugees and/or lrregular
mlgranLs. 1he Lrue number ls suspecLed Lo be hlgher Lhan Lhe omclal unPC8
refugee gures of 430,000 Somalls, and many Somalls LranslL Lhrough kenya
en rouLe Lo SouLh Afrlca. 1helr [ourney souLh may Lake weeks or monLhs wlLh
prolonged sLops ln counLrles such as Malawl, Mozamblque, Lhe unlLed 8epubllc
of 1anzanla, Zambla and Zlmbabwe Lo earn money Lo nance Lhe nexL leg of
Lhelr [ourney, ouL of preference, or because of belng held ln deLenuon. ln 2009,
lL was esumaLed LhaL some 3,300-6,300 Somalls were smuggled along Lhls
souLhern rouLe annually (Porwood, 2009). AnecdoLal lnformauon from nalrobl
and Mombasa suggesLs Lhe smuggllng buslness from kenya Lo SouLh Afrlca ls as
acuve as ever, buL Lhere ls no new daLa.
AnoLher rouLe ls wesL. Somalls are found ln u[lbouu and LLhlopla (ln boLh cases,
ln refugee camps and urban cenLres) as well as ln Sudan and Llbya, where Lhey
normally seek means Lo cross Lhe MedlLerranean lnLo Lurope. 1here ls no daLa on
Lhe level of movemenL of people from SouLh-CenLral uslng Lhls rouLe, alLhough
lronLex daLa lndlcaLes LhaL over 3,000 Somalls were deLecLed crosslng Lhe
MedlLerranean ln 2013, represenung a 43 per cenL rlse ln Lhe number deLecLed
ln 2012. Somalls were, ln 2013, Lhe fourLh largesL conungenL (by nauonallLy)
deLecLed maklng Lhe crosslng, aer Syrlans, LrlLreans and Afghans (lronLex,
2014).
5.2.4 Somaliland
Somallland deserves a speclal menuon. ueclarlng unllaLeral lndependence from
Somalla ln 1991, auLhorlues esumaLe Somallland's populauon Lo be 3.3 mllllon.
A large number of Somalls and LLhloplans use Somallland as a LranslL LerrlLory
Lo unLland or u[lbouu, from where Lhey are smuggled by boaLs Lo ?emen.
Accordlng Lo a !olnL AssessmenL reporL by Lhe Mlxed Mlgrauon 1ask lorce
(MM1l) of Somallland, Lhe Loya-ada border Lown beLween Somallland and
u[lbouu ls a ma[or LranslL polnL, wlLh well-esLabllshed smuggllng neLworks and
smuggllng reporLedly comprlslng 80 per cenL of Lhe Lown's economy (MM1l
Somallland, 2012). Somallland ls a polnL of orlgln for some mlgranLs, buL noL
many. ln 2012, fewer Lhan 3,000 mlgranLs arrlved from Somallland Lo ?emen,
represenung [usL 3.2 per cenL of all arrlvals. As Somalls auLomaucally quallfy for
refugee sLaLus, lL ls posslble LhaL Somalllanders golng Lo ?emen dlsgulse Lhelr
Lrue ldenuLy and reglsLer as Somalls from SouLh-CenLral Somalla.
12
All daLa from new arrlvals of mlgranLs ln ?emen ls avallable from Lhe ?emen Mlxed Mlgrauon 1ask lorce,
whose members collaLe mlgrauon daLa from Lhe varlous monlLorlng mechanlsms Lhey have esLabllshed
around Lhe coasL and oLher locauons.
13
8ased on composlLe and accumulaLed monLhly reporLs from daLa gaLhered ln ?emen and recelved by
8MMS.
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
147
8ecenL reporLs repeaLedly lndlcaLe LhaL raLher Lhan go easL Lo ?emen, groups of
educaLed young people, oen runaways, are headlng lnLo Sudan and Llbya wlLh
smugglers. Accordlng Lo lCM, ln AugusL, SepLember and CcLober 2011, some
3,300 young men and women from Somallland Lravelled Lhls rouLe (l8ln, 2012).
More recenLly, a local nCC esumaLed LhaL abouL 30 people are smuggled ouL
of Somallland every monLh, whlle press reporLs lndlcaLe Lhe number could be
130 (8MMS, 2013c). ln a unPC8-funded sLudy on mlxed mlgrauon Lo Llbya, lL
was esumaLed LhaL 300-3,000 mlgranLs per monLh cross Lhe border beLween
Somallland and LLhlopla (AlLal Consulung, 2013:33).
ln 2012 and 2013, reporLs of hundreds of Somallland youLhs leavlng every
monLh sLarLed Lo surface wlLh regularlLy. CLher mlgranLs are known Lo y uslng
money and conLacLs from Lhe Somallland dlaspora ln Lhe Arablan enlnsula and
WesLern counLrles. 1hose uslng Lhe land rouLes are hlghly suscepuble Lo abuse,
kldnapplng and murder or deaLh by mlsadvenLure or mallce.
5.3 Calculating deaths
8efore Lrylng Lo answer Lhe quesuon of bow mooy Porn of Afrlca mlgranLs
dle, lL ls useful Lo dlssemble bow Lhey dle. 1hey dle ln dlerenL envlronmenLs,
under dlerenL condluons and whlle under Lhe care or conLrol of dlerenL
groups of people. WhaL we nd ls LhaL almosL all deaLhs are caused by elLher
mlsadvenLure (lack of resources and preparedness), or callous negllgence, or
dellberaLe vlolence. Some respondenLs of a sLudy conducLed by Lhe uanlsh
8efugee Councll (u8C) and 8MMS even clalmed LhaL as many as 30 per cenL
of Lhose who begln Lhe [ourney dle from elLher exposure Lo Lhe elemenLs or
suocauon ln LranslL. lL ls lmposslble Lo verlfy Lhls number buL many respondenLs
felL LhaL more dle durlng Lhe land crosslng Lhan durlng Lhe sea crosslng (u8C
and 8MMS, 2012). 1he facL LhaL mlgranLs are Lhe commodlLy ln a relauvely
new and Lhrlvlng buslness, where smugglers and Lramckers have hlgh proLs Lo
make wlLh almosL no rlsk of censure or penalLy, only adds Lo Lhelr vulnerablllLy.
1hese are boom umes for Lhose ln Lhe buslness, wheLher smugglers, Lramckers,
SLaLe omclals or oLhers assoclaLed wlLh cross-border movemenL of hundreds of
Lhousands of people ln Lhe reglon. uesplLe Lhe deaLhs and vlolence, Lhe ows
only seem Lo lncrease.
lronlcally, whlle poverLy appears Lo be always a ma[or drlver for mlgrauon, lL
does noL appear Lo hold back Lhose preylng upon mlgranLs from exLracung
exLraordlnary proLs from Lhem, aL Lhe same ume Lreaung Lhem wlLh a level of
conLempL LhaL frequenLly resulLs ln Lhelr deaLh. Pere follows a Lopography of
leLhal ouLcomes aecung mlgranLs orlglnaung ln Lhe Porn of Afrlca.
Chapter 5 Deaths en Route from the Horn of Africa to Yemen
and along the Eastern Corridor from the Horn of Africa to South Africa
148
5.3.1 Death from physical hardship
1beo we bootJeJ oootbet boot to Moclmboo, Mozomblpoe. 1be boot lost
powet ooJ JtlfeJ loto tbe seo. we speot 21 Joys lo tbe seo. we oeotly ote eocb
otbet oot of booqet os oot sopplles too oot. . . . (Porwood, 2009)
Many mlgranLs make parL of Lhelr [ourney by fooL and by open Lruck, elLher
wlLh or wlLhouL Lhelr smuggler escorLs. Many of Lhe rouLes used dellberaLely
pass Lhrough remoLe areas away from maln roads, formal border crosslngs
and hablLauon. CoasLal ?emen, easLern Sudan, easLern LLhlopla, norLh-easLern
kenya, u[lbouu, Somallland and unLland as well as norLh-wesLern Sudan and
souLhern Llbya are some of Lhe houesL and mosL arld areas on Lhe planeL. MosL
mlgranLs are enurely unprepared for Lhe hours and days of walklng or drlvlng
Lhrough waLerless Lerraln ln hlgh LemperaLures. 1hey may have Lo swlm across
rlvers, remaln ln a safe house" for days wlLh llule sanlLauon or food (e.g. ln
Mozamblque and Lhe unlLed 8epubllc of 1anzanla), or walL on beaches ln caves
wlLhouL provlslons (e.g. ln u[lbouu). CounLless mlgranL sLorles and reporLs speak
of fellow mlgranLs dylng of LhlrsL, hunger, exhausuon, and exposure Lo cold
nlghLs and hoL days.
Lven Lhough smugglers are noLorlous for Lhelr neglecL of mlgranLs, Lhey normally
glve Lhelr cllenLs" access Lo some waLer (oen conLamlnaLed by fuel Lo reduce
consumpuon), buL Lhose mlgranLs chooslng Lo make Lhelr own way Lhrough
deserL areas ln groups, ln parucular Lhrough u[lbouu, easLern LLhlopla and
souLhern ?emen, frequenLly reporL deaLhs.
ln one assessmenL, one omclal lnLervlewed sLaLed LhaL ln 2012 aL leasL 20
LLhloplan mlgranLs were known Lo have dled of LhlrsL ln Lhe mlddle of Lhe deserL,
beLween Loya-ada and Ceel-gaal ln Somallland (MM1l Somallland, 2012).
We Look Lhe boaL for Lhree days wlLhouL food or waLer. When we arrlved
ln 1anzanla we hld ln Lhe foresL for 13 days. eople dled of snake blLe,
malarla and hunger.
14
1hose golng souLh Lowards SouLh Afrlca may face LhlrsL, sLarvauon and
exhausuon, causlng some Lo dle, buL normally such deaLhs are llnked Lo belng
abandoned by Lhelr smugglers ln foresLs or along Lhe coasL (Lhe unlLed 8epubllc
of 1anzanla), or belng kepL for long perlods ln alrless conLalners and Lrucks ln
exLreme heaL. lollowlng subsecuons looklng aL deaLh ln deserLs, on roads and
on waLer lllusLraLe how exLenslve deaLh from physlcal hardshlp may be.
14
1esumony of an LLhloplan mlgranL, 28 years old, ln orL LllzabeLh, SouLh Afrlca. ln: C. Porwood, lo lotsolt
of tbe 5ootbeto uteom. vlcums of Necesslty. Assessmeot of tbe ltteqolot movemeot of meo ftom ost Aftlco
ooJ tbe noto to 5ootb Aftlco (Ceneva, lCM, 2009), p. 69.
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
149
Death in the desert
uotloq oot ttlp tbtooqb tbe Jesett, we come octoss tbe boJy of o JeoJ qltl tbot
wos bolf botleJ lo tbe sooJ, ptobobly sbe JleJ of stotvouoo.
15

AparL from deaLh by drownlng and deaLh by murder (see below for boLh), Lhe
mosL common locauon of mlgranL deaLhs, as reporLed by survlvors, ls Lhe deserL.
As menuoned, almosL all rouLes ouL of LrlLrea, LLhlopla and Somalla pass Lhrough
some of Lhe mosL arld, hoL and shelLerless landscapes on earLh. ln addluon, Lhese
remoLe areas are selecLed by smugglers as leasL llkely Lo auracL scruuny by SLaLe
omclals. 1he lava elds of wesLern u[lbouu where so many LLhloplans pass en
rouLe Lo Cbock - Lhe maln deparLure polnL for boaLs Lo ?emen - are vasL areas
of [agged rock wlLhouL waLer or local communlues. ln 2012, 8MMS and lCM
were lnformed by Lhe u[lbouu CovernmenL of a group over 30 dead mlgranLs
LhaL were found by nomads. lnlually Lhe CovernmenL clalmed Lhe number of
dead was over 80, and LhaL ndlng dead bodles ln Lhe deserL was common.
1hey asked lCM for asslsLance wlLh body bags. 1hose passlng Lhrough easLern
LLhlopla sald Lhere was no need for dlrecuons because Lhe deserL was llned wlLh
Lhe whlLened bones of fallen mlgranLs. Cne mlgranL spoke of Lhe Lyplcal horrors
faclng Lravellers ln Lhe LLhloplan deserLs along mlgranL rouLes:
We sLarLed Lhe perllous [ourney Lhrough Afar deserL, where some looLers
auacked us, beaL us badly and Look Lhe money we had. Aer around
one week of walklng ln Lhe deserL, durlng whlch some people dled of
sLarvauon, we reached 1a[oor MounLaln, where we sLopped ln order Lo
have a resL. l was looklng around me, l found some people dylng, some
were sleeplng, and oLhers were crylng and asklng for waLer or food. l was
walklng among people laylng down, looklng aL Lhem and Lhlnklng Lhey
were sLarlng aL me, buL no answer from Lhelr slde, Lhen l reallzed LhaL Lhey
were dead. 1here l reallzed LhaL l was golng Lhrough a [ourney of deaLh,
some people dled durlng Lhe deserL crosslng, some whlle cllmblng Lhe
mounLaln and some on Lhe Lop of lL.
16
8eporLs from numerous vlcums of Lramcklng ln Lhe Slnal, LgypL, Lalk of shallow
graves and romng bodles ln Lhose deserLs, where mlgranLs from Lhe Porn of
Afrlca have dled from neglecL and murder by LorLure or gunre. ln addluon,
some sources have oered phoLos of hundreds of bodles ln Lrench graves ln Lhe
deserL LhaL appear Lo have been vlcums of organ removal.
ln norLh-wesL Sudan and souLh-easL Llbya, more recenL sLorles suggesL numerous
mlgranLs from sub-Saharan Afrlca dle and are le ln Lhe deserL. Cne 20-year-
13
1esumony of an LLhloplan male mlgranL Lravelllng Lowards u[lbouu. ln: MSl, No cbolce. 5omoll ooJ tbloploo
kefoqees, Asylom 5eekets ooJ Mlqtoots ctossloq tbe Colf of AJeo (Ceneva, MSl, 2008).
16
1esumony of Molla (noL hls real name), a 13-year-old LLhloplan boy, lnLervlewed ln Paradh ln lebruary
2012. ln: u8C and 8MMS, uespetote cbolces. cooJluoos, klsks & ltotecuoo lollotes A[ecuoq tbloploo
Mlqtoots lo emeo (nalrobl, u8C and 8MMS, 2012).
Chapter 5 Deaths en Route from the Horn of Africa to Yemen
and along the Eastern Corridor from the Horn of Africa to South Africa
130
old Somallland woman Lold abouL her [ourney from Somallland Lo 1rlpoll. She
was parL of a group of 36 young Somalllanders Laken Lo Llbya by smugglers. CuL
of Lhe 36, only 22 survlved. 1he smugglers leL Lhem walk Lhrough Lhe deserL
ln Sudan for days, and people who dled from ln[urles or dehydrauon were le
behlnd (8MMS, 2014b). lL may be assumed LhaL Lhls hlgh proporuon of deaLhs ls
unLyplcal buL wlLhouL more daLa we cannoL be cerLaln.
We wlll never know whaL numbers of mlgranL deaLhs Lhe deserL sands hlde,
buL conslderlng Lhe frequency wlLh whlch survlvlng mlgranLs menuon deaLhs
of companlons ln Lhe deserLs and Lhelr frequenL slghungs of bones and bodles,
Lhey are llkely Lo be hlgh.
Death on the road
lollowlng Lhe accldenL on 24 Aprll 2012, when a bus carrylng 33 mlgranLs
Lravelllng from 1ad[oura (u[lbouu) Lo Cbock veered o Lhe slde of Lhe road, a
slmllar accldenL along Lhe same rouLe happened on 4 !une 2012 and lnvolved
a bus carrylng an esumaLed 82 mlgranLs. 1wenLy-seven LLhloplans and one
u[lbouuan drlver dled whlle 34 LLhloplan mlgranLs were ln[ured and evacuaLed
Lo dlerenL hosplLals. 1he u[lbouuan auLhorlues clalmed LhaL Lhere were more
mlgranLs who Lhey belleved ed from Lhe scene Lo avold arresL (8MMS, 2012).
MlgranLs reporL accldenLs and deaLhs on Lhe road wlLh regular frequency. 1here
are Lhree common scenarlos: rsLly, accldenLs lnvolvlng bad drlvlng, dlmculL
Lerraln and oLher vehlcles oen on unomclal roads", secondly, deaLh may occur
ln slLuauons where plck-up Lrucks are overloaded and Lravelllng Lhrough deserLs
or oLher rough Lerraln, and people fall o Lhe vehlcle, ln Lhese cases, mlgranLs
may be abandoned dead or ln[ured on Lhe roadslde wlLhouL Lhe ablllLy Lo seek
help, Lhlrdly, mlgranLs dle on Lhe roads when locked lnslde conLalners wlLhouL
waLer and food and, crlucally, wlLhouL access Lo fresh alr. Asphyxlauon ls Lhe
normal cause of deaLh ln Lhese cases - cases LhaL are frequenLly reporLed ln local
medla or pollce reporLs.
lor example, ln a news reporL publlshed by l Medla (2012), aL leasL 43
lrregular lmmlgranLs, reporLedly from LLhlopla, dled and 72 oLhers were ln
crlucal condluon due Lo lack of clean alr whlle lnslde a conLalner, apparenLly on
Lhelr way Lo Malawl vla Lhe unlLed 8epubllc of 1anzanla.
ln anoLher Lyplcal and oen heard case, a mlgranL reporLed:
Cnce ln Mozamblque we were loaded lnLo anoLher conLalner beLween
Lhree or four ln Lhe mornlng. 8y sunrlse we were suocaung. We Lrled Lo
sLop Lhe drlver by banglng on Lhe walls. l don'L Lhlnk he heard us. . . . Pe
[usL wouldn'L sLop Lhe Lruck. AbouL Len people sLarLed falnung. When Lhe
pollce opened Lhe conLalner laLer, l was already unconsclous. l was Lold
Lhree people dled. (Porwood, 2009:71)
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
131
ln addluon Lo Lhe Lwo prevlously clLed cases, anoLher mlgranL reporLed:
Cn one faLeful nlghL, 230 of us, 120 Somalls and 130 LLhloplans, were
loaded lnLo a conLalner and Lhe doors were locked. Aer abouL an hour,
people were yelllng because Lhey were suocaung. 1he doors of Lhe
conLalner were opened agaln aL 7 a.m. Lhe nexL mornlng. 8y Lhen, loLs of
us were unconsclous. 1hree people dled ln Lhe whole ordeal. (Porwood,
2009:72)
lL was always noL clear lf Lhe same lncldenL was repeaLed by dlerenL wlLnesses.
lor example, anoLher lrregular mlgranL who made lL Lo SouLh Afrlca Lold Lhe
same researcher how he had passed ouL ln Lhe rsL hour lnslde a closed conLalner
from Moclmboa Lo nampula ln Mozamblque:
lour Somalls and Lhree LLhloplans dled ln LhaL Lrlp. 1helr bodles were
burled ln Mozamblque. (Porwood, 2009:72)
Deoth on seos ond lokes
ln recenL years, Lhousands of mlgranLs from Lhe Porn of Afrlca have dled ln waLer,
be lL ln Lhe sea beLween malnland Afrlca and ?emen, ln Lhe MedlLerranean, along
Lhe coasLal waLers of Mozamblque and Lhe unlLed 8epubllc of 1anzanla, or on
lnland lakes such as Lake Malawl. As such, lL ls probably Lhe Lop cause of deaLh
among mlgranLs, alLhough reporLs of deaLh ln deserLs appear Lo be rlslng and
may now be more numerous, lack of daLa makes Lhls very hard Lo deLermlne.
8eporLs such as Lhls, from 11 March 2014, are noL uncommon: 1he un refugee
agency on 1uesday sald LhaL 44 people were mlsslng and feared drowned aer
a smugglers' boaL capslzed o Lhe coasL of souLhern ?emen ln whaL unPC8
descrlbed as Lhe worsL such lncldenL Lhls year" (unPC8, 2014). 1wo monLhs
laLer, even worse sLausucs were recorded: AL leasL 60 mlgranLs from LLhlopla
and Somalla along wlLh Lwo ?emenl crew members drowned on May 31 [2014]
ln Lhe worsL such Lragedy o Lhe coasL of ?emen Lhls year, Lhe un has sald"
(Al, 2014). Plgh-quallLy daLa on mlgranLs ls avallable from ?emen due Lo Lhe
sLrucLures LhaL are ln place Lo lnLervlew and asslsL mlgranLs as Lhey arrlve on
?emen's shores.
urownlng ls normally caused by a comblnauon of facLors. Cvercrowded boaLs
are hlghly suscepuble Lo capslze and so Lhe smugglers' greed ln overloadlng
Lhelr vessels, comblned wlLh rough weaLher, easlly leads Lo Lragedy LhaL may be
seen as an accldenL or Lhe resulL of mallclous neglecL. Also, lL has been common
for smuggler crews crosslng Lo ?emen Lo avold conLacL wlLh ?emenl shore or sea
paLrols by oMoadlng Lhelr passengers ln waLer hundreds of meLres (someumes
more Lhan one kllomeLre) from land. 1he vasL ma[orlLy of mlgranLs cannoL swlm
and many drown when forced dlsembarkauon aL sea ls pracused.
17

17
As Lhey walL for Lhelr boaL rlde, some mlgranLs can be seen learnlng Lo swlm ln Cbock, u[lbouu. Clven
Lhe lnablllLy of mosL mlgranLs Lo swlm, lL may noL be surprlslng LhaL Lhere are more deaLhs from forced
dlsembarkauon.
Chapter 5 Deaths en Route from the Horn of Africa to Yemen
and along the Eastern Corridor from the Horn of Africa to South Africa
132
Cases of men and women, youLhs and even lnfanLs belng beaLen, shoL, raped
and Lhrown lnLo Lhe sea have also been common and conunue Lo be reporLed,
Lhough less commonly, slnce Lhe value of dellverlng llve mlgranLs Lo ?emenl
Lramckers on shore has rlsen.
1here was a woman wlLh an lnfanL of slx Lo elghL monLhs old. 1he baby
was crylng and Lhe smuggler Lold Lhe woman Lo shuL Lhe baby up. 1he
woman replled: l have noLhlng Lo glve Lo hlm, noL even waLer. Where can
l geL some waLer?" 1he smuggler Look Lhe baby and Lhrew hlm lnLo Lhe
sea, saylng now he can drlnk waLer. (MSl, 2008)
ln addluon Lo dellberaLe kllllngs by smugglers, some mlgranLs dle of exposure,
dehydrauon or suocauon. MlgranLs are ln parucular danger when sLowed below
deck where Lhe envlronmenL ls Loxlc, oen conLamlnaLed by peLrol fumes, fuel
mlxed ln waLer, and Lhe feces and urlne of fellow passengers (u8C and 8MMS,
2012).
We le 8ossasso on a boaL wlLh a loL of people, abouL 130. 1he LLhloplans
were separaLed from Lhe Somall. 1he Somall were LreaLed beuer and were
on Lhe upper deck. We LLhloplans were aL Lhe bouom. eople urlnaLed
and vomlLed on us. 1he condluons were very hard. 1he smugglers beaL
us wlLh sucks and even belLs. When we arrlved close Lo Lhe shore, Lhey
ordered us Lo [ump ouL. Some could noL swlm and 4 people dled. (MSl,
2008)
1he Lesumony above used Lo be a common descrlpuon of Lhe [ourney beLween
2007 and 2011 when many hundreds dled aL sea. LLhloplan respondenLs ln Lhe
2012 u8C/8MMS sLudy lndlcaLed a probable underreporung of deaLhs aL sea.
Many kllllngs seem Lo occur aL nlghL and ln hlghly congesLed boaLs, passengers
mlghL slmply be noL aware of all kllllngs. lL ls also suggesLed LhaL passengers
Lhemselves, and noL [usL Lhe smuggllng crew, push oLher passengers overboard
Lo lncrease Lhelr survlval chances. Cf course some lncldenLs mlghL never be
known, such as Lhe slnklng of an enure boaL (u8C and 8MMS, 2012). 1able 3.1
lllusLraLes whaL was known of drowned and mlsslng mlgranLs aL sea beLween
2006 and May 2014 lncluslve, accordlng Lo unPC8 ?emen.
18
18
As menuoned, an experlenced neLwork of coasLal paLrols organlzed Lhrough unPC8 and nCCs produces
monLhly esumaLes of numbers of new arrlvals, as well as deaLhs aL sea durlng Lhe crosslng from malnland
Afrlca Lo ?emen. 1hese gures and oLhers from ?emen are obLalned from daLa from members of Lhe ?emen
Mlxed Mlgrauon 1ask lorce and cerued by unPC8 ?emen.
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
133
Table 5.1: Migrants recorded as dead or missing at sea, from 2006 to May 2014
Year Number recorded as dead
or missing at sea
2006 638
2007
a
1,030
2008 743
2009 376
2010 13
2011 131
2012 43
2013 3
2014
b
124
5ootce: Compllauon made uslng unPC8 monLhly bulleuns on new Arrlvals ln ?emen, from 2006 Lo
May 2014.
Notes:
a
Lleven monLhs.

b
!anuary Lo May lncluslve.
ln recenL years, hundreds have been reporLedly found dead along Lhe ?emen
coasLllne, and Lo such a degree LhaL local communlues have had problems
burylng or dlsposlng of Lhe bodles. ln Lwo lncldenLs [usL o Lhe coasL of 8ossasso
ln 2012, boaLs capslzed causlng 98 faLallues - buL noL all from drownlng. 1here
were reporLs from Lhe lebruary 2012 lncldenL LhaL some Lens of Lhose who dled
were shoL by smugglers as Lhey Lrled Lo force mlgranLs o Lhe overloaded boaLs ln
sLormy weaLher. ln boLh cases, no boaL owners or crew members were prosecuLed.
Powever, lncldenLs have become less frequenL slnce Lhe vlolenL days of
2006-2009 when aL leasL 2,787 were murdered or dled aL sea whlle belng
LransporLed by smugglers. Compare Lhls wlLh Lhe four-year perlod of 2010-2013,
where [usL 194 were recorded as dead or mlsslng ln Lhe same sea passage.
19
1he decrease ln Lhe number of deaLhs aL sea colncldes wlLh Lhe rlse ln
kldnapplng and exLoruon of smuggled mlgranLs ln ?emen. Cne explanauon for
Lhe reducuon ln Lhe number of deaLhs, and held by Lhe auLhor, ls Lhe lncreased
"commodluzauon" of mlgranLs. 1he passengers are lncreaslngly seen as a
valuable commodlLy by Lhe smugglers who are Lherefore more llkely Lo ensure
Lhelr cargo reaches Lhe coasL allve. 1he sea smugglers Lrade mlgranLs wlLh
onshore (warned and walung) armed Lramckers, and Lherefore no longer make
Lhelr money wlLh Lhe sea crosslng alone as Lhey dld ln earller years.
ueaLhs aL sea also occur elsewhere. 1here are reporLs of deaLhs along Lhe coasL
of Lhe unlLed 8epubllc of 1anzanla as mlgranLs are LransporLed from kenya Lo
Lhe unlLed 8epubllc of 1anzanla or Mozamblque (whlch ls less common). ln !une
2012, a group of lrregular LLhloplan mlgranLs boarded a boaL on Lhe shores of
Lake Malawl Lo head souLhwards. A few mlnuLes aer deparung, Lhe overloaded
19
8MMS analysls uslng sLausucs from Lhe members of Lhe ?emen Mlxed Mlgrauon 1ask lorce monLhly reporLs.
Chapter 5 Deaths en Route from the Horn of Africa to Yemen
and along the Eastern Corridor from the Horn of Africa to South Africa
134
boaL sank, drownlng 49 of lLs passengers. Accordlng Lo a smuggler who clalmed
Lo be parL of a group smuggllng mlgranLs from Lhe Porn of Afrlca Lo SouLh Afrlca
and was lnLervlewed ln Lhe conLexL of Lhls accldenL, Lhe use of boaLs Lo cross
Lake Malawl galned popularlLy aer oLher land rouLes became Loo rlsky (l8ln,
2012).
Death from natural causes including illness, suicide and general
debilitation
Ooe of oot ftleoJs wos slck. j. . .] 1be smoqqlets beot blm, bls cooJluoo wotseoeJ
ooul be JleJ oo tbe boot. nls boJy wos tbtowo ovetbootJ. (MSl, 2008:17)
1hls ls a dlmculL caLegory Lo ldenufy from mlgranLs' reporLs because vlolence,
abuse, poor dleL, dehydrauon, hardshlp, LorLure and deLenuon all weaken a
person's ablllLy Lo Lhrlve and mlghL even sap Lhelr wlll Lo llve.
1hey would sLarve us, Lhey would burn us and Lhey would noL leL us sleep.
All of us were acLually hoplng for deaLh because LhaL would have been an
escape from Lhe LorLure. (1homson, 2013)
Sulclde ls rarely reporLed by mlgranLs. Many Lalk of how Lhey wlshed Lhey could
dle whlle belng held by smugglers and Lramckers, buL only few appear Lo go
Lhrough wlLh lL. 1here are oLher slmllar Lesumonles buL Lhey are rare.
Cne of Lhem [mlgranLs] was beaLen so badly [by crew members on Lhe
smugglers' boaL] LhaL he Lhrew hlmself lnLo Lhe waLer and dled. (MSl,
2008)
WlLh weakened lmmunlLy due Lo general exhausuon, paln, LhlrsL, fear and
despondence, lllness can clalm a person's llfe. CerLalnly, ln norLhern ?emen
Lhere have been reporLed cases of deaLhs from dlerenL lllnesses and ln[urles.
ln Lhe pasL Lwo years alone, Medeclns Sans lronueres (MSl) and lCM have run
very busy cllnlcs oerlng emergency healLh care Lo Lhousands of LLhloplan and
Somall mlgranLs sLranded ln Paradh, close Lo Lhe Saudl border. 1hose wlLh severe
ln[urles from LorLure or gun shoL and women wlLh compllcauons assoclaLed wlLh
gang rape and oLher vlolauons are LreaLed alongslde Lhose wlLh lllnesses. 1he
Paradh morgue apparenLly has numerous mlgranL bodles of Lhose who have
succumbed Lo lllness and severe deblllLauon, as well as LorLure (Puman 8lghLs
WaLch, 2014b).
ln many cases, members of a mlgranL group dle and survlvors cannoL say whaL
exacLly caused Lhe deaLh. Along Lhe rouLe Lo SouLh Afrlca, mlgranLs reporLed
fellow Lravelers dylng from malarla and oLher fevers caughL from spendlng
repeaLed nlghLs ln swampy or foresLed areas wlLhouL shelLer. eople complaln
of dysenLery from conLamlnaLed waLer, llule and rouen food, and an almosL
LoLal lack of access Lo healLh faclllues. Many mlgranLs Lalk of becomlng slck aer
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
133
havlng only fuel-conLamlnaLed waLer Lo drlnk. Smugglers dellberaLely puL dlesel
or peLrol ln Lhe waLer supply Lo reduce Lhe mlgranLs' deslre Lo drlnk.
lL should be noLed LhaL ln any group numberlng Lens of Lhousands of people over
a perlod of monLhs, Lhere wlll always be some aecLed by lllness and dlsease, buL
ouLcomes are noL faLal when people have access Lo healLh faclllues and medlclne.
1hls ls Lhe crlucal aspecL of lllness aecung mlgranLs - condluons are leLhal for
mosL, presumably, because of Lhe clandesune naLure of Lhelr movemenL and
Lhe almosL LoLal absence of healLh faclllues and medlclne. Where faclllues are
avallable, mlgranLs probably lack Lhe freedom from Lhelr smuggler handlers or
prlvaLe resources Lo beneL from Lhem. Addluonally, ln counLrles such as LgypL,
Llbya and ?emen, mlgranLs have complalned of acuve dlscrlmlnauon agalnsL
Lhem, resulung ln hosplLals and cllnlcs, docLors and nurses refuslng Lo asslsL slck
lrregular mlgranLs and/or refugees, even ln cases where, for lnsLance, a female
mlgranL may go lnLo labour.
ueaLh from wlld anlmals appears qulLe rare, and only a few reporLs menuonlng
such cause have been collecLed by Lhe auLhor ln parLs of kenya and ln souLhern
Afrlca. neverLheless, some mlgranLs are kllled by wlld anlmals durlng Lhelr
[ourneys. lrregular mlgranLs Lravel ln remoLe areas wlLh llule hablLauon and
mlnlmal, lf any, shelLer avallable. 1hey oen sleep exposed Lo Lhe elemenLs or
general harsh envlronmenL and Lo cerLaln predaLors. lf Lhey Lravel ln groups Lhey
may have an advanLage lf and when wlld anlmals such as llons or hyenas are close,
buL smaller groups may be more vulnerable. CLher dangers from scorplons and
snakes may be more common. 8eporLs from unPC8 have menuoned mlgranLs
belng auacked by sharks ln Lhe Culf of Aden.
20

ln anoLher dramauc case, as sLaLed ln a reporL on news slLe All Afrlca, 17 lrregular
mlgranLs or border [umpers" were found dead, all belleved Lo be vlcums of
crocodlle auacks and drownlng:
1he bodles of aL leasL 17 suspecLed border [umpers, belleved Lo have
drowned ln Lhe Llmpopo 8lver, were dlscovered by Lhe Zlmbabwean and
SouLh Afrlca pollce Lhls week. lleen bodles were found on Wednesday
by omclals paLrolllng Lhe rlver near 8elLbrldge. lL ls reporLed LhaL Lhe
bodles, some of whlch had mlsslng llmbs, had been hldden ln a cave by
crocodlles. (8ell, 2014)
Llsewhere, mlgranLs were reporLedly harassed by llons and elephanLs:
8y nlghuall we were auacked by wlld anlmals. 1he llon aLe an LLhloplan
man [ln Lhe group]. (Porwood, 2009)
20
See, for lnsLance: www.unhcr.org/pages/4a1d39c1d.hLml, hup://rellefweb.lnL/reporL/somalla/leasL-29-
dead-smuggllng-run-yemen-unhcr-horrled.
Chapter 5 Deaths en Route from the Horn of Africa to Yemen
and along the Eastern Corridor from the Horn of Africa to South Africa
136
Cn Lhe 8osLwanan slde of Lhe border, we found ourselves ln a nauonal
park. Wlld anlmals, lncludlng elephanLs, chased us all nlghL. (Porwood,
2009)
noL only do mlgranLs nd Lhemselves losL or forced Lo Lravel Lhrough game
reserves or nauonal parks, buL Lhey are also usually far from any help lf Lrouble
comes, and as menuoned, medlcal asslsLance ls Lyplcally non-exlsLenL.
5.3.2 Death as stranded migrants
SLranded and desuLuLe mlgranLs have dled from a number of deprlvauon-relaLed
causes. Cf Lhe conslderable number of mlgranLs on Lhe move wlLhln and ouL of
Lhe Porn of Afrlca reglon, many become sLranded ln dlerenL locauons. WheLher
due Lo abandonmenL, robbery, exLoruon, ln[ury, lllness, exhausuon, reslgnauon,
poverLy, dlsorlenLauon and hopelessness - or a comblnauon of Lhese causes -
mlgranLs are found sLranded ln locauons such as 8ossasso ln unLland, Cbock ln
u[lbouu, Aman ln ?emen, and even refugee camps ln easLern Sudan or ?emen.
Survlvors Lalk of some of Lhelr companlons dylng of hunger or LhlrsL whlle
desuLuLe, and walung long perlods for smugglers Lo Lake Lhem furLher. Many
mlgranLs are also sLranded ln ma[or Lowns and large clues wheLher ln Calro,
kharLoum, u[lbouu ClLy, nalrobl or Sana'a, and numerous oLher smaller cenLres.
ln 2011-2013, asslsung agencles reporLed LhaL more Lhan 12,000 desuLuLe
mlgranLs (mosLly LLhloplan) were sLruggllng Lo survlve ln Lhe Lown of Paradh
(?emen), along Lhe harsh norLhern fronuer wlLh Saudl Arabla.
21
1he CovernmenL
of ?emen sLaLed LhaL Lhere were as many as 23,000 ln Lhe governoraLe aL one
sLage durlng LhaL ume (Puman 8lghLs WaLch, 2014b). Many of Lhese mlgranLs
were elLher walung Lo cross lnLo Saudl Arabla or had recenLly been deporLed
from Saudl Arabla. Some had survlved kldnapplng and LorLure, and could nelLher
go forward nor dld Lhey have Lhe means Lo reLurn Lo LLhlopla. 8eporLs of ln[urles,
hunger and sLarvauon, exposure Lo Lhe elemenLs (llvlng rough) were, and
conunue Lo be, common, noL only from Paradh buL also from Cbock ln u[lbouu.
lCM and MSl, along wlLh oLher agencles ln ?emen, gave asslsLance Lo Lhousands
of desperaLe mlgranLs ln 2012 and 2013, mosLly ln Paradh, and also ln Aden
and oLher locauons. 8uL Lhe numbers were overwhelmlng. Pavlng scaled down
Lhelr asslsLance ln Lhe second half of 2013, by mld-2014 agencles are lncreaslng
asslsLance as Lhe number of sLranded mlgranLs rlses agaln. Whlle agencles
worklng wlLh Lhe mosL desuLuLe may oer gures of Lhose who succumbed
Lo Lhelr condluons under Lhelr care, esLabllshlng Lhe larger gure of all Lhose
LhaL dle whlle sLranded wlll remaln eluslve. CerLalnly, sLranded mlgranLs nd
Lhemselves ln very harsh condluons and, when ln lnhablLed areas, senumenLs
of Lhe local people are oen very hosule, whlle Lhe only lnLeresL mlgranLs may
21
lrom a varleLy of agencles' unpubllshed reporLs and lCM slLuauonal reporLs ln 2012 and 2013, accordlng
Lo Lhe 8MMS daLa records. lor lnsLance, see: lCM, 1housands of LLhloplan mlgranLs sLranded ln ?emen
desperaLe Lo go home" (Ceneva, 2011).
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
137
recelve ls predaLory behavlour from Lhose who would seek Lo explolL Lhem. ln
larger clues, where sLranded mlgranLs can conLacL communlues of mlgranLs
from Lhelr own counLrles or clan/eLhnlc grouplngs, Lhe chances of survlval and
proLecuon Lend Lo be much hlgher.
5.3.3 Death due to malicious neglect or abusive practices when
smuggled
1o some degree Lhls caLegory ls an overarchlng one LhaL lncludes oLher
subsecuons already dlscussed. MosL lrregular mlgranLs are ln Lhe care" of
varlous smugglers from Lhe ume Lhey deparL Lhelr homeLowns or clLy hubs unul
Lhe nal leg of Lhelr [ourney, where Lhey are normally abandoned aL borders or
coasLllnes and polnLed ln Lhe general dlrecuon of Lhelr desunauon, or handed
over Lo Lramckers.
1he abuslve pracuces of smugglers agalnsL mlgranLs are noL a new phenomenon.
Puman rlghLs academlc !acquellne 8habha wroLe ln 2003, [. . .] CpporLunlues
Lo lmmlgraLe legally are severely llmlLed. MlgranLs, lncludlng asylum seekers,
have lncreaslngly resorLed Lo lllegal enLry and unauLhorlzed sLays, and ever-
larger numbers use Lhe servlces of smugglers Lo evade Lhe sysLem, compoundlng
Lhelr vulnerablllLy Lo explolLauon and lll LreaLmenL" (Porwood, 2009).
ln LasL and SouLhern Afrlca, Lhe slLuauon ls no dlerenL. 1he smuggllng world ls a
callous, unscrupulous one of harsh LreaLmenL, maxlmum conLrol, lles, decelL and
frequenL colluslon by smugglers wlLh any enuLy, such as Lramckers and corrupL
omclals, who mlghL furLher harass or mlsLreaL Lhe mlgranLs ln Lhelr charge. ln
facL, Lhe smugglers' cllenLs" are oen LreaLed as sole commodlues and only
valued Lo Lhe exLenL LhaL some proL can be exLracLed from Lhem. ln such a
world, lL ls hardly Lhrough accldenL LhaL many mlgranLs perlsh. 1he cards are
sLacked agalnsL Lhem.
unllke oLher servlce" buslnesses where quallLy of servlce and sLandards are
self-regulaung ln order Lo malnLaln cusLomers, smugglers en[oy excepuooollsm
due Lo Lwo crlucal facLors: Lhey are operaung ouLslde Lhe law and wlLhouL publlc
scruuny, and Lhe very agencles LhaL mlghL lnhlblL Lhelr behavlour oen acL ln
colluslon wlLh smugglers, resulung ln a cllmaLe of enLrenched lmpunlLy.
1he facL LhaL Lhe ecooomlcs of smoqqlloq ls Lhe callous drlver LhaL explalns mosL
behavlour leadlng Lo deaLhs of mlgranLs ls perhaps self-evldenL. When Lhe boaLs
and Lrucks and conLalners are over-lled, when food and waLer are noL provlded,
when passengers are [emsoned ln shorellne waLers, when mlgranLs end up ln
deLenuon or are abandoned Lo dle when ln[ured or Loo slck - ln any of Lhese
and oLher scenarlos - money ls behlnd Lhe mlsLreaLmenL. 8educlng expenses
ln Lransporung mlgranLs, reduclng Lhe brlbes Lhey musL pay Lo oLhers and
maxlmlzlng Lhelr proLs dene how smugglers LreaL mlgranLs. Cnly ln Lhe case
Chapter 5 Deaths en Route from the Horn of Africa to Yemen
and along the Eastern Corridor from the Horn of Africa to South Africa
138
of female mlgranLs ls proL aL umes replaced by sexual opporLunlsm as a key
behavloural drlver. Where women and glrls are rsL abused and Lhen Lramcked,
as ln ?emen, Lhe Lwo are comblned.
22
Smugglers are so condenL LhaL Lhelr cllenL base wlll noL be eroded by bad
reporLs LhaL Lhey oen mlsLreaL Lhe mlgranLs ln full vlew, even whlle mlgranLs
have moblle phones and are able Lo speak Lo Lhelr relauves and frlends abouL
Lhelr ongolng hardshlps and LormenLors. 8uL Lhelr LormenLors are also Lhe
mlgranLs' savlours lf Lhey dellver Lhem Lo Lhelr desunauon - an lrony sumclenLly
relevanL, meanlng LhaL every year more mlgranLs queue for Lhe smugglers'
servlces desplLe ample awareness of Lhe lnevlLablllLy of abuse.
ln Lerms of golng souLh along Lhe easLern seaboard, 88 per cenL of Somalls
lnLervlewed ln one sLudy sald Lhelr [ourneys were harsh wlLh negauve and
unexpecLed experlences. SlxLy-ve per cenL sald Lhey were beaLen or physlcally
robbed aL leasL once as Lhey mlgraLed, whlle 6 per cenL sald sexual abuse of
someone ln Lhelr groups had Laken place. 1en per cenL spoke of deaLh ln Lhelr
groups durlng Lhe [ourney. 1hree per cenL of LLhloplans spoke of deaLh ln Lhelr
groups (Porwood, 2008:66).
Deoth through torture ond outrght murder by smugglers, tro(ckers ond
other criminals
Cnce mlgranLs have puL Lhemselves lnLo Lhe hands of smugglers Lo achleve
Lhelr alms, Lhe llnes beLween smugglers, crlmlnal gangs and Lramckers become
blurred. WlLness Lesumonles of mlgranL deaLhs as ouLrlghL murder or as a resulL
of excesslve bruLallLy are all Loo common and make grlm readlng.
lL appears LhaL a hlgh number of deaLhs are caused by shooung mlgranLs or
LorLurlng Lhem. MlgranLs may be kllled for: maklng a nolse or movlng whlle on
board boaLs, for Lrylng Lo escape capuvlLy, as an example Lo oLhers lf ransoms
are noL pald, (allegedly) for organ Lhe and from aggravaLed, vlolenL robbery.
When Lhe boaL was sull near 8ossasso, lL hlL a rock. 1he smugglers were
afrald LhaL Lhe boaL would slnk and sLarLed Lhrowlng people o. 1hey Look
my grandson and Lhrew hlm ln Lhe waLer and also some oLhers. [. . .] 1he
smugglers prevenLed Lhem from gemng [back] lnLo Lhe boaL and pushed
Lhem down ln Lhe waLer. AL leasL Lhree people dled LhaL way. (MSl, 2008)
22
ln a recenL news arucle, a ?emenl mlllLary omcer from Paradh Lold [ournallsLs he ls one of a handful of
?emenl securlLy omclals who have made a forLune helplng smugglers move Afrlcans lnLo Saudl Arabla.
Pls coordlnauon wlLh smugglers earns hlm around uSu 20,000 a monLh. lL ls cerLaln LhaL smuggllng
neLworks operaung ouL of ?emen conLrol a mulumllllon dollar buslness LhaL may sull be ln lLs early sLages
of developmenL. Smuggler neLworks Laklng people wesL, norLh and souLh from Lhe Porn are also earnlng
mllllons ln smuggler fees alone. 8ough calculauons wlLh known daLa suggesL Lhe LoLal smugglers' fees ln an
average year (ln recenL years) could be uSu 60-80 mllllon. 1hls gure may be very conservauve and only
a proporuon of Lhe LoLal, when one Lakes lnLo accounL Lramcklng LhaL occurs and Lhe growlng buslness of
exLoruon, kldnapplng and ransom demands.
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
139
1he smugglers were beaung us from Lhe beglnnlng of Lhe Lrlp llke anlmals.
1hey have no mercy even lf you dle ln fronL of Lhem.
23
(lbld.)
1he mosL egreglous accounLs of deaLhs of mlgranLs from Lhe Porn of Afrlca golng
easL or souLh currenLly come from ?emen, alLhough Lhere ls rlslng evldence of
slmllar pracuces ln Llbya. 1he hlgh regularlLy of wlLness sLaLemenLs of murder
ls llkely Lo be sLrongly assoclaLed wlLh Lhe new phenomenon of kldnapplng
mlgranLs for ransom. new arrlvals on ?emen's shores repeaLedly reporL LhaL
slnce 2011 LLhloplans (and some Somalls) have become vlcums of sexual
vlolence, kldnapplng, exLoruon, beaungs and murder.
24
lL ls noL clear how many
of Lhe 84,000 LLhloplans LhaL arrlved ln ?emen ln 2012 were Laken hosLage.
23

WhaL sLarLed as an occaslonal hazard ln recenL years now appears Lo be rouune.
lew mlgranLs escape Lhe auenuons of Lhe on-land crlmlnals.
1he ma[orlLy of Lhe 2012 u8C/8MMS research respondenLs who arrlved ln
?emen ln Lhe prevlous 18 monLhs reporLed belng Laken hosLage for reasons of
forclng a ransom paymenL and some reporLed Lhls occurred more Lhan once
(u8C and 8MMS, 2012). 1here are also reporLs of women and glrls belng
abducLed on arrlval and never seen or heard of agaln (8MMS, 2014d). 1he slze
of ransom demands appears Lo be lncreaslng. ln early 2012, Lhe raLes were [usL
uSu 100-300. 8y Lhe end of Lhe year, Lhe raLes belng reporLed by freed mlgranLs
were beLween uSu 600 and uSu 800. As of early 2013, Lhe raLes lncreased Lo
uSu 1,000.
26
Conslderlng Lhe levels of ransom demanded - sull relauvely low compared wlLh
Lhe slmllar pracuce commlued agalnsL LrlLrean mlgranLs ln Lhe Slnal - Lhe level
of bruLallLy used ls exLreme and Lhe crlmlnals are ready Lo klll Lhelr capuves.
1he kldnappers would make me lle on my back and Lhen Lhey would geL
me Lo rlng my famlly Lo ask Lhem Lo pay Lhe ransom Lhey wanLed. As soon
as one of my parenLs answered Lhe phone, Lhe men would melL amlng
plasuc over my back and lnner Lhlghs and l would scream and scream ln
paln. (8MMS, 2013a:29)
1hey had abouL four or ve of us ued up LogeLher and Lhey would pour
waLer on Lhe oor and Lhen elecLrocuLe Lhe waLer so LhaL all of us would
geL elecLrocuLed aL Lhe same ume. (lbld.)
Puman 8lghLs WaLch released a reporL ln May 2014 charung Lhe exLenL of Lhe
vlolence and Lhe sllenL compllclLy of SLaLe omclals. Cne wlLness sald he saw
23
1esumony of a 30-year-old Somall from Afgaye.
24
Summarles of mlgranL Lesumony Lo Lhls eecL and reporLs as collaLed by unPC8 and varlous lmplemenung
parLners ln ?emen have been repeaLedly prlnLed ln Lhe monLhly summary reporLs of Lhe 8MMS slnce early
2012.
23
8MMS daLa from collaLed ?emen daLa from unPC8 and u8C and oLher daLa gaLherlng agencles, noL
publlshed.
26
lnformauon also collaLed from hundreds of ongolng mlgranL lnLervlews conducLed by members of Lhe
?emen Mlxed Mlgrauon 1ask lorce and reporLed ln 8MMS monLhly summarles.
Chapter 5 Deaths en Route from the Horn of Africa to Yemen
and along the Eastern Corridor from the Horn of Africa to South Africa
160
guards aL one "LorLure camp" beaung people wlLh cables and burnlng skln wlLh
llghLers. Some mlgranLs ln Lhe camp had losL eyes and had broken LeeLh. 1he
wlLness reporLed:
lrom whaL l was hearlng and feellng, l LhoughL l would dle ln LhaL place.
l happened Lo survlve, buL oLhers dldn'L. l saw shameful Lhlngs. no one
deserves Lo see whaL l saw. (Puman 8lghLs WaLch, 2014b)
ln a 88C radlo feaLure ln March 2013, a mlgranL sLaLed:
lf Lhelr famllles can'L pay, Lhey have no use for Lhem and LorLure Lhem Lo
deaLh. (1homson, 2013)
An LLhloplan man Lold Puman 8lghLs WaLch LhaL he saw Lramckers ue a man's
sex organ wlLh a sLrlng and beaL hlm wlLh wooden sucks unul Lhe man dled
before hls eyes. AnoLher sald LhaL Lramckers kllled Lwo men ln hls group by
hacklng aL Lhem wlLh Lhe blade of an axe. 1he chlef docLor aL a hosplLal ln
Paradh sald LhaL Lhe hosplLal recelved bodles of aL leasL Lwo mlgranLs per week.
1ramckers occaslonally LorLure an Afrlcan Lo near deaLh and Lhen drlve Lo Lhe
wall of Lhe MlgranL 8esponse CenLre ln Paradh, whlch ls run by Lhe lnLernauonal
Crganlzauon for Mlgrauon (lCM), and dump Lhe person Lhere" (Puman 8lghLs
WaLch, 2014c).
Cne mlgranL, Muhammad,
27
Lold Puman 8lghLs WaLch LhaL anoLher man from
Lhe 1lgray reglon had called hls famlly, asklng Lhem Lo send Lhe Lramckers money.
Cne day, Lhe guards beaL Lhls man, Loo, wlLh an axe, unul he dled ln fronL of
Lhe oLher mlgranLs. Muhammad sald he dld noL know why Lhe man was kllled.
LLhloplan guards laLer Lold hlm Lhe Lramckers had arranged for a local broker ln
LLhlopla Lo go Lo Lhe man's famlly home ln 1lgray Lo collecL Lhe money. When Lhe
broker arrlved, Lhe pollce were walung. 1hey arresLed and deLalned Lhe broker
for a few days, buL he pald hls way ouL, Muhammad sald. When Lhe broker called
hls colleagues ln ?emen, Lhey beaL Lhe man Lo deaLh (Puman 8lghLs WaLch,
2014c).
vlcums Lold researchers ln Lhe u8C/8MMS sLudy LhaL some vlcums dle as a resulL
of Lhe bruLal LreaLmenL, and many suer severe psychologlcal Lrauma, however,
no gures are avallable (u8C and 8MMS, 2012:41). Whlle researchers sLudylng a
slmllar phenomenon ln Lhe Slnal have made esumaLes on Lhe number of deaLhs
by murder, ln ?emen no such esumaLes have been auempLed. Accordlng Lo Lhls
auLhor, Lhe number of deaLhs should be proporuonally hlgh conslderlng Lhe
frequency of wlLness clalms and deLalled Lesumony abouL deaLhs aL Lhe hands
of Lramckers and crlmlnals.
27
1hls ls a cuuous name Lo proLecL Lhe mlgranL's ldenuLy.
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
161
l was made Lo waLch an LLhloplan woman belng raped and an LLhloplan
baby abouL one year old belng kllled. (u8C and 8MMS, 2012:41)
kldnapplng of LLhloplans seems Lo noL only occur as Lhey Lravel Lhe easLern
rouLe. 1here are reporLs of kldnapplng of LLhloplan mlgranLs aer arrlval ln SouLh
Afrlca. A 2012 arucle on Lhe lnLegraLed 8eglonal lnformauon neLworks (l8ln)
Lells of smugglers demandlng an addluonal uSu 2,400 durlng Lhe lasL leg of Lhe
[ourney souLh, clung Lhe cosLs of brlbes and food. 1he smuggled mlgranLs had Lo
call frlends or relauves ln SouLh Afrlca and Lell Lhem Lo have Lhe money ready.
1he vlcums were kepL ln a house ln !ohannesburg for Lwo days aer arrlval, unul
relauves broughL Lhe cash for release. Powever, Lo daLe, no reporLs of LorLure or
murder have been made by mlgranLs on Lhe souLhern rouLe.
8eporLs of mlgranLs kllled by gunre were rare ln Lhe pasL buL have been
lncreaslngly heard ln Lhe lasL few years. 1hls rlse appears Lo have colnclded wlLh
Lhe growLh ln Lramcklng and commodluzauon of Porn of Afrlca mlgranLs who
are now rouunely kldnapped and forclbly held ln easL Sudan, Llbya and ?emen.
As smuggllng (albelL aggravaLed smuggllng) has developed lnLo Lramcklng and
crlmlnallLy, so Loo has Lhe use of guns become more common and reporLed
deaLhs more frequenL.
When l was ln Lhe boaL, Lhe Somall people beaL us LLhloplan people,
lncludlng me. Also Lhey shoL aL us wlLh Lhelr guns and Lhrew Lhe bodles
lnLo Lhe sea. (MSl, 2008)
1here are cases when drowned bodles of mlgranLs are found wlLh gunshoL
wounds. ln uecember 2012, when 33 mlgranLs dled aer a boaL capslzed o
8ossasso ln rough seas, survlvors Lold pollce LhaL Lhe crew shoL and kllled
mlgranLs ln an eorL Lo geL Lhem o Lhe boaL and llghLen Lhe load. Cllnlcs and
hosplLals ln Lhe Slnal and ln norLhern ?emen reporL havlng pauenLs admlued
wlLh gunshoL wounds, whlle oLher mlgranLs from Lhe Porn of Afrlca reporL
seelng shoL bodles ln Lhe deserL areas of Lhe Slnal.
MlgranLs regularly reporL LhaL smuggler boaLs are meL on Lhe shores of ?emen
by armed men who force mlgranLs lnLo walung Lrucks aL gunpolnL.
28
1o go ashore we had Lo swlm. When we reached Lhe Lwo Lrucks [woluoq
oo tbe beocb] we reallzed Lhere were elghL armed men on Lhem. We goL
on Lhe Lrucks and were LransporLed Lo a house ln Lhe deserL. (u8C and
8MMS, 2012)
28
1he lnsLablllLy of clvll conlcL, lncreased lslamlc mlllLancy and Lhe pollucal upheaval of 2010/2011 ln ?emen
dld noL deLer mlgranLs from arrlvlng ln large numbers. Arguably, Lhe appllcauon of Lhe rule of law and Lhe
resources avallable Lo address ows of lrregular (lllegal) LLhloplan mlgranLs was reduced, oerlng smugglers
greaLer opporLunlues Lo expand Lhelr operauons and Lo carry arms.
Chapter 5 Deaths en Route from the Horn of Africa to Yemen
and along the Eastern Corridor from the Horn of Africa to South Africa
162
MlgranLs may be kllled by Lhelr capLors as a punlshmenL for refusal Lo agree Lo
ralse Lhelr ransom or as a lesson Lo oLher kldnapped mlgranLs. Someumes Lhey
may even be caughL ln crossre beLween Lramckers and pollce or mlllLary, buL
mosL commonly Lhey are shoL when Lrylng Lo escape from capuvlLy.
1hree people were shoL ln Lhe feeL and one person shoL ln Lhe eye was
bllnded. Cne person proLesLed and Lrled Lo sLop Lhe shooung buL he was
shoL ln Lhe sLomach and dled. (u8C and 8MMS, 2012)
AL umes, mlgranLs may be shoL by omclals:
1he Saudl pollce ordered me Lo sLop buL l refused and ran, Lhen Lhe pollce
Look me down wlLh a bulleL. 1hen Lhey reLurned me Lo Paradh border.
(u8C and 8MMS, 2012)
Death from en route banditry
AparL from mlsLreaLmenL aL Lhe hands of smugglers, Lramckers and SLaLe omclals,
mlgranLs have reporLed auacks by bandlLs" and gangs as Lhey LranslL counLrles.
Such reporLs from mlgranLs have been heard from Mozamblque, Sudan, Lhe
unlLed 8epubllc of 1anzanla and ?emen and elsewhere ln Lhe reglon. ln Lhese
cases, bandlLs normally auack wlLh knlves, macheLes, bows and arrows, sucks,
meLal bars and guns.
Cne of Lhe rsL reporLs charung Lhe vulnerablllLy of mlgranLs some years ago
sLaLed [. . .] Lhe overland Lrlp Lo unLland ls dangerous. MlgranLs reporL many
abuses durlng Lhls Lrlp, lncludlng belng sLopped and forced Lo pay aL numerous
checkpolnLs along Lhe road. 1hey also reporLed auacks by armed bandlLs and
belng robbed of Lhelr money and belonglngs, wlLh passengers kllled ln several
cases" (MSl, 2008).
Somallland has been noLorlous among mlgranLs as a dangerous LerrlLory
Lo LranslL on Lhe way Lo 8ossasso. Muluple robberles and harassmenL from
auLhorlues, as well as lncldenLs of sexual vlolence and even murder have been
reporLed over recenL years. ln such cases, Lhe posslble consplracy beLween
dlerenL lnLeresLed parues ln explolung passlng mlgranLs ls unclear, buL lf lL
exlsLs, lL probably revolves around proL-sharlng, where local groups lnslsL LhaL
lf smugglers pass Lhrough Lhelr land Lhey Loo musL have a "plece of Lhe acuon".
AlLernauvely, lL may revolve around a preLense LhaL smugglers wlsh Lo malnLaln
LhaL Lhey Lhemselves cannoL be accused of vlolence and explolLauon, whlle ln
facL proung from havlng sLeered Lhelr groups lnLo Lhe hands of local bandlLs.
1he Lwo 1anzanlan smugglers Look us lnLo Lhe bushes before we crossed
lnLo Malawl. 1here 20 men were walung for us. 1hey were armed wlLh
macheLes, pangas, knlves and sucks. 1hey robbed us of all Lhe money we
had as well as moblle phones. (Porwood, 2009)
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
163
Slmllar sLaLemenLs from wlLness mlgranLs are very common on Lhe souLhern
rouLe as well as beLween LLhlopla and unLland. lL ls hard Lo lmaglne mlgranLs
are noL, on occaslon, kllled as bandlLs rob Lhem ln Lhls manner. CLher reporLs Lalk
of smugglers ln vehlcle chases Lhrough Lhe deserL, ln Llbya, for example, where
compeung gangs Lry Lo hl[ack mlgranLs from passlng smugglers. Calculaung deaLh
ln Lhls caLegory ls noL posslble and wlll probably never be, buL Lhe numbers of
Lhose who dle from en rouLe bandlLry mlghL also be slgnlcanL.
Deoth (rom octon by Stote o(cols ond whle n detenton
As noLed ln Lhe prevlous caLegory of deaLh by gunre, ln some cases mlgranLs
from Lhe Porn of Afrlca are shoL whlle Lrylng Lo cross borders and/or whlle
evadlng arresL. 1he LgypL-lsrael border pollce and Lhe ?emen-Saudl border
pollce appear Lo use rearms agalnsL mlgranLs. 8uL mlgranLs also pass Lhrough
Lhe souLhern mlllLarlzed zone of Llbya where soldlers paLrol, and encounLer
armed border guards ln kenya, along Lhe Mozamblque-SouLh Afrlca border as
well as Lhe LrlLrea-Sudan border.
MlgranLs encounLer pollce, marlne paLrols, soldlers, border guards, lmmlgrauon
omclals, [udges, guards and prlson wardens durlng Lhelr [ourney. lrequenL
mlgranL Lesumonles suggesL LhaL many of Lhese SLaLe omclals bruLallze and
proL from mlgranLs whlle some are also, reporLedly, lnvolved ln Lhe deaLh of
mlgranLs.
CerLalnly, many mlgranLs reporL LhaL Lhey are regularly LhreaLened wlLh deaLh
by SLaLe omclals.
We crossed Lhe rlver and wenL under Lhe fence [Lhe SouLh Afrlcan border
fence], buL before we reached Lhe car, Lhe SouLh Afrlcan pollce caughL us
and Look all our money and LhreaLened us wlLh deaLh. (Porwood, 2009:77)
lrom Mombasa, we le on a boaL Lo 1anzanla where we were caughL
by Lhe pollce, senLenced and puL ln prlson. 1he 1anzanlan pollce Look all
our cloLhes and money when Lhey caughL us. ln cusLody, Lhey beaL us
repeaLedly. [. . .] Aer Lhree monLhs, we were released buL Lhe pollce
chlef Lold us LhaL alLhough Lhe courLs had released us we would sull have
Lo pay hlm uSu 1,300 Lo acLually leave. Pe LhreaLened us LhaL we would
dle ln prlson lf he dldn'L geL hls money. (Porwood, 2009)
A 1llburg unlverslLy sLudy also reporLed LhaL Lhe LrlLrean 8order Survelllance
unlL ls lnvolved ln Lhe smuggllng of mlgranLs across Lhe border (van 8elsen,
LsLefanos and 8l[ken, 2012). 1he un SecurlLy Councll MonlLorlng Croup on
Somalla and LrlLrea clalmed LhaL senlor mlllLary commanders dlrecLly conLrol
Lhe Lramcklng and movemenL of mlgranLs (as well as arms) from LrlLrea, some
of whom are sold Lo smugglers and Lramckers ouLslde Lhe counLry (unSC, 2012).
8eporLedly, people are drlven ouL of LrlLrea hldden ln Lrucks of Lhe LrlLrean 8order
Chapter 5 Deaths en Route from the Horn of Africa to Yemen
and along the Eastern Corridor from the Horn of Africa to South Africa
164
Survelllance unlL so LhaL Lhey can avold checkpolnLs (van 8elsen, LsLefanos and
8l[ken, 2012). As lndlcaLed, LrlLrea allegedly has a shooL-Lo-klll pollcy regardlng
unauLhorlzed exlL of Lhelr own nauonals. lL ls noL clear how many mlgranLs are
kllled by border guards and mlllLary forces ln Lhese remoLe border areas, and lL
would be lmposslble Lo verlfy.
1yplcally, Lhe number of border deaLhs ls consldered hlghly condenual
lnformauon LhaL no governmenL ln Lhe reglon would release, Lhus, gures
remaln unknown.
MlgranLs are also known Lo dle whlle ln deLenuon and durlng expulslon or
deporLauon.
29
8eporLs suggesL dozens" of LLhloplan mlgranLs may have been
kllled ln Lhe recenL crackdown and sLreeL vlolence LhaL resulLed ln over 160,000
LLhloplan lrregular mlgranLs belng expelled from Saudl Arabla, by alr, beLween
november 2013 and lebruary 2014.
30
ClrcumsLances are oen clouded and
lnvesugauons problemauc. CerLalnly, ln every counLry ln Lhe reglon and all
Lranslung counLrles such as u[lbouu, kenya, Llbya, Malawl, Mozamblque, Saudl
Arabla, Lhe unlLed 8epubllc of 1anzanla, ?emen and Zambla, a slgnlcanL number
of lrregular mlgranLs are ln deLenuon cenLres or prlson. Accordlng Lo lCM, abouL
1,300 lrregular mlgranLs, mosL of Lhem from LLhlopla and Somalla, were belng
deLalned ln Lhe unlLed 8epubllc of 1anzanla as of March 2012 (l8ln, 2014b). ln
Llbya, mlgranLs from Lhe Porn of Afrlca are held by mllluas.
lL ls common for mlgranLs Lo make clalms of havlng experlenced conslderable
vlolence whlle ln deLenuon, and even wlLnessed deaLhs aL Lhe hands of pollce
and securlLy personnel. Clven Lhe lengLh of ume, some mlgranLs remaln ln
deLenuon and Lhe dlre condluons ln many prlsons, accusauons of Lhls klnd would
need Lo be lnvesugaLed Lo esLabllsh wheLher deaLh was Lhrough mlsadvenLure,
mallce or naLural causes.
Death by organ removal
1he lssue of deaLh by organ Lhe ls conLroverslal. 1here are lnfrequenL reporLs
from ?emen LhaL organ removal ls pracused by crlmlnals agalnsL mlgranLs
(from LLhlopla), whlle ln Lhe Slnal Lhere appears Lo be evldence LhaL numerous
mlgranLs (normally LrlLreans) have been kllled for Lhelr body parLs and organs,
accordlng Lo some sources.
varlous academlcs, acuvlsLs and human rlghLs organlzauons worklng ln Lhe reglon
are doubuul of Lhe veraclLy of Lhe evldence from LgypL and Lhose presenung lL.
neverLheless, phoLographs of hundreds of bodles wlLh hasuly sewn-up wounds
ln shallow graves apparenLly ln Lhe Slnal - and supposedly mlgranLs - have
29
Cne agency, Lhe Cromla SupporL Croup (CSC), charLed unverled clalms by LLhloplan refugees ln u[lbouu
LhaL deaLhs ln deLenuon were common. See CSC's 8eporL 48, ujlboou. uesutouoo ooJ leot fot kefoqees
ftom tbloplo.
30
numerous medla reporLs menuon deaLhs buL no omclal gures are released by Lhe Saudl CovernmenL.
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
163
creaLed a blg lmpacL and lnsplred documenLarles and news sLorles LhaL have
conLrlbuLed Lo a sLrong lnLeresL ln Lhe uS Congress abouL Lhe lssue of mlgranL
kldnapplng and abuse ln Lhe Slnal.
31
CerLalnly, ln laLe 2011, Lhe Cnn lreedom
ro[ecL creaLed much publlclLy around Lhe lssue and convlnced many wlLh Lhe
Cnn's reporLs and lm.
MlgranLs from Lhe Porn of Afrlca who have been kldnapped ln elLher Lhe Slnal
or ?emen clalm Lo have been LhreaLened by Lhelr capLors and LormenLors LhaL lf
Lhey dld noL pay Lhey would be kllled for Lhelr organs. 8uL when lL comes Lo acLual
wlLnesses Lhere are almosL no mlgranLs who have wlLnessed kllllngs assoclaLed
wlLh organ Lhe. Accordlng Lo Lhe unlLed nauons Cmce on urugs and Crlme
(unCuC), organ Lhe and sales are a growlng and mulumllllon dollar global
crlmlnal enLerprlse, and perhaps lL would noL be surprlslng lf some crlmlnals
have kllled, or are kllllng mlgranLs, for body parLs - noL leasL because, accordlng
Lo Lhe World PealLh Crganlzauon, LgypL ls a reglonal hub for Lhe Lrade. 1hls lssue
ls also explored ln ChapLer 4, descrlblng mlgranL deaLhs ln norLh Afrlca.
Dsoppeoronce o( mgront grls ond women
womeo ooJ qltls ote especlolly voloetoble. All tbtooqboot tbe jootoey tbey
Jlsoppeot. 1bey ote topeJ ooJ Jlsoppeot lo ujlboou ooJ Jotloq tbe seo ctossloq,
ooJ ote klJooppeJ opoo ottlvol lo emeo.
32
llnally, Lhe alarmlngly hlgh number of female lrregular mlgranLs faclng sexual
auack, abducuon and dlsappearance from Lhe reglon musL be noLed. A hlgh
percenLage of female mlgranLs who were lnLervlewed durlng or aL Lhe end of
Lhelr mlgrauon spoke of Lhe ublqulLy of rape and sexual auack. Such auacks
commonly Lake place whlle ln Lhe hands of smugglers, kldnappers, Lramckers
and, aL umes, even SLaLe omclals or mllluas whlle mlgranLs are belng deLalned.
PealLh omclals ln Paradh, ?emen, Lold Puman 8lghLs WaLch ln 2013 LhaL 9 ln 10
female pauenLs as well as 1 ln 10 male pauenLs Lhey examlned had been raped
(Puman 8lghLs WaLch, 2014b).
Accordlng Lo Lesumonles, glrls and women, especlally from LLhlopla golng Lo
?emen, and also, reporLedly, from Somalla and LrlLrea, are frequenLly separaLed
from male mlgranLs by smugglers and Lramckers, and, ln many cases, are noL
heard of agaln. ueaLh Lherefore cannoL be ruled ouL. 1hese women become
lnvlslble and Lhelr new owners" or oLher crlmlnals can LreaL Lhem as Lhey wlsh.
31
Looklng aL Lhe phoLos, ur. lakhry Saleh, Lhe former head of Calro's forenslc deparLmenL and an experL on
Lhe lllegal organ Lrade, clalmed ln 2011 LhaL he had never heard of organ Lhe lnvolvlng Afrlcan refugees,
buL he sald lL seemed hlghly probable LhaL Lhe scars on Lhe bodles ln Lhe plcLures came from organ removal.
ln: l. lelLgen and M.l. lahmy, 8efugees face organ Lhe ln Lhe Slnal", 3 november 2011, avallable from
www.edluon.cnn.com/2011/11/03/world/measL/plelLgen-slnal-organ-smugglers/.
32
1esumony of a Somall woman lnLervlewed ln San'a ?enem ln november 2013. ln: 8MMS, 1be leuet of tbe
low. keqolot ooJ ltteqolot Mlqtouoo lo 5ooJl Atoblo lo o cootext of koplJ cbooqe (nalrobl, 8MMS, 2014),
p. 36.
Chapter 5 Deaths en Route from the Horn of Africa to Yemen
and along the Eastern Corridor from the Horn of Africa to South Africa
166
We were Laken Lo a mounLalnous reglon. When we arrlved Lhere, we found
49 LLhloplan women who had been Lhere for some ume. 1he ?emenl
smugglers were uslng slx LLhloplans Lo LorLure us and Lhese slx LLhloplans
would brlng Lhe 49 female hosLages Lo Lhe yard. Whlle we waLched, Lhey
would force Lhem Lo drlnk Lhelr urlne and physlcally abuse Lhem. Some of
Lhe women were also raped. 1hey were demandlng LhaL Lhe women pay
Lhe ransom, buL many of Lhe women were poor and Lhelr famllles could
noL pay. 1he male capuves were released aer a monLh. Some pald Lhe
ransom, whlle oLhers were LorLured unul Lhey were sure Lhey could noL
pay Lhe ransom. 1he women were purchased by some of Lhe locals Lo be
used as housemalds. l wlLnessed a negouauon beLween Lhe locals and Lhe
smugglers. 1hey sold Lhe women cheaply, for abouL 30,000 and 40,000
?emenl rlals [beLween uSu 140 and uSu 186].
33
1he clrcumsLanual evldence based on sLausucs of new arrlvals ln ?emen and
mlgranL reporLs from LgypL, Llbya and Sudan suggesL Lhls pracuce ls common. ln
some cases, and especlally ln ln ?emen, Lhe dlsappearance of female mlgranLs
seems Lo be hlgh, suggesung Lhere ls a hlgh rlsk LhaL Lhese women have been
Lramcked for sale.
lour ?emenl smugglers were on board Lhe boaL. 1hey raped Lhe glrls on
Lhe boaL ln fronL of us [. . .] and Lhose glrls were already sold Lo ?emenl
Lramckers.
34
A recenL reporL by 8MMS (2014d) suggesLs LhaL more Lhan 16,000 female
mlgranLs arrlvlng ln ?emen beLween 2011 and 2013 were mosL llkely abducLed
on arrlval and remaln unaccounLed. 1he concluslon of Lhls sLudy ls LhaL many
were never released once Lhey were kldnapped" (8MMS, 2014d: 37). 1hls
dramauc ndlng begs many quesuons, lncludlng quesuons as Lo wheLher Lhey
are sull allve.
Whlle mlgranLs Lravelllng souLh along Lhe easLern seaboard Lo SouLh Afrlca do
reporL rape and sexual vlolence, dlsappearances of female mlgranLs do noL occur
ln any sysLemauc way. ln some cases, men and boys are also vlcums of rape.
1hey [smugglers] were very abuslve ln naLure and oen drunk. l heard
LhaL many LLhloplan and Somall men and boys had been raped along Lhe
way. Women are generally raped by smugglers and Lruck drlvers. 1he boys
geL raped ln pollce cells and prlsons.
33
33
1esumony of one of Lhe mlgranLs lnLervlewed ln May 2013 as reporLed ln u8C ually roLecuon. ln: 8MMS,
8lloJeJ by nope. koowleJqe, AmtoJes ooJ ltocuces of tbloploo Mlqtoots (nalrobl, 8MMS, 2014), p. 48.
34
1esumony of an LLhloplan boy who mlgraLed ln 2011. ln: u8C and 8MMS, uespetote cbolces. cooJluoos,
klsks & ltotecuoo lollotes A[ecuoq tbloploo Mlqtoots lo emeo (nalrobl, u8C and 8MMS, 2012).
33
1esumony of a Somall mlgranL, 21 years old, ln !ohannesburg, SouLh Afrlca. ln: C. Porwood, lo lotsolt of tbe
5ootbeto uteom. vlcums of Necesslty. Assessmeot of tbe ltteqolot Movemeot of Meo ftom ost Aftlco ooJ
tbe noto to 5ootb Aftlco (Ceneva, lCM, 2009), p. 63.
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
167
8ecause so llule ls known regardlng Lhe ouLcome of abducuons and
dlsappearances, lL cannoL be sald wheLher mlgranLs dle or are kllled, buL lL may
be assumed LhaL Lhey become undocumenLed and lnvlslble" commodlues,
boughL and sold ln clandesune deals, ln all llkellhood for nefarlous purposes ln
slave-llke condluons wlLhouL any klnd of proLecuon or recourse Lo proLecuon.
5.3.4 Death of labour migrants
AnoLher area where mlgranLs from Lhe Porn of Afrlca may face deaLh ls ln Lhe
workplace whlle llvlng as lrregular (or regular) mlgranLs overseas. As menuoned
above, mlgranLs can also face deaLh durlng expulslons and deLenuon prlor Lo
expulslon. 1o some exLenL, Lhls caLegory falls ouLslde Lhe scope of Lhls sLudy,
buL lL ls worLh noung LhaL some mlgranLs dle ln employmenL, wheLher ln Lhe
lnformal secLor - ln LransporLauon, agrlculLure and consLrucuon, for example
- or ln prlvaLe households. numerous reporLs ln Lhe medla and lnLernauonal
organlzauons such as AmnesLy lnLernauonal, Puman 8lghLs WaLch and lLC (lnLer
alla) have charLed abuses and deaLhs of mlgranL workers from varlous counLrles,
lncreaslngly from LLhlopla and Lhe Culf SLaLes. Sulclde of mlgranL workers ls also
common. ln AugusL 2008, Puman 8lghLs WaLch released a sLudy showlng LhaL
mlgranL domesuc workers were dylng aL a raLe of more Lhan one per week ln
Lebanon (Puman 8lghLs WaLch, 2008).
Pundreds of Lhousands of labour mlgranLs, predomlnanLly from LLhlopla, are
senL Lo Lhe Culf SLaLes and Lhe Mlddle LasL Lhrough prlvaLe employmenL agencles
whose pracuces have been crluclzed as frequenLly negllgenL or unscrupulous.
1he lLC publlshed a reporL ln 2011, suggesung many of Lhese pracuces amounLed
Lo Lramcklng where, on occaslon, Lhe ouLcome of mlsLreaLmenL was deaLh
(lLC, 2011). 8odles of dead labour mlgranLs (oen female) are shlpped back Lo
LLhlopla, for example, and some cases are recorded ln Lhe medla and handled
by Lhe relevanL embassles. lL appears LhaL ln such cases a llmlLed lnvesugauon ls
conducLed Lo ascerLaln Lhe cause of deaLh or culpablllLy.
5.4 Methodological challenges and information gaps
MlgranLs ln Lhe reglon, especlally lrregular mlgranLs, are lncreaslngly vlewed as
commodlues and opporLunlues for explolLauon by a number of sLakeholders. lL
ls clear LhaL for smugglers, Lramckers and cerLaln SLaLe omclals, mlgranLs form
Lhe basls of Lhelr lucrauve buslness model". 1he ows of lrregular mlgranLs ln
and from Lhe Porn of Afrlca reglon are conunuous and probably rlslng Lo such an
exLenL LhaL, for Lhe perpeLraLors, some deaLhs are accepLable and lnevlLable ln
a conLexL of bruLallLy and vlolence. Clearly, as Lhe buslness lLself ls clandesune,
lllegal and mulunauonal, Lhere ls no lnLeresL Lo collecL daLa or documenL deaLhs.
Lqually, ln envlronmenLs where anu-mlgranL senumenL ls growlng and mlgranL
safeLy ls noL of prlmary concern Lo auLhorlues, proLecuon of mlgranLs and
Chapter 5 Deaths en Route from the Horn of Africa to Yemen
and along the Eastern Corridor from the Horn of Africa to South Africa
168
lnvesugauons lnLo Lhe causes of deaLh Lend Lo recelve a low prlorlLy. AuLhorlues
are always golng Lo be relucLanL Lo reporL on deaLhs of mlgranLs ln deLenuon, ln
LranslL or crosslng borders where Lhe lnLegrlLy of Lhe SLaLe may be quesuoned.
Lqually, any daLa LhaL mlghL lmpllcaLe SLaLe omclals or suggesL corrupuon and
compllclLy wlll be suppressed. Whlle lnLernauonal asslsLance agencles and
human rlghLs groups mlghL oer gllmpses lnLo Lhe lssue of mlgranL deaLhs
Lhrough daLa Lhey collecL (predomlnanLly mlgranL sLaLemenLs), Lhey wlll always
be only a small parL of Lhe whole. ln addluon, Lhe presence of lnLernauonal and
nauonal agencles lnLeresLed ln Lhe proLecuon of mlgranLs Lends Lo be Lhln on
Lhe ground and normally far from Lhe locauons where mlgranLs dle. Meanwhlle,
local communlLy groups or local clvll socleLy organlzauons are mosLly absenL
from Lhe mlxed mlgrauon problemauc, excepL ln so far as Lhey may work wlLh
refugees and asylum-seekers. MlgranLs are nelLher popular ln counLrles of
LranslL or Lhelr LargeL desunauons, nor are Lhey hlgh on local donors' prlorlLy
llsLs, consequenLly, few nauonal groups work wlLh mlgranLs, and daLa concernlng
deaLhs ls noL collecLed.
ln llghL of Lhe above, no one ls keeplng Lrack of deaLhs of mlgranLs ln Lhe Porn
of Afrlca oLher Lhan a few organlzauons collecung lncompleLe and anecdoLal
reporLs, sLorles and wlLness sLaLemenLs. SLaLe auLhorlues and medla sources
may menuon numbers of dead mlgranLs ln dlscreLe lncldenLs when bodles are
found ln conLalners or washed up on shores, buL Lhese gures are [usL a few
pleces of Lhe whole puzzle. MeLhodologlcally, esLabllshlng a robusL daLabase LhaL
goes beyond anecdoLal and clrcumsLanual evldence" as a basls of a numerlcal
collauon would be problemauc. 1hls should noL, however, be an excuse for noL
recordlng, where posslble, mlgranL deaLhs. As Lhls chapLer shows, Lhere are
many locauons and dlerenL scenarlos where mlgranL deaLhs occur ln Lhe Porn
of Afrlca or aecL mlgranLs from Lhe Porn of Afrlca, buL aL presenL no auLhorlLy
or enuLy ls auempung Lo documenL Lhem. lf some relevanL agency or bureau
could be resourced and Lasked Lo collaLe lnformauon on mlgranL deaLhs, we
would have a beuer undersLandlng of Lhe wlder rlsks and proLecuon declLs
faclng mlgranLs. ln shorL, many pleces of Lhe puzzle are ouL Lhere and even lf Lhe
whole plcLure wlll never come lnLo vlew, far more could be done Lo enlarge our
currenL, llmlLed percepuon.
5.5 Conclusions and recommendations
1he dlscusslon ln Lhls chapLer and Lhe grlm Lopography of mlgranL deaLhs wlLhln
and from Lhe Porn of Afrlca reglon should lead Lo a sLrong lndlcLmenL of Lhe
communlues and ln parucular Lhe nauonal auLhorlues who encounLer mlgranLs.
no legal or Lradluonal code of llvlng should permlL Lhls level of publlc abuse of
mlgranLs, gullLy only of crosslng lnLernauonal borders wlLhouL documenLauon
Lo seek a beuer llfe ouLslde Lhelr homelands, or Lo escape persecuuon and
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
169
vlolence. Lven lf preclse daLa ls lmposslble Lo reLrleve, Lhls chapLer glves a sense
of how hundreds of mlgranLs are dylng annually, and Lhousands have dled ln Lhe
lasL few years, durlng Lhelr eorLs Lo mlgraLe.
AparL from soclal and rellglous moral codes of behavlour, nauons are bound
by Lhelr nauonal, reglonal and lnLernauonal commlLmenLs. All counLrles ln
Lhe reglon, and Lhose ouLslde Lhe reglon where deaLhs occur, have clear laws
proLecung Lhelr own cluzens and forelgners wlLhln Lhelr LerrlLorles agalnsL
severe human rlghLs vlolauons lncludlng robbery, beaungs, kldnapplng, LorLure,
rape, murder and oLher vlolauons, whlch someumes cause mlgranLs' deaLh. lL
ls hard Lo escape from Lhe expllclL concluslon LhaL so many of Lhe deaLhs (and
kllllngs) occur ln a cllmaLe of lmpunlLy where lmplemenLauon of Lhe rule of law
would go a long way ln endlng such deaLhs and abuses.
Censure of Lhe perpeLraLors of crlmes agalnsL mlgranLs needs Lo be unequlvocal
and sLrengLhened. AL presenL, Lhe sysLem appears Lo be so weak LhaL smugglers
and Lramckers vlew Lhese crlmes as a low-rlsk, hlgh-proL area of operauon. A
rule of law proLecung mlgranLs from egreglous vlolauons and deaLh Lherefore
needs Lo be fully lmplemenLed. Where lL does noL exlsL, laws agalnsL Lramcklng
and smuggllng need Lo be esLabllshed and fully domesucaLed. unlshmenL of
perpeLraLors should be proporuonal Lo Lhe severlLy of Lhe crlmes, far from Lhe
derlsory nanclal punlshmenLs some perpeLraLors face ln Lhe rare occaslons
when Lhey are convlcLed, lf Lhey are convlcLed. Censure agalnsL SLaLe omclals'
compllclLy wlLh smuggllng, Lramcklng and abuse of mlgranLs should also be
sLrengLhened and unequlvocal.
Concernlng Lhe documenLauon of deaLhs of mlgranLs, lL needs Lo be recognlzed
LhaL Lhe full plcLure of mlgranL border-relaLed deaLhs wlll never be known.
laLallues occur ln remoLe locauons, far from Lhe publlc gaze, and Lhere are
lnLeresLs ln keeplng Lhe deLalls and gures concernlng mlgranL deaLhs unknown.
Powever, many parLs of Lhe puzzle could sull be recognlzed and broughL LogeLher.
An agency or a coalluon of agencles needs Lo be resourced and Lasked Lo do [usL
Lhls. Some, lncludlng Lhls auLhor, suspecL LhaL whaL ls known aL presenL ls [usL
Lhe up of an lceberg of a Lragedy and scandal whlch we urgenLly need Lo expose.
Chapter 5 Deaths en Route from the Horn of Africa to Yemen
and along the Eastern Corridor from the Horn of Africa to South Africa
170
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Porwood, C.
2009 lo lotsolt of tbe 5ootbeto uteom. vlcums of Necesslty. Assessmeot
of tbe ltteqolot Movemeot of Meo ftom ost Aftlco ooJ tbe noto to
5ootb Aftlco. lnLernauonal Crganlzauon for Mlgrauon, Ceneva.
Puman 8lghLs WaLch
2008 Lebanon: MlgranL domesuc workers dylng every week. Puman
8lghLs WaLch, AugusL 2008. Avallable from www.hrw.org/en/
news/2008/08/24/lebanon-mlgranL-domesLlc-workers-dylng-
every-week.
2013a wotlJ kepott 2012. Puman 8lghLs WaLch, new ?ork. Avallable from
www.hrw.org/world-reporL-2012.
2013b wotlJ kepott 201J. Puman 8lghLs WaLch, new ?ork. Avallable from
www.hrw.org/world-reporL/2013/counLry-chapLers/erlLrea.
2014a wotlJ kepott 2014. Puman 8lghLs WaLch, new ?ork.
2014b emeos 1ottote comps. Abose of Mlqtoots by nomoo 1to[ckets lo
o cllmote of lmpoolty. Puman 8lghLs WaLch, new ?ork.
2014c l wooteJ to lle uowo ooJ ule. 1to[ckloq ooJ 1ottote of tltteoos
lo 5oJoo ooJ qypt. Puman 8lghLs WaLch, new ?ork. Avallable from
www.hrw.org/node/122893/secuon/6.
lnLernauonal Labour Crganlzauon (lLC)
2011 1to[ckloq lo letsoos Ovetseos fot loboot lotposes. 1be cose of
tbloploo uomesuc wotkets. lLC, Addls Ababa.
lnLernauonal Crganlzauon for Mlgrauon (lCM) and (Cmce of Lhe) unlLed nauons
Plgh Commlssloner for 8efugees (unPC8)
2008 Mlxed Mlgrauon 1ask lorce reporL: Addresslng mlxed mlgrauon
across Lhe Culf of Aden. SLraLegy paper, lCM/unPC8, Ceneva.
l Medla
2012 43 lllegal mlgranLs found dead ln foresL. l Medla, 27 !une.
Avallable from www.lppmedla.com/fronLend/lndex.php?l=43047.
l8ln
2012 Mlgrauon: Puman smugglers proL as Lragedles muluply. l8ln, 11
!uly. Avallable from www.lrlnnews.org/reporL/93843/mlgrauon-
human-smugglers-proL-as-Lragedles-muluply.
2013 Porn mlgranLs use new, more dangerous, rouLes Lhrough Malawl.
l8ln, 21 !anuary. Avallable from www.lrlnnews.org/reporL/97289/
horn-mlgranLs-use-new-more-dangerous-rouLes-Lhrough-malawl.
Chapter 5 Deaths en Route from the Horn of Africa to Yemen
and along the Eastern Corridor from the Horn of Africa to South Africa
172
Medeclns Sans lronueres (MSl)
2008 No cbolce. 5omoll ooJ tbloploo kefoqees, Asylom 5eekets ooJ
Mlqtoots ctossloq tbe Colf of AJeo. emeo kepott 2008. MSl,
Ceneva.
Mlxed Mlgrauon 1ask lorce Somalla
2008 MlxeJ Mlqtouoo tbtooqb 5omollo ooJ octoss tbe Colf of AJeo.
lnLer-Agency SLandlng Commluee, Ceneva.
Mlxed Mlgrauon 1ask lorce Somallland
2012 MlxeJ Mlqtouoo lo 5omolllooJ. MM1l Iolot Assessmeot Mlssloo lo
wojoole, 8otomo, lowyoJo ooJ 2ello. utof kepott. lnLer-Agency
SLandlng Commluee, Ceneva.
Cromo SupporL Croup (CSC)
2012 ujlboou. uesutouoo ooJ leot fot kefoqees ftom tbloplo. 8eporL
48, CSC, WorcesLershlre, unlLed klngdom.
lelLgen, l. and M.l. lahmy
2011 8efugees face organ Lhe ln Lhe Slnal. Cnn, 3 november. Avallable
from www.edluon.cnn.com/2011/11/03/world/measL/plelLgen-
slnal-organ-smugglers/.
8eglonal Mlxed Mlgrauon SecreLarlaL (8MMS)
2012 8eglonal mlxed mlgrauon summary for !une 2012. 8MMS,
nalrobl. Avallable from www.reglonalmms.org/leadmln/conLenL/
monLhly20summarles/8MMS_MonLhly_Summary_!une_2012....
pdf.
2013a Mlqtoot 5moqqlloq lo tbe noto of Aftlco & emeo. 1be lollucol
cooomy ooJ ltotecuoo klsks. 8MMS, nalrobl.
2013b kespooses to MlxeJ Mlqtouoo lo tbe noto of Aftlco & emeo.
lollcles ooJ Asslstooce kespooses lo o lost-cbooqloq cootext.
8MMS, nalrobl.
2013c Mlxed mlgrauon ln Porn of Afrlca and ?emen: !une 2013. Avallable
from www.reglonalmms.org/leadmln/conLenL/rmms_dashboard_
map/8MMS_MonLhly_Map_!une_2013_nal.pdf.
2014a 1be leuet of tbe low. keqolot ooJ ltteqolot Mlqtouoo lo 5ooJl
Atoblo lo o cootext of koplJ cbooqe. 8MMS, nalrobl.
2014b Coloq west. cootempototy MlxeJ Mlqtouoo 1teoJs ftom tbe noto
of Aftlco to llbyo & otope. 8MMS, nalrobl.
2014c 8lloJeJ by nope. koowleJqe, AmtoJes ooJ ltocuces of tbloploo
Mlqtoots. 8MMS, nalrobl.
2014d AboseJ & obJocteJ. 1be lllqbt of lemole Mlqtoots ftom tbe noto of
Aftlco lo emeo. 8MMS, nalrobl.
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
173
1he Cuardlan
2012 MlgranL domesuc workers ln Arab nauons are dylng - lL's ume Lo
acL. 1he Cuardlan, 27 Aprll. Avallable from www.Lheguardlan.com/
commenLlsfree/2012/apr/27/mlgranL-domesLlc-workers-arab-
nauons.
1homson, M.
2013 Slnal LorLure for LrlLreans kldnapped by Lramckers. 88C, 6 March.
Avallable from www.bbc.com/news/world-afrlca-21670929.
(Cmce of Lhe) unlLed nauons Plgh Commlssloner for 8efugees (unPC8)
2007 Mlxed mlgrauon ln Culf of Aden: 8lsklng sharks and sLormy seas on
Lhe Culf of Aden. Avallable from www.unhcr.org/pages/4a1d39c1d.
hLml.
2013 Clobol 1teoJs 2012. unPC8, Ceneva. Avallable from www.unhcr.
org/globalLrends[une2013/.
2014 More Lhan 40 mlsslng and feared drowned ln laLesL Culf of Aden
boaL Lragedy. Avallable from www.unhcr.org/331eec806.hLml.
unlLed nauons Puman 8lghLs Councll
2014 8eporL of Lhe Speclal 8apporLeur on Lhe slLuauon of human
rlghLs ln LrlLrea, Shella 8. keeLharuLh. Agenda lLem 4. Puman
rlghLs slLuauons LhaL requlre Lhe Councll's auenuon, 1wenLy-slxLh
sesslon, Puman 8lghLs Councll, unlLed nauons Ceneral Assembly,
13 May. Avallable from rellefweb.lnL/reporL/erlLrea/reporL-speclal-
rapporLeur-slLuaLlon-human-rlghLs-erlLrea-shella-b-keeLharuLh-
ahrc2643.
unlLed nauons SecurlLy Councll (unSC)
2012 8eporL of Lhe MonlLorlng Croup on Somalla and LrlLrea pursuanL Lo
SecurlLy Councll resoluuon 2002 (2011). unSC, new ?ork.
u.S. ueparLmenL of SLaLe
2013 1to[ckloq lo letsoos kepott 201J. u.S. ueparLmenL of SLaLe,
WashlngLon, u.C.
van 8elsen, M., M. LsLefanos and C. 8l[ken
2012 nomoo 1to[ckloq lo tbe 5lool. kefoqees betweeo llfe ooJ ueotb.
1llburg unlverslLy/Luropean LxLernal ollcy Advlsors, 8russels.
World 8ulleun
2014 Many Saudl-deporLed LLhloplans caughL Lrylng Lo reLurn. World
8ulleun, 19 May. Avallable from www.worldbulleun.neL/Lodays-
news/136686/many-saudl-deporLed-eLhloplans-caughL-Lrylng-Lo-
reLurn.
Chapter 5 Deaths en Route from the Horn of Africa to Yemen
and along the Eastern Corridor from the Horn of Africa to South Africa
174
Journey of hope
kasseh's parenLs dld noL approve of hls dream Lo Lravel Lo Saudl Arabla Lo nd
work. lrom a famlly of farmers ln LLhlopla, kasseh used Lo work ln a pasLry shop
on weekends Lo brlng ln addluonal lncome. Pe was 13 years old when he declded
Lo go Lo Saudl Arabla wlLh a group of frlends Lo nd hlgher-paylng work.
36
1he boys le ln secreL, and walked Lhrough Lhe deserL for 11 days. 1hey dld noL
have enough money Lo buy food, and losL one of Lhe boys Lo sLarvauon. Along
Lhe way, Lhey passed Lhe half-burled body of a dead glrl, who probably had also
dled of sLarvauon. upon hls arrlval ln u[lbouu, kasseh's famlly senL hlm money
LhaL he used Lo pay for Lhe boaL crosslng Lo ?emen.
1he food LhaL we were able Lo buy was noL enough . . . one of my fellows
dled ln Lhe deserL. uurlng our Lrlp we came across Lhe body of a dead glrl
LhaL was half burled ln Lhe sand, probably she dled also of sLarvauon llke
my fellow.
When Lhe boaL approached Lhe coasL of ?emen, Lwo Lrucks appeared on Lhe
beach. 1he passengers were made Lo swlm Lo Lhe malnland and Laken Lo a house
ln Lhe deserL by armed smugglers. 1hese smugglers provlded Lhe mlgranLs wlLh
food and waLer, buL also demanded ransom from relauves ln Saudl Arabla.
Slnce kasseh dld noL have any relauves ln
Lhe counLry, he Lrled Lhe number of a frlend.
1he smugglers' boss beaL hlm unul he losL
consclousness when Lhe frlend repeaLedly
hung up Lhe phone.
LvenLually, someone lenL hlm money and all
Lhe chlldren were released. ln fear LhaL Lhey
mlghL be sold Lo oLhers, Lhe youLhs refused
anoLher rlde from Lhe smugglers and lnsLead
walked Lhrough Lhe deserL for four days.
Cnce aL Lhe border wlLh Saudl Arabla, Lhey
encounLered a group of men on moLorcycles
who LhreaLened Lhem. lorLunaLely, a nearby
Lruck drlver oered hls help and broughL
Lhem Lo an LLhloplan camp ln norLhern
?emen.
Cn Lhelr second auempL Lo cross Lhe border, Lhey were sLopped by pollce and
Laken lnLo cusLody. Aer several nlghLs ln Lhe pollce sLauon's baLhroom, kasseh
and hls frlends were released. kasseh felL slck and dlscouraged. AlLhough Lhe
36
1hls sLory ls adapLed from a sLory publlshed by 8MMS and ln1L8SCS, who lnLervlewed kasseh ln Paradh ln
early 2012.
My ooly Jteom oow ls
tbot someboJy moy stop
tbese ttlps tbot ote foll
of polo ooJ so[etloq
fot poot people. My
ooly ttotb oow ls to tell
my ftleoJs oboot wbot
boppeoeJ to me ooJ
woto tbem oot to qo
tbtooqb wbot l weot.
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
173
boys ln hls group made lL safely back Lo Lhe camp, Lhree glrls who Lravelled wlLh
Lhem were kldnapped by armed men and never heard of agaln.
ln Lhe camp, kasseh recelved medlcal help, and was evenLually repaLrlaLed Lo hls
famlly by Lhe LLhloplan Lmbassy. Pe belleves lL ls lmporLanL LhaL oLher youLhs
are dlssuaded from embarklng upon such [ourneys of hope".
My only dream now ls LhaL somebody may sLop Lhese "Lrlps" LhaL are full of paln
and suerlng for poor people. My only LruLh now ls Lo Lell my frlends abouL whaL
happened Lo me and warn Lhem noL Lo go Lhrough whaL l wenL.
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
177
Leanne Weber and Sharon lckerlng
1
6.1 Importance of counting migrant deaths
As we began wrlung Lhls chapLer abouL Lhe deaLhs of asylum-seekers o Lhe
norLhern coasL of AusLralla, an aerlal and underwaLer search of unprecedenLed
proporuons was underway across a vasL area of Lhe souLhern lndlan Ccean. lor
many monLhs, Lhe Lraglc dlsappearance of Malayslan Alrllnes lllghL MP370 made
headllnes and generaLed publlc concern around Lhe world. 1he search, lnlually
for survlvors and Lhen for human remalns and wreckage, has moblllzed cumng-
edge Lechnologles and auracLed human and nanclal resources from aL leasL 26
counLrles (Wardell, 2014) anxlous Lo help resolve Lhe mysLery and demonsLraLe
Lhelr good sLandlng as global leaders. Medla reporLs have speculaLed LhaL Lhe
operauon could evenLually cosL hundreds of mllllons of dollars" (Wardell,
2014).
2
ln purely human Lerms, we mlghL agree LhaL such an lnLernauonal eorL ls
noLhlng less Lhan we would expecL ln order Lo glve some comforL Lo grlevlng
relauves and ln Lhe lnLeresLs of lmprovlng Lhe safeLy of commerclal lghLs for
Lhe beneL of all. 1he lmporLance of counung Lhe dead and reLrlevlng Lhelr
bodles ls unlversally acknowledged as a cruclal sLep ln acknowledglng Lhelr loss
and produclng an accounL of Lhelr deaLhs. Powever, Lhls loglc brlngs lnLo sharp
rellef Lhe very dlerenL faLe LhaL has befallen Lhose who have been losL ln waLers
much closer Lo Lhe AusLrallan malnland, due Lo Lhe more rouune hazards of
unregulaLed Lravel.
*

1he vlews expressed ln Lhls chapLer are Lhose of Lhe auLhors and do noL necessarlly represenL Lhose of Lhe
lnLernauonal Crganlzauon for Mlgrauon (lCM).
1
Leanne Weber ls a Senlor 8esearch lellow and Sharon lckerlng ls a rofessor of Crlmlnology, boLh aL
Monash unlverslLy. 1hey dlrecL Lhe 8order Crosslng CbservaLory, also based aL Monash unlverslLy.
2
1he AusLrallan rlme MlnlsLer le no doubL abouL hls commlLmenL Lo Lhe recovery eorL and hls personal
sympaLhy for Lhe bereaved relauves ln Lhls sLaLemenL Lo Lhe lederal arllamenL:
l have oered Malaysla - as Lhe counLry legally responslble for Lhls - every asslsLance and cooperauon from
AusLralla. 1hls plane ls losL ln one of Lhe mosL lnaccesslble parLs of our globe. lL ls a long way from anywhere.
8uL Lhe closesL land ls AusLralla, and we are Lhe besL placed counLry Lo asslsL. lL ls hlghly llkely LhaL ln comlng
days and weeks many of Lhe relauves of passengers on lll-faLed lghL 370 wlll wlsh Lo come Lo AusLralla. l
wanL Lhem all Lo know LhaL should Lhey come here Lhey wlll be ln Lhe arms of a decenL counLry. l should also
leL Lhe Pouse know LhaL Lhe governmenL has declded Lo walve vlsa fees for any relauves wlshlng Lo come Lo
AusLralla" (Pouse of 8epresenLauves, 2014:22).
Counting and
Accounting for Deaths
of Asylum-seekers
en Route to Australia Chapter 6
Chapter 6 Counnng and Accounnng for Deaths of Asy|um-seekers en koute to Austra||a
178
ln Lhls chapLer, we dlscuss Lhe parucular soclal and meLhodologlcal challenges
LhaL arlse ln counung and accounung for Lhe deaLhs of lndlvlduals who are
seeklng Lo Lravel Lo AusLralla vla lrregular means, and conLrasL Lhe omclal
response Lo Lhese deaLhs wlLh Lhe procedures followed ln response Lo faLallues
ln oLher conLexLs. We have argued elsewhere LhaL people dle because of Lhe
ways ln whlch borders beLween Lhe Clobal norLh and Lhe Clobal SouLh are
conLrolled (Weber and lckerlng, 2011). 1hese deaLhs are oen foreseeable and
can occur by dellberaLe acL or omlsslon. 1hls does noL mean Lhe ldenucauon
and expllcauon of border deaLhs ls sLralghuorward, nor are Lhe chalns of
responslblllLy or accounLablllLy for Lhese deaLhs easlly ldenuable. Powever,
wlLhouL defenslble ways Lo counL and record border-relaLed deaLhs, our [ourney
Lo undersLandlng, prevenuon and [usuce ls delayed. We conclude LhaL baslc
prlnclples of equlLy requlre LhaL Lhose who lose Lhelr llves far away from home,
and Lhelr survlvlng relauves and loved ones, recelve Lhe same level of resources,
respecL and conslderauon lrrespecuve of Lhe clrcumsLances ln whlch Lhelr llves
were losL.
6.2 Illegalized journeys to Australia by boat
1he record of AusLrallan border-relaLed deaLhs ls profoundly shaped by
geography and by Lhe LoLal vlsa sysLem AusLralla operaLes Lo manage mlgrauon.
WlLhouL a vlsa, alr Lravel Lo AusLralla ls lmposslble, unless one relles on
fraudulenL documenLauon. lor Lhose deLermlned Lo make Lhe [ourney, Lhe
marlume crosslng from lndonesla Lo AusLralla ls Lhe only remalnlng opuon.
1he vasL ma[orlLy of Lhose arrlvlng ln AusLralla by boaL are lnLendlng Lo seek
asylum and have pald a faclllLaLor for Lhe [ourney. uesplLe concerLed eorLs by
successlve governmenLs Lo prevenL asylum-seekers from arrlvlng ln AusLralla Lo
clalm asylum,
3
lL ls apparenL from llgure 6.1 LhaL Lhe number of proLecuon vlsas
granLed Lo appllcanLs who have made Lhelr way Lo AusLralla lndependenLly (Lhe
onshore caLegory) has begun Lo approach Lhe numbers granLed refugee sLaLus
vla AusLralla's long-sLandlng reseulemenL programme (Lhe oshore caLegory).
1he granL raLes for Lhose who arrlved by sea were 90.8 per cenL ln 2009-2010
and 84.2 per cenL ln 2010-2011, as of 26 november 2012 (8arker, 2013).
3
1hese pollcles adopLed across Lhe developed world arguably vlolaLe Lhe fundamenLal rlghL Lo seek asylum.
See L. Weber, Asylum soluuon: 8elnsLaung Lhe rlghL Lo seek asylum," 1be coovetsouoo, 3 AugusL (2013).
Avallable from hup://Lheconversauon.com/asylum-soluuons-relnsLaung-Lhe-rlghL-Lo-seek-asylum-16322.
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
179
Figure 6.1: Number of oshore and onshore v|sas granted under Austra||a's
human|tar|an v|sa programme, 2003-2013
5ootce: ueparLmenL of lmmlgrauon and Cluzenshlp/ueparLmenL of lmmlgrauon and 8order roLecuon
Annual 8eporLs from 2003-2004 Lo 2012-2013.
numbers publlshed by Lhe AusLrallan arllamenLary Llbrary and shown ln llgure
6.2 lndlcaLe LhaL boaL arrlvals slnce 1990 have shown conslderable volaullLy,
wlLh Lwo dlscernlble peaks around Lhe early 2000s and agaln from 2009 Lo 2013
(hllllps and Splnks, 2013). 1he degree Lo whlch Lhls varlablllLy ls explalned by
global Lrends ln refugee-produclng slLuauons or by changes ln AusLrallan border
proLecuon pollcles ls a mauer of ongolng dlspuLe.
Figure 6.2: Number of peop|e arr|v|ng |n Austra||a on unauthor|zed boats,
1 Ianuary 1990-30 Iune 2013
5ootce: hllllps and Splnks, 2013.
Note: 2013 lncludes arrlvals only unul 30 !une.
0
2,000
4,000
6,000
8,000
10,000
12,000
14,000
16,000
18,000
20,000
1
9
9
0
1
9
9
1
1
9
9
2
1
9
9
3
1
9
9
4
1
9
9
5
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9
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6
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9
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7
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9
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8
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9
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9
2
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4
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0
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0
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3
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6,000
8,000
10,000
12,000
14,000
2
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2
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4
2
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4

2
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2
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Chapter 6 Counnng and Accounnng for Deaths of Asy|um-seekers en koute to Austra||a
180
MosL people arrlvlng ln AusLralla by boaL come from Lhe Mlddle LasL and
SouLh Asla, and ln recenL years have overwhelmlngly come from AfghanlsLan,
Lhe lslamlc 8epubllc of lran, lraq and Srl Lanka. 1hose eelng AfghanlsLan, Lhe
lslamlc 8epubllc of lran and lraq oen engage ln compllcaLed Lravel rouLes LhaL
evenLuaLe ln alr arrlval Lo Malaysla and Lhen onward Lravel Lo lndonesla (8arker,
2013). Many lranlans Lravel dlrecLly Lo lndonesla where, along wlLh Lhose
Lravelllng from lraq, Lhey do noL need vlsas. Whlle Srl Lankan asylum-seekers
may sall dlrecLly from Srl Lanka, Lhe vasL ma[orlLy of asylum-seekers arrlvlng ln
AusLralla have come vla lndonesla. 1he mosL well-known rouLes for lrregular
Lravel Lo AusLralla as of May 2013 accordlng Lo Lhe unlLed nauons Cmce on
urugs and Crlme (unCuC) are shown ln llgure 6.3.
Figure 6.3: Migrant smuggling routes to Australia
5ootce: A8C news webslLe (www.abc.neL.au/news/2013-03-13/map-mlgranL-smuggllng-Lo-ausLralla-and-
canada-by-sea/4683670), aurlbuLed Lo unCuC, 13 May 2013.
1ranslL ln lndonesla ls oen experlenced as lnhosplLable
4
and Lherefore asylum-
seekers oen seek Lo mlnlmlze Lhelr ume spenL Lhere. lndonesla ls proxlmaLe Lo
Lhe AusLrallan LerrlLorles of ChrlsLmas lsland, Cocos lslands and Ashmore 8eef.
uesplLe Lhe exclslng" of Lhese and oLher lslands o norLhern AusLralla,
3
mosL
asylum-seeker vessels sull auempL Lo reach landfall on ChrlsLmas lsland or oLher
ouLposLs of AusLrallan soverelgnLy. ln response Lo [olnL dlsrupuon operauons
4
See, for example, 1aylor, 2009.
3
1he eecL of Lhls legal manoeuvre ls Lo remove Lhe sLaLed LerrlLorles from AusLralla's mlgrauon zone,"
Lhereby resLrlcung access Lo AusLrallan refugee proLecuon procedures and faclllLaung oshore deLenuon
and processlng.
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
181
and oshore lnLerdlcuon by AusLrallan border auLhorlues, deparLures have
someumes been reporLed Lo shl Lo longer and more dangerous rouLes
(Weber and Crewcock, 2011), however, Lhls eecL has noL been as marked as
Lhe dramauc geographlcal shls ln sea rouLes Lo Lurope LhaL resulLed ln many
hundreds of deaLhs en rouLe Lo Lhe Canary lslands ln Lhe rsL decade of Lhe
mlllennlum (Mlgreurop/new lnLernauonallsL 2012). 1he unprecedenLed arrlval
of an asylum-seeker vessel ln Lhe souLhern clLy of CeraldLon, WesLern AusLralla,
ln Aprll 2013, generaLed ma[or consLernauon (Mullaney, 2013). 1he vessel had
Lravelled dlrecLly from Srl Lanka and was reporLedly bound for new Zealand,
ralslng Lhe posslblllLy LhaL new souLhern rouLes mlghL be openlng up. Powever,
no oLher boaLs have arrlved ln slmllar fashlon, and reporLed boaL arrlvals
conunue Lo be concenLraLed ln Lhe norLh.
ln addluon Lo Lhe dangers posed by monsoon weaLher condluons, Lhe
seaworLhlness of vessels and compeLence of Lhe crews employed by faclllLaLors
have been key lssues ln Lhe safeLy of Lhose who Lravel by lrregular means.
lndoneslan shlng boaLs deslgned for shorLer [ourneys and llghLer loads have
Lyplcally been used Lo carry Lhose hoplng Lo seek asylum ln AusLralla. 1he number
of passengers carrled may vary from fewer Lhan 10 Lo several hundred (hllllps
and Splnks, 2013), and some analysLs clalm LhaL Lhe Lype of vessel used may shl
ln response Lo operauonal changes ln lnLerdlcuon pollcles. lor example, pollcles
of selzlng or scuullng boaLs deemed Lo be unseaworLhy by border auLhorlues
may encourage Lhe use of poorly malnLalned vessels LhaL are consldered Lo be
expendable and Lherefore conLaln llule or no safeLy equlpmenL (8arker, 2013).
SLepplng up prosecuuons of human smugglers has also been assoclaLed wlLh
Lhe use of lnexperlenced crews, oen lndoneslan mlnors, slnce Lhese low-level
operauves are Lhe mosL llkely Lo be apprehended (8arker, 2013, Weber and
Crewcock, 2011). 1he Lraglc loss of 30 llves ln uecember 2010, many of Lhem
women and chlldren, when a boaL carrylng asylum-seekers broke up on rocks on
ChrlsLmas lsland, was aurlbuLed ln parL Lo Lhe lack of a compeLenL crew (Pope,
2012).
lL musL also be acknowledged LhaL asylum-seekers aL umes endanger Lhelr own
llves and Lhose of oLhers by saboLaglng Lhelr own boaLs ln desperaLe auempLs
Lo prevenL Lhelr reLurn Lo lndonesla. ln 2009, an exploslon on a vessel LhaL was
under Lhe conLrol of Lhe AusLrallan navy near Ashmore 8eef caused Lhe deaLh
of ve asylum-seekers and ln[ured oLher passengers and mlllLary personnel.
1he coronlal lnquesL LhaL followed (Cavanagh, 2010) aurlbuLed some of Lhe
responslblllLy for Lhe exploslon Lo passengers who had dellberaLely llL a re, buL
Lhe lnquesL also acknowledged LhaL Lhe acuons of Lhe mlllLary personnel had
conLrlbuLed Lo Lhe passengers' mlsLaken bellef LhaL Lhey were Lo be reLurned
Lo lndoneslan waLers. 1he Lenslons and pracucallues of lnLerdlcuon aL sea
Lherefore pose a number of rlsks Lo boLh passengers and omclal personnel,
a Lheme LhaL has been ralsed agaln ln relauon Lo Lhe currenL pollcy of Lurn-
Chapter 6 Counnng and Accounnng for Deaths of Asy|um-seekers en koute to Austra||a
182
back by naval personnel under Cperauon Soverelgn 8orders,
6
whlch lncludes
reLurnlng lnLerdlcLed asylum-seekers Lo lndoneslan waLers uslng llfe boaLs (see,
for example: 8oberLs and Solomons, 2014, nlcholson and Maley, 2011).
1he holdlng of lnLerdlcLed asylum-seekers ln oshore deLenuon and processlng
faclllues - wheLher on LerrlLory dlrecLly under Lhe conLrol of Lhe AusLrallan
CovernmenL, such as ChrlsLmas lsland, or ln oLher aclc nauons such as apua
new Culnea and nauru - creaLes a dlerenL seL of rlsks, whlch can lnclude
psychologlcal dlsLress LhaL may lead Lo self-harm, lack of umely access Lo medlcal
care due Lo dlsLance from medlcal lnfrasLrucLure, and posslbly helghLened
Lo vlolence. Less wldely known ls Lhe facL LhaL AusLralla's border proLecuon
pollcles reach beyond Lhese known locauons of deLenuon. Successlve AusLrallan
CovernmenLs have, for many years, funded a range of deLenuon and processlng
faclllues ln lndonesla, Lhe condluons ln whlch have also been sub[ecL Lo crluclsm
(1aylor, 2009).
7
6.3 Data sources and information gaps
We noLe LhaL savlng llves ls noL [usL abouL collecung lnformauon buL also
concerns how LhaL lnformauon ls used. We llve ln a hyper-numerlc" world ln
whlch someLhlng counLs because lL can be counLed. Powever, deaLh counLs can
be used llke a sporung Lally, Lhey have been explolLed by Lhe AusLrallan medla
Lo sensauonallze poorly undersLood evenLs and by federal polluclans Lo argue
for even harsher border conLrol Lo prevenL dangerous [ourneys, wlLhouL calllng
lnLo quesuon Lhe broader pollcles LhaL creaLe grave rlsks for asylum-seekers
by blocklng access Lo safe, legally regulaLed Lravel. numbers can be sub[ecL Lo
compeung clalms buL aL leasL provlde a foundauon for debaLe and accounLablllLy.
As we have argued before, whaL counLs ln Lhe end ls how numbers are embedded
ln Lhe menLallues of rule. 1he acL of cooouoq ls Lherefore lnherenLly pollucal,
whereas Lhe necesslLy of occooouoq for border-relaLed deaLhs should be
approached from a humanlLarlan raLher Lhan a polluclzed perspecuve.
1he eLhlcs and pollucs of counung ls slgnlcanLly reecLed ln Lhe meLhodology
and Lhe appllcauon of Lhe knowledge generaLed. ueaLh counLs can be consLrucLed
wlLh dlerenL purposes ln mlnd. 1hese lnclude provldlng a sLausucal basls for
research on Lhe rlsks and consequences of border crosslng and enforcemenL,
as a record and LrlbuLe Lo Lhose who dled, as a basls for accounLablllLy, Lo
lnform pollcy and prevenL furLher deaLhs, and Lo asslsL relauves Lo ldenufy
Lhelr mlsslng loved ones. 1he way knowledge ls produced abouL border deaLhs
reveals much abouL Lhe pollucal and legal drlvers of LhaL process. 1he declslons
made ln counung deaLhs can promoLe or prevenL a greaLer undersLandlng of
6
See lLs webslLe: www.cusLoms.gov.au/slLe/operauon-soverelgn-borders.asp.
7
See also www.lmml.gov.au/abouL/reporLs/annual/2009-10/hLml/ouLcome-4/admlnlsLered4-3-2.hLm.
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
183
border deaLhs and Lhelr relauonshlp Lo lrregular mlgrauon and border conLrol
processes. CounLs can boLh draw auenuon Lo and seek Lo prevenL border deaLhs,
or can be moblllzed for lncreased forms of conLrol. 1he acL of counung deaLhs
can reveal how border enforcemenL varles ln naLure and lnLenslLy oen Lhrough
dlerenL slLes along Lhe same border. 1he counung can lmpllclLly or expllclLly
aurlbuLe cause and eecL, and can ldenufy dlerenL forms of harm or deaLh. ln
Lhls secuon, we seek Lo relay how Lhls eLhlcal, pracucal and pollucal Lerraln has
been negouaLed ln Lhe esLabllshmenL and malnLenance of Lhe AusLrallan 8order
ueaLhs uaLabase, whlch ls Lhe source for Lhe daLa presenLed ln Secuon 6.4.
1he AusLrallan 8order ueaLhs uaLabase was esLabllshed as parL of Lhe research
for Clobollzouoo ooJ 8otJets. ueotb ot tbe Clobol ltoouet (Weber and lckerlng,
2011) when lL became apparenL LhaL Lhere was no publlcly avallable omclal daLa
on border-relaLed deaLhs ln AusLralla. 1he book analysed Lhe lmpllcauons of
processes of counung and classlfylng border-relaLed deaLhs and lndeed of Lhere
belng no counL aL all. Collecuon of daLa on border-relaLed deaLhs ln AusLralla
was caLalysed by a serles of lncldenLs ln 2009 and 2010 where Lhe lack of
verlable and sysLemauc daLa hampered auempLs Lo undersLand deLalls of, leL
alone Lrends ln, Lhe loss of llves. 1he uaLabase ls hosLed aL Lhe 8order Crosslng
CbservaLory aL Monash unlverslLy. 1he CbservaLory recelves no exLernal funds
for Lhls purpose, and Lhe daLa ls malnLalned by unlverslLy-employed academlcs
as parL of our ongolng research eorL. 1he lnformauon ls obLalned prlmarlly
from medla reporLs, whlch are cross-referenced where posslble wlLh omclal
reporLs from governmenLs, verled lnformauon from non-governmenLal
organlzauons, coronlal lnqulrles and slmllar. 1he daLa ls updaLed as faLallues are
reporLed, and oLher daLa sources are used from ume Lo ume Lo cross-check Lhe
llsL.
8
ulscrepancles ldenued Lhrough Lhese checks can be dlmculL Lo reconclle.
lor example, medla reporLs of mlsslng boaLs, as obLalned from lnLervlews wlLh
concerned relauves ln AusLralla, are someumes correcLed when Lhe mlsslng
passengers are locaLed ln oshore deLenuon cenLres followlng lnLerdlcuon aL
sea, or Lhe vessel ls found Lo have arrlved aer all. 1he process of counung
border-relaLed deaLhs ls Lherefore greaLly compllcaLed by Lhe clrcumsLances
of unregulaLed Lravel and Lhe cllmaLe of secrecy whlch surrounds boLh human
smuggllng acuvlues LhaL have been labelled llllclL, and omclal acuons LhaL are
held Lo be condenual due Lo Lhelr "operauonal" slgnlcance (ln respecL of
lnLerdlcuons aL sea) or "commerclal" naLure (ln relauon Lo oshore deLenuon).
1he AusLrallan 8order ueaLhs uaLabase conslsLs of Lwo separaLe daLa les. A
summary le of faLal lncldenLs LhaL have occurred across a range of border slLes
slnce 2000, whlch lncludes deaLhs aer enLry Lo AusLralla LhaL are relaLed Lo
border conLrol, ls avallable on Lhe 8order Crosslng CbservaLory webslLe and ls
8
lor example, see Lhe SlLv x llsL of drownlngs (see noLe 9), and Lhe Abollsh lorelgnness webslLe (lorLress
AusLralla: Asylum-seeker and mlgranL deaLh sLausucs for deaLhs up Lo 2012", avallable from www.
abollshforelgnness.org/blog/forLress-ausLralla-asylum-seeker-and-mlgranL-deaLh-and-deLenuon-sLausucs).
Chapter 6 Counnng and Accounnng for Deaths of Asy|um-seekers en koute to Austra||a
184
lnLended for publlc use.
9
A more deLalled le ls malnLalned oMlne ln SSS formaL
whlch ls capable of produclng baslc sLausucs aL Lhe level of lndlvldual deaLhs, and
can be accessed on requesL. 1hls sLausucal le ls Lhe source for Lhe descrlpuve
sLausucs reporLed laLer ln Lhls chapLer. 1here ls no verlable daLa avallable on
Lhe number of auempLed sea crosslngs from lndonesla Lo AusLralla wlLh whlch
Lo compare Lhe daLa on border faLallues ln order Lo calculaLe sLausucs on rlsk of
deaLh, and esumaLes of Lhe number of crosslngs dler wldely.
no AusLrallan governmenL agency, law enforcemenL or mlgrauon-focused
agency, aL Lhe sLaLe or federal level, publlshes daLa on border-relaLed deaLhs.
A group of concerned lndlvlduals came LogeLher ln response Lo Lhe slnklng of
Lhe SlLv x
10
beLween lndonesla and AusLralla on 19 CcLober 2001, Lo collecL
daLa on Lhls speclc lncldenL.
11
1he lnformauon avallable on Lhe SlLv x webslLe
on Lhls and subsequenL slnklngs ls oen hlghly personallzed and seeks Lo
humanlze Lhe vlcums of Lhese Lragedles Lhrough sLoryLelllng, namlng and vlsual
represenLauon. ln Lhe absence of omclal recognluon or record of Lhe deaLhs, Lhe
group underLook Lo supporL Lhe survlvors and relauves of Lhose who dled ln LhaL
lncldenL and creaLed a reposlLory of Lesumonles from survlvors, a chronology of
Lhe evenLs and a daLabase of lnformauon on Lhose belleved Lo have perlshed.
1haL pro[ecL has slnce been exLended Lo lnclude subsequenL Lragedles buL
reLalns a focus on loss of llfe aL sea.
12

1he broader scope of Lhe AusLrallan 8order ueaLhs uaLabase was lnformed by
deaLh counLs underLaken by governmenLs and non-governmenLal organlzauons
(nCCs) ln oLher parLs of Lhe world.
13
unllke Lhe SlLv x pro[ecL, Lhe 8order
Crosslng CbservaLory daLabase records border-relaLed deaLhs LhaL occur ln
conLexLs oLher Lhan sea voyages, such as deaLhs ln deLenuon cenLres and durlng
apprehenslon by lmmlgrauon auLhorlues. 1hls counL ls Lherefore shaped by
whaL ls consldered Lo consuLuLe Lhe border and a border-relaLed deaLh. 8order-
relaLed deaLh ls nelLher a clearly denable sLausucal caLegory for Lhe auLhorlues
nor a legally relevanL one. 1he AusLrallan 8order ueaLhs uaLabase uses Lhe
"funcuonal border" as Lhe denluonal consLrucL. 1haL concepL ls Laken from
Weber (2006) and Weber and lckerlng (2013), and encompasses all funcuonally
dened "border slLes" aL whlch border enforcemenL Lakes place or where
lmmlgrauon laws have a maLerlal lmpacL on Lhe condluons leadlng Lo deaLh.
1hls lncludes Lhe physlcal border, en rouLe, ln oshore or onshore deLenuon
or processlng faclllues, durlng deporLauon, on forced reLurn Lo a mlgranL's
9
See hup://arLsonllne.monash.edu.au/LhebordercrosslngobservaLory/publlcauons/ausLrallan-border-deaLhs-
daLabase/.
10
1he AusLrallan CovernmenL uses Lhe acronym SlLv (whlch sLands for suspecLed lllegal enLry vessel") Lo
descrlbe boaLs comlng from lndonesla Lo AusLralla. Cverwhelmlngly, Lhese have asylum-seekers on board,
and also lnclude lllegal shlng vessels and Lhe llke. Lach SlLv ls also glven a number (e.g. SlLv 63, SlLv 66).
11
See hup://slevx.com/dbs/SlLvx/.
12
SlLv x: urownlngs on Lhe publlc record of people auempung Lo enLer AusLralla lrregularly by boaL slnce
1998. See hup://slevx.com/arucles/background/urownlngs1able.pdf.
13
lor example, see www.unlLedagalnsLraclsm.org/pdfs/llsLofdeaLhs.pdf.
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
183
homeland, and even wlLhln Lhe communlLy as a resulL of condluons of legal and
soclal precarlousness.
MeLhodologlcally, Lhese laLer slLes are challengeable as radlaung ouL "Loo far"
from whaL ls commonly undersLood as Lhe border Lo remaln meanlngfully
aurlbuLable Lo lrregular mlgrauon and unauLhorlzed border crosslng. lL also
presenLs unresolved lssues regardlng comparablllLy wlLhln and across daLa seLs.
Powever, Lo omlL Lhese slLes ls Lo overlook Lhe facL LhaL borders and border
conLrol occur ln a varleLy of ways aL physlcal locauons oen dlsLanL from Lhe
LerrlLorlal border. lL also recognlzes LhaL a person can go from belng deslgnaLed
as lawful Lo unlawful ln regard Lo mlgrauon law and be sub[ecL Lo mlgrauon
and border conLrol measures ln a range of slLes lnLernal Lo Lhe nauon SLaLe
(or ln deslgnaLed oshore places, for example, nauru or apua new Culnea
where AusLralla conLracLs ouL Lhe processlng of asylum-seekers). ln Lhe case of
AusLralla, deaLhs LhaL may be regarded as non-marlume are slgnlcanLly fewer
ln number Lhan deaLhs occurrlng aL sea. Powever, Lhe mapplng of Lhese non-
marlume deaLhs reecLs Lhe approach Lo Lhe spaual mapplng of mlgrauon-
relaLed deaLhs underLaken ln Lhe aLlas of deaLhs ln Lurope publlshed by Lhe
organlzauon Mlgreurop (Mlgreurop/new lnLernauonallsL, 2012), whlch also
lncludes deaLhs relaLed Lo lmmlgrauon enforcemenL LhaL occur aer enLry Lo
Lhe Luropean LerrlLory.
1he use of Lhe funcuonal border meLhodologlcally challenges Lhe ldea LhaL
deaLhs are only counLed lf bodles are found ln slLu (cf. Mlchalowskl, 2007).
1hose counLs LhaL lnclude deaLhs where bodles are noL found (as ls oen Lhe
case wlLh lndlvlduals presumed Lo be losL aL sea), or are found aL some dlsLance
from Lhe border, produce gures of a dlerenL naLure and complexlon Lhan
Lhose generaLed by a counL whlch relles solely on forenslc examlnauon. MosL
border-relaLed deaLhs LhaL have occurred on Lhe AusLrallan malnland or wlLhln
AusLrallan LerrlLorlal waLers have resulLed ln a coronlal lnvesugauon, alLhough Lhe
Lrlggerlng of a coronlal lnqulry by sLaLe-based auLhorlues ls far from auLomauc
(owell, Weber and lckerlng, 2013). ueaLhs occurrlng beyond AusLrallan
waLers, yeL wlLhln Lhe survelllance zone paLrolled by AusLrallan naval, cusLoms
and coasLguard vessels, are unllkely Lo resulL ln any omclal documenLauon. ln
Lhese cases, Lhe only publlcly avallable lnformauon Lends Lo come from nCCs,
survlvors, and Lhe medla concernlng deLalls of Lhe lncldenLs and ldenuues of
Lhose lnvolved. Whlle AusLrallan and lndoneslan auLhorlues are llkely Lo hold
lnformauon on Lhese evenLs, Lhls ls noL regularly made publlc. 1hls daLa ls
produced wlLhln a law enforcemenL framework, buL more recenLly Lhls has
become a mlllLary framework, and, as a resulL, Lhls lnformauon has lncreased
ln lLs percelved sensluvlLy. lndeed, slnce 2013 Lhe AusLrallan CovernmenL has
regarded unauLhorlzed arrlvals as an operauonal mauer Lo be overseen by Lhe
AusLrallan mlllLary Lhrough Cperauon Soverelgn 8orders, and lnformauon on
Chapter 6 Counnng and Accounnng for Deaths of Asy|um-seekers en koute to Austra||a
186
asylum-seeker voyages ls suppressed.
14
1he lack of openly accesslble daLa on
border-relaLed deaLhs occurrlng en rouLe Lo AusLralla ls a severe lmpedlmenL
Lo a full recordlng of deaLhs and undersLandlng of Lhe human cosLs of border
conLrols and lrregular mlgrauon. Slnce 2000, ouL of 43 lncldenLs lnvolvlng Lhe
deaLhs of 61 people, only 13 coronlal lnquesLs were conducLed and [usL 8
made publlcally avallable. lor lnsLance, ouL of 29 deaLhs occurrlng ln onshore
deLenuon, 10 lnquesLs were conducLed and 4 made avallable Lo Lhe publlc.
nlne lncldenLs durlng lnLerdlcuon aL sea resulLed ln only Lwo publlcally avallable
lnquesLs (owell, Weber and lckerlng, 2013).
ln Lhe followlng secuons, we presenL baslc descrlpuve sLausucs derlved from
Lhe AusLrallan 8order ueaLhs uaLabase, noL lnLended Lo serve only as ends ln
Lhemselves, buL also Lo lllusLraLe ln more deLall Lhe meLhodologlcal challenges
lnvolved ln counung border-relaLed deaLhs, and Lhe complexlLy LhaL arlses ln
lnLerpreung and accounung for Lhem.
6.4 What we know and do not know about deaths
en route to Australia
6.4.1 How many people die?
1he AusLrallan 8order ueaLhs uaLabase has recorded 1,494 border-relaLed
deaLhs beLween !anuary 2000 and !uly 2014. 1hls gure lncludes Lhose who
are belleved Lo be mlsslng, and Lhose who have noL been rescued or recovered
and are Lherefore feared drowned. lL lncludes Lhose who have dled en rouLe
Lo AusLralla, lncludlng durlng lnLerdlcuon by AusLrallan auLhorlues, and durlng
apprehenslon by auLhorlues on Lhe AusLrallan malnland, whlle ln onshore or
oshore deLenuon cenLres, and durlng or aer deporLauon. 1able 6.1 shows
LhaL Lhe vasL ma[orlLy of Lhese deaLhs (96) occur aL sea, oen before asylum-
seeker vessels have enLered AusLrallan waLers. 1he dlsuncuon beLween deaLhs
LhaL occur wlLhln and ouLslde AusLrallan waLers should be LreaLed wlLh cauuon,
slnce medla reporLs do noL always descrlbe Lhe locauon wlLh preclslon, and also
because of Lhe varleLy of marlume borders LhaL exlsL ln law and pracuce.
13
14
See, for example, A8C news, 2013.
13
See, for example, www.ga.gov.au/lmage_cache/CA3746.pdf. ln Lhe absence of more deLalled lnformauon,
faLal lncldenLs have only been classled as occurrlng wlLhln AusLrallan waLers where Lhere ls some lndlcauon
LhaL AusLrallan border conLrol or rescue paLrols have been lnvolved. 1hls approach ls llkely Lo undercounL
Lhe number of slnklngs LhaL have occurred ln AusLrallan waLers.
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
187
Table 6.1: Known deaths related to Australian border controls, January
2000July 2014
Circumstances Deaths ercentage of tota|
Ln rouLe Lo AusLralla 1,266 83
lnslde AusLrallan waLers 171 11
Cnshore deLenuon 31 2
upon reLurn Lo home counLry 16 1
ln-counLry sulclde 3 <1
Cshore deLenuon 3 <1
ArresL/deporLauon 2 <1
Total 1,494
5ootce: AusLrallan 8order ueaLhs uaLabase (sLausucal le).
Slnce Lhe focus of Lhls chapLer ls deaLhs durlng [ourneys Lo AusLralla, Lhe gures
LhaL follow lnclude only Lhe 1,437 known deaLhs LhaL occurred aL sea and Lhe
Lhree deaLhs ln oshore deLenuon cenLres (shown ln Lhe shaded rows ln 1able
6.1). 1he oshore deLenuon gures do noL lnclude deaLhs LhaL may have occurred
ln deLenuon and processlng cenLres funded by Lhe AusLrallan CovernmenL ln
LranslL counLrles such as lndonesla (1aylor, 2009). noL surprlslngly, Lhe peaks
ln deaLhs en rouLe Lo AusLralla ln Lhe early 2000s and from 2008 Lo 2013 LhaL
are apparenL ln llgure 6.2 correspond Lo Lhe perlods durlng whlch Lhe hlghesL
number of asylum-seeker vessels arrlved ln AusLralla.
Figure 6.4: ear-by-year deaths dur|ng |rregu|ar [ourneys to Austra||a,
January 2000July 2014
5ootce: AusLrallan 8order ueaLhs uaLabase (sLausucal le).
Note. ueaLhs for 2014 lnclude Lhose LhaL occurred up unul Lhe end of May only.
3
361
1 1 0 0 0
12
0
110
152
231
356
212
1
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
Chapter 6 Counnng and Accounnng for Deaths of Asy|um-seekers en koute to Austra||a
188
Cne of Lhe mosL lmporLanL observauons when conslderlng Lhls daLa ls LhaL Lhe
ldenuues of many of Lhose who dle remaln unknown, wlLh many of Lhe records
lacklng baslc lnformauon on Lhe deceased such as sex, age or nauonallLy. 1hls
ls prlmarlly because such a large number of bodles are noL recovered from
Lhe sea and ldenuues remaln unconrmed. unllke regulaLed modes of Lravel,
lrregular Lravel by lLs very naLure does noL requlre LhaL passenger llsLs be lodged
wlLh LransporL auLhorlues and leaves no Lrace ln Lhe border conLrol records
ln counLrles of deparLure. Moreover, wlLh some excepuons - such as Lhe
founderlng of Lhe SlLv 221 o ChrlsLmas lsland ln 2010, whlch was wlLnessed
by horrled lsland resldenLs and capLured on lm, and Lhe exploslon on board a
vessel lnLerdlcLed by Lhe AusLrallan navy, as reporLed earller - mosL slnklngs are
unobserved by Lhlrd parues and may only come Lo Lhe auenuon of auLhorlues
when passengers, or relauves awalung Lhelr arrlval, ralse Lhe alarm. Whlle
reLrospecuvely consLrucLed passenger llsLs may be able Lo ll some of Lhese
gaps, Lhese oen remaln parual and dlmculL Lo corroboraLe.
6.4.2 Origins of those who died
1he vasL ma[orlLy of Lhose who dle en rouLe Lo AusLralla are ln Lhe process of
seeklng asylum, and Lhelr counLrles of orlgln reecL whlch nauonallues make or
lnLend Lo make Lhe [ourney by boaL Lo clalm refugee sLaLus.
Figure 6.5: Nanona||nes of asy|um-seekers who d|ed en route to Austra||a,
January 2000July 2014
5ootce: AusLrallan 8order ueaLhs uaLabase (sLausucal le).
AlLhough Lhere are many gaps ln Lhe nauonallLy daLa sLored on Lhe AusLrallan
8order ueaLhs uaLabase, lL ls clear LhaL slnce 2000 Lhe ma[orlLy of deaLhs have
been from Lhe counLrles ln Lhe Mlddle LasL. 1hls ls conrmed ln llgure 6.6, slnce
864
300
120
67
45
37
4
3
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Not recorded
Afghan
Iraqi
alesunlan
Sri Lankan
Iranian
Pakistani
Burmese
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
189
Lhe general reglon of orlgln ls recorded more conslsLenLly on Lhe uaLabase.
1hls daLa lndlcaLes LhaL Lhe groups faclng Lhe greaLesL rlsk of deaLh en rouLe
come from counLrles mosL llkely Lo be re[ecLed for lawful enLry as parL of pre-
deparLure vlsa reglmes governlng lawful arrlval (and, ln many cases, mosL llkely
Lo galn refugee sLaLus posL-arrlval).
Figure 6.6: keg|on of or|g|n of asy|um-seekers who d|ed en route to Austra||a,
January 2000July 2014
5ootce: AusLrallan 8order ueaLhs uaLabase (sLausucal le).
Note. Mlddle LasL lncludes AfghanlsLan.
6.4.3 Cause of death
ln Lhe case of AusLralla, Lhe locauon of deaLh unsurprlslngly shapes Lhe cause of
deaLh. ueaLhs LhaL occur en rouLe are overwhelmlngly caused by envlronmenLally
hazardous condluons, leadlng Lo drownlng beLween lndonesla and AusLralla.
Whlle lL ls posslble LhaL some deaLhs occur due Lo exposure Lo elemenLs and
lack of adequaLe food and medlcal care on board (for example, lL was reporLed
LhaL a man was found dead" on a vessel LhaL was lnLercepLed by AusLrallan
auLhorlues), and Lhere ls one known lncldenL where deaLhs were caused by an
exploslon (such as LhaL ln 2009 whlch was menuoned prevlously), lnformauon
abouL preclse causes of deaLh ls usually mlsslng from medla reporLs, and deaLhs
assoclaLed wlLh slnklngs or mlsslng vessels are generally presumed Lo be due Lo
drownlng.
Cf Lhe Lhree deaLhs LhaL have occurred so far ln oshore deLenuon faclllues,
Lwo were due Lo medlcal condluons where Lhe dlsLance from adequaLe medlcal
care was llkely Lo have been a facLor, and one - Lhe recenL deaLh of kurdlsh
asylum-seeker 8eza 8arau on Manus lsland - was Lhe resulL of dellberaLe
vlolence, Lhe underlylng causes of whlch are sull Lhe sub[ecL of heaLed debaLe
Not known,
84, 6%
South-East
Asia/Oceania,
216, 15%
lndlan sub-conunenL,
164, 11%
Middle East,
981, 68%
Chapter 6 Counnng and Accounnng for Deaths of Asy|um-seekers en koute to Austra||a
190
and lnvesugauon (Cornall, 2014).
16
Where deaLhs have noL been sub[ecL Lo an
lndependenL coronlal lnqulry, Lhe facLors LhaL have conLrlbuLed Lo Lhe deaLhs
wlll noL have been fully deLermlned.
6.4.4 Age and sex
1he AusLrallan 8order ueaLhs uaLabase aL lLs presenL sLaLe of developmenL ls
unable Lo provlde accuraLe daLa on Lhe age and sex of each of Lhose who dled en
rouLe Lo AusLralla.
17
1he lmporLance of monlLorlng age and sex was hlghllghLed
ln Lhe slnklng of Lhe SlLv x, where Lhe large numbers of women and chlldren
who drowned was especlally marked. Cf Lhe approxlmaLely 400 passengers
belleved Lo be on board, 63 men were among Lhe faLallues, whlle 142 women
and 146 chlldren perlshed. uesplLe Lhe large amounL of mlsslng daLa, llgure 6.7
shows LhaL 2001 and 2010 (Lhe year of Lhe SlLv x and ChrlsLmas lsland SlLv 221
slnklngs, respecuvely) had parucularly hlgh levels of female faLallues.
Figure 6.7: ear-by-year deaths of asy|um-seekers en route to Austra||a by
sex, January 2000May 2014
5ootce: AusLrallan 8order ueaLhs uaLabase (sLausucal le).
ln addluon Lo Lhe many chlldren known Lo have been losL ln Lhe caLasLrophlc
2001 slnklng, aL leasL 13 chlldren dled ln slnklngs ln 2010. lL has been observed
LhaL a larger proporuon of women Lhan men dle aL exLernal border slLes,
lncludlng a hlgh proporuon of pregnanL women (lckerlng and Cochrane, 2013).
16
See alLernauve SenaLe lnqulry aL www.aph.gov.au/arllamenLary_8uslness/Commluees/SenaLe/Legal_
and_ConsuLuuonal_Aalrs/Manus_lsland.
17
AL Lhe ume of wrlung, auempLs were belng made Lo recufy Lhls by sysLemaucally revlslung Lhe source
reporLs, wlLh a vlew Lo maklng lnferences abouL sex and age group (l.e. wheLher Lhe deceased was an adulL
or chlld) where Lhls can be susLalned.
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
Male Female Unknown
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
191
AlLhough Lhe daLa ls llmlLed, boLh women and chlldren appear Lo be parucularly
vulnerable ln clrcumsLances of large-scale slnklngs. 1he reasons why women dle
ln greaLer proporuons Lhan men aL Lhe exLernal border (raLher Lhan aL lnLernal
border slLes) are noL clearly dlscernable from Lhe daLa, yeL based on Lhe exLanL
llLeraLure lL ls reasonable Lo conclude LhaL ln addluon Lo Lhe role of border
conLrol measures (such as resLrlcuons on famlly reunlon whlch may prompL
dangerous [ourneys), gendered soclal pracuces wlLhln counLrles of orlgln and
LranslL, smuggllng pracuces and gendered soclal mores are conLrlbuung facLors
(for a full accounL of Lhls, see lckerlng and Cochrane, 2013).
6.5 A chronology of counting
1he dlscusslon so far has esLabllshed LhaL where deaLhs occur, Lhe unregulaLed
mode of Lravel, and Lhe lack of formal legal responses Lo deaLhs en rouLe Lo
AusLralla all conLrlbuLe Lo Lhe absence of sysLemauc daLa abouL Lhose who dle.
ln Lhls secuon, we use some case examples from Lhe AusLrallan 8order ueaLhs
uaLabase Lo furLher lllusLraLe Lhe pracucal and concepLual lssues LhaL arlse aL
varlous sLages ln Lhe process of counung, and accounung for, border-relaLed
deaLhs.
6.5.1 Conrnation of sinkings
Asylum-seeker vessels are noL parL of Lhe exLenslve neLworks of admlnlsLrauon,
communlcauon and enforcemenL LhaL closely monlLor regulaLed shlpplng. Cf
necesslLy, Lhose organlzlng voyages LhaL are noL sancuoned by law are mouvaLed
Lo avold deLecuon Lhrough any of Lhese channels. knowledge abouL slnklngs
oen arlses from dlsLress messages senL from on-board, slghungs of debrls, or
concern from frlends and relauves aL Lhe non-arrlval of Lhelr loved ones. ln Lhese
clrcumsLances, lL ls posslble LhaL vessels may be losL wlLhouL lL comlng Lo Lhe
auenuon of nauonal auLhorlues or oLher concerned parues. Cn Lhe oLher hand,
lnsLances have occurred where medla reporLs of losL vessels have proven Lo be
lncorrecL. lor example, Lhe records of 330 presumed deaLhs had Lo be removed
from Lhe AusLrallan 8order ueaLhs uaLabase when lL Lransplred LhaL Lhe vessel
LhaL had been reporLed mlsslng ln Lhe medla had laLer been accounLed for.
18
A full dlscusslon of AusLralla's rescue capablllues and pracuces ls beyond Lhe
scope of Lhls chapLer. Powever, processes of counung are lnexLrlcably llnked wlLh
survelllance and rescue pracuces slnce early response clearly lmproves boLh Lhe
chance LhaL llves wlll be saved, and LhaL bodles wlll be recovered. ConLroverslal
quesuons have someumes been posed regardlng lf and when AusLrallan border
survelllance auLhorlues have deLecLed vessels LhaL are ln dlsLress, and Lhe
acuons Lhey have or have noL Laken ln response (for a deLalled coverage, see
18
A8C news, uylng for asylum" (21 Aprll 2009). Avallable from www.abc.neL.au/news/2009-04-21/dylng-for-
asylum/1638168.
Chapter 6 Counnng and Accounnng for Deaths of Asy|um-seekers en koute to Austra||a
192
kevln, 2011). lL has long been alleged LhaL rescue eorLs ln relauon Lo Lhe slnklng
of Lhe SlLv x were hampered by dlspuLes over wheLher Lhe vessel sank lnslde or
ouLslde AusLrallan LerrlLorlal waLers, and relucLance Lo reveal wheLher or noL lL
was under survelllance aL Lhe ume (AusLrallan SenaLe SelecL Commluee, 2002,
ChapLer 8). More recenLly, 33 people, lncludlng Lwo bables, were kllled ln an
lncldenL ln !uly 2013, and Lhe slow response, desplLe a slghung of Lhe boaL by
auLhorlues, was aurlbuLed Lo confuslon beLween dlerenL nauonal agencles
(C'8rlen, 2013). AL Lhe Coronlal lnquesL lnLo Lhe slnklng of Lhe SlLv 338 ln whlch
104 men drowned, up Lo 16 dlsLress calls from Lhe vessel were reporLed Lo have
been lgnored due Lo prevlous false alarms (C'8rlen, 2013) and dlspuLes abouL
wheLher lndoneslan or AusLrallan auLhorlues should mounL Lhe rescue (AA,
2013).
6.5.2 Recovering bodies and identifying the dead
lnLernauonal lawyer SLefanle CranL (2011b) has argued LhaL Lhose who perlsh
durlng lrregular voyages aL sea, and Lhelr relauves, have a rlghL Lo ldenuLy".
AlLhough Lhe lmporLance of recoverlng bodles ls a wldely accepLed lmperauve
wlLhln Lhe lnLernauonal communlLy, eorLs Lo reLrleve Lhe bodles of perlshed
asylum-seekers have, aL umes, been accorded a low prlorlLy. 1hls has slgnlcanL
humanlLarlan lmpllcauons ln Lerms of Lhe suerlng of relauves, and also
hampers Lhe collecuon of sLausucal lnformauon on deaLhs occurrlng ln Lhese
clrcumsLances. Some examples have already been glven where delays or alleged
delays ln Lhe response of rescue agencles resulLed ln fallure Lo recover bodles.
1he slnklng near ChrlsLmas lsland ln !une 2013, ln whlch 33 people drowned,
prompLed medla reporLs LhaL bodles were dellberaLely le ln Lhe waLer, even
aer rescue vessels had arrlved. 1he commander of Lhe 8order roLecuon
Command Lold reporLers LhaL Lhe search for survlvors had Lo be prlorluzed over
Lhe recovery of bodles, a declslon LhaL was drlven by lack of resources slnce
oLher vessels were deployed elsewhere (lreland, 2013).
ln oLher clrcumsLances, governmenL omclals have been relucLanL Lo release
Lhe names of Lhe deceased, even where bodles have been recovered and
ldenucauons made. 1hlrLeen years aer Lhe slnklng of Lhe SlLv x, Lhe names of
many of Lhose who dled have sull noL been publlcly released, desplLe a SenaLe
mouon calllng on Lhe AusLrallan CovernmenL Lo produce Lhe llsLs of SlLv x vlcums
LhaL were reporLedly complled by Lhe Al, Lhe AusLrallan lmmlgrauon auLhorlues
and Lhe lnLernauonal Crganlzauon for Mlgrauon.
19
Accordlng Lo reporLs, a llsL of
passengers was complled by Lhe faclllLaLor of Lhe voyage buL was LhoughL Lo
have been conscaLed by lndoneslan pollce. AlLhough no credlble explanauon
has been glven for Lhe fallure Lo release Lhe names of Lhe SlLv x vlcums, lL seems
LhaL Lhe handllng of Lhe lnqulrles as a mauer of crlmlnal lnvesugauon almed
aL ldenufylng faclllLaLors for prosecuuon may have conLrlbuLed Lo a cllmaLe of
19
Source: hup://slevx.com/lAC.shLml.
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
193
secrecy raLher Lhan open dlsclosure ln Lhe lnLeresLs of Lhe famllles and wlder
publlc.
6.5.3 Conduct of coronial inquiries
Coronlal lnqulrles creaLe Lhe posslblllLy of accounung for speclc border-relaLed
deaLhs by aurlbuung chalns of responslblllLy and maklng recommendauons
almed aL prevenung furLher loss of llfe. Whlle Lhese lmporLanL posL-faLallLy
procedures go beyond Lhe ob[ecuve of slmply namlng and counung, Lhe
lnformauon obLalned from lnquesLs leave an auLhorlLauve record of Lhe deaLh,
and can also enrlch Lhe quallLauve daLa recorded ln sLausucal reposlLorles
such as Lhe AusLrallan 8order ueaLhs uaLabase. Powever, Lhe clrcumsLances of
unauLhorlzed Lravel, coupled wlLh governmenL pollcles lnLended Lo pre-empL
arrlval, creaLe slgnlcanL legal and pracucal barrlers Lowards achlevlng Lhls
level of scruuny ln relauon Lo mlgrauon-relaLed deaLhs. Where deaLhs occur
ln locauons beyond AusLralla's LerrlLorlal [urlsdlcuon, Lhey do noL Lrlgger legal
requlremenLs for full lnquesLs, whlch exlsL wlLhln Lhe leglslauon of lndlvldual
sLaLes wlLhln AusLralla's federaLed sysLem.
20
1hls applles Lo Lhe ma[orlLy of
deaLhs occurrlng en rouLe, and also Lo deaLhs ln oshore deLenuon cenLres,
whlch are esLabllshed by ad hoc agreemenLs wlLh lndependenL aclc nauons
and operaLed on behalf of Lhe AusLrallan CovernmenL by prlvaLe securlLy rms.
1he kllllng of 8eza 8arau aL Manus lsland deLenuon cenLre durlng vlolenL
dlsLurbances ln lebruary 2014 has generaLed calls for a comprehenslve and
fully lndependenL lnqulry Lo esLabllsh Lhe clrcumsLances of hls deaLh. ln Lhe
lmmedlaLe aermaLh, Lhe AusLrallan CovernmenL commlssloned an ad hoc
lnqulry (Cornall, 2014), whlch has been supplemenLed by separaLe lnqulrles by
Lhe Cpposluon-conLrolled SenaLe (Laughland, 2014, Cordon eL al., 2014) and
Lhe CovernmenL of apua new Culnea (WhyLe, 2014). 1he AusLrallan SenaLe
lnqulry ls due Lo reporL ln SepLember 2014.
21
Whlle Lhe ldenuLy of Lhe vlcum
and Lhe recognluon of Lhls deaLh as a border-relaLed faLallLy are noL ln dlspuLe ln
Lhls case, Lhe speclal condluons creaLed by oshore deLenuon pollcles hlghllghL
Lhe dlerenual response Lo deaLhs ln cusLody ln Lhls conLexL when compared
wlLh deaLhs ln oLher cusLodlal semngs wlLhln AusLralla (dlscussed ln Lhe nexL
secuon).
22
1hls deaLh has also relnforced wlder concerns abouL Lhe rlsks posed
by oshore deLenuon and processlng, and Lhe absence of credlble lnvesugauve
procedures.
23

20
A docLrlne of sLaLe responslblllLy for omclal acuons Laken by governmenLs beyond Lhelr soverelgn LerrlLory ls
emerglng wlLhln lnLernauonal law, buL has noL been LesLed ln domesuc courLs. ln any case, lL may noL cover
clrcumsLances where no dlrecL lnvolvemenL of AusLrallan law and pollcy ls apparenL.
21
See www.aph.gov.au/arllamenLary_8uslness/Commluees/SenaLe/Legal_and_ConsuLuuonal_Aalrs/Manus_
lsland.
22
lor more deLall on coronlal processes ln AusLralla, see owell eL al., 2013.
23
See, for example, knou, 2014.
Chapter 6 Counnng and Accounnng for Deaths of Asy|um-seekers en koute to Austra||a
194
Lven where deaLhs occur ln oshore deLenuon cenLres under Lhe dlrecL conLrol
of Lhe AusLrallan CovernmenL, lL ls far from auLomauc LhaL a coronlal lnquesL wlll
follow. ln CcLober 2011, Lhe Supreme CourL of WesLern AusLralla ruled agalnsL
holdlng an lnquesL lnLo Lhe deaLh of lauma lrfanl, who collapsed wlLh a braln
haemorrhage ln ChrlsLmas lsland deLenuon cenLre ln !anuary 2003 and dled aer
belng own Lhousands of kllomeLres for hosplLal LreaLmenL ln erLh.
24
WlLhln a
monLh, lauma's husband was reLurned Lo kabul wlLh hls Lhree small chlldren,
wlLh no quesuon of a full lnqulry belng conducLed. 8y Lhe ume supporLers had
managed Lo puL Lhelr case for a full lnqulry, lL was consldered LhaL Loo much ume
had elapsed Lo [usufy furLher lnvesugauon. 1hls case hlghllghLs Lhe lmporLance
of placlng deaLhs ln lmmlgrauon deLenuon on Lhe same fooung as oLher deaLhs
ln cusLody.
6.5.4 Inclusion of border-related deaths in national deaths
in custody statistics
lL has already been noLed LhaL no omclal collecuon of border-relaLed deaLhs
exlsLs wlLhln AusLralla. Powever, one caLegory of border-relaLed deaLhs -
namely deaLhs ln lmmlgrauon cusLody - could poLenually be lncorporaLed lnLo
an exlsung nauonal collecuon held by Lhe AusLrallan lnsuLuLe of Crlmlnology.
23

ln addluon Lo Lhe daLa collecuon funcuon, Lhe recordlng of a deaLh as a deaLh
ln cusLody" Lrlggers a requlremenL for a coronlal lnqulry lnLo Lhe parucular
clrcumsLances of Lhe deaLh. Cmclal deaLhs ln cusLody reporung has only
lncluded deaLhs ln Lhe cusLodlal semngs of prlson, [uvenlle deLenuon and pollce
cusLody on Lhe AusLrallan malnland, and durlng Lhe apprehenslon of crlmlnal
suspecLs or escapees by pollce or prlson auLhorlues. ueaLhs LhaL occur ln
lmmlgrauon deLenuon cenLres or whlle auLhorlues auempL Lo Lake suspecLed
unlawful non-cluzens" lnLo Mlgrauon AcL cusLody elLher on land or ln AusLralla's
LerrlLorlal waLers are noL consldered Lo be deaLhs ln cusLody for Lhe purposes of
lnvesugauon and nauonal monlLorlng. Powever, ln boLh conLexLs, a duLy of care
exlsLs whlch dlsungulshes Lhese deaLhs from drownlngs LhaL occur wlLhouL Lhe
dlrecL knowledge or lnLervenuon of AusLrallan auLhorlues and should creaLe a
mandaLory requlremenL Lo record and respond Lo Lhe deaLhs.
!udgemenLs abouL wheLher or noL a deaLh aL sea qualles as ln cusLody" may
be dlmculL Lo make on Lhe basls of llmlLed lnformauon. Cne clear-cuL example
ls Lhe exploslon of Lhe so-called SlLv 36 o Ashmore 8eef whlle lL was under
Lhe conLrol of AusLrallan border auLhorlues (norLhern 1errlLory Coroner, 2010).
uenluonal dlspuLes may also arlse ln grey areas where AusLrallan auLhorlues
are alleged Lo have had knowledge of, or been ln lndlrecL conLacL wlLh, sLrlcken
vessels due Lo aerlal survelllance or oLher lnLelllgence. Slnce 2000, none of Lhe
deaLhs durlng oshore lnLerdlcuon or ln oshore deLenuon for whlch coronlal
24
5opteme coott of westeto Aosttollo ltfool v 1be 5tote cotooet j2011] wA5c 270.
23
See www.alc.gov.au/abouL_alc/research_programs/nmp/0004.hLml.
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
193
lnqulrles were conducLed was omclally recorded as a deaLh ln cusLody (owell,
Weber and lckerlng, 2013). lndeed, Lhere ls no mechanlsm Lo enable Lhls
Lo occur (lbld.). 1he Lransnauonal dlmenslon of deaLhs LhaL occur ln oshore
lmmlgrauon deLenuon locauons ls clearly an aspecL LhaL was noL anuclpaLed ln
Lhe esLabllshmenL of Lhe deaLhs ln cusLody collecuon. Powever, as wlLh deaLhs
ln crlmlnal [usuce semngs, all of Lhese deaLhs ralse quesuons concernlng duLy of
care, prevenuon of fuLure deaLhs, and Lhe deLermlnauon of culpablllLy.
1he fallure Lo classlfy Lhese faLallues as deaLhs ln cusLody eecuvely
bureaucrauzes away" opporLunlues Lo conslder Lhe deaLhs of Lhese non-
cluzens elLher as homlcldes or as deaLhs arlslng from Lhe speclc rlsks assoclaLed
wlLh lrregular mlgrauon or oshore deLenuon. 1hls excluslon ls achleved by
renderlng deaLhs ln Lhe lmmlgrauon enforcemenL sysLem as somehow oLher"
Lo Lhe ordlnary buslness of deLenuon and lmprlsonmenL and Lhe varlous forms
of overslghL and accounLablllLy LhaL apply ln Lhese cusLodlal clrcumsLances. 1hls
ls a slgnlcanL omlsslon ln human rlghLs proLecuon conslderlng Lhe burgeonlng
use of oshore lnLerdlcuon, forced deporLauon, and admlnlsLrauve deLenuon of
unlawful non-cluzens, noL only ln AusLralla buL also worldwlde.
6.6 Improving data and saving lives
6.6.1 Conclusions: Counting and accounting for deaths
1he fallure Lo comprehenslvely documenL and lnvesugaLe deaLhs of asylum-
seekers aL sea or ln lmmlgrauon cusLody whlle oLher faLal lncldenLs lnvoke
large-scale and lnLernauonal ad hoc responses, as ln Lhe case of mlsslng lghL
MP380, suggesLs LhaL cerLaln llves eecuvely counL for more Lhan oLhers, boLh
aL a domesuc level and wlLhln Lhe lnLernauonal communlLy. 1he lllusLrauve
cases prevlously dlscussed also reveal an equlLy gap ln Lhe way LhaL deaLhs ln
lmmlgrauon cusLody are responded Lo when compared wlLh deaLhs wlLhln Lhe
crlmlnal [usuce sysLem, wlLh no legal requlremenL ln place Lo requlre a coronlal
lnqulry ln Lhe case of Lhe former, or Lo record summary daLa abouL Lhe deaLhs ln
Lhe nauonal deaLhs ln cusLody collecuon.
lnadequaLe responses Lo deaLhs durlng lrregular [ourneys noL only [eopardlze
eorLs Lo ldenufy chalns of responslblllLy and prevenL furLher deaLhs buL also
lncrease Lhe suerlng of relauves ln places of orlgln or lnLended desunauon who
have no way of knowlng whaL has happened Lo Lhelr famlly members. CranL
(2011a) has argued LhaL Lhe rlghL Lo famlly llfe places a duLy on governmenLs
Lo documenL all border-relaLed deaLhs and esLabllshes Lhe rlghL for famllles Lo
know abouL Lhe faLe of Lhelr loved ones.
1he consLrucuon of asylum seeklng as a problem of organlzed crlmlnallLy raLher
Lhan as a human rlghLs concern, a Lrend LhaL ls occurrlng globally, has been
Chapter 6 Counnng and Accounnng for Deaths of Asy|um-seekers en koute to Austra||a
196
parucularly devasLaung boLh ln Lerms of muluplylng rlsks Lo asylum-seekers who
make unauLhorlzed [ourneys (lckerlng, 2004, Weber and Crewcock, 2011), and
ln dlverung Lhe omclal response once deaLhs occur Lowards Lhe lmperauves
of crlmlnal lnvesugauon and border proLecuon, and away from humanlLarlan
concern for survlvors, vlcums and Lhelr relauves. 8efusal Lo release lnformauon
on securlLy, operauonal, [urlsdlcuonal and commerclal grounds adds furLher Lo
Lhe lnformauon vacuum.
1he sLausucal pauerns and lndlvldual examples dlscussed ln Lhls chapLer of
deaLhs of asylum-seekers en rouLe Lo AusLralla have ldenued Lhe followlng
meLhodologlcal problems ln relauon Lo Lhe collecuon of such daLa:
racucal problems:
Slnklngs oen occur ln geographlcally remoLe or unknown locauons.
Slnce voyages Lake place ouLslde normal regulaLory frameworks, Lhere ls an
absence of omclal records of embarkauon or progress.
Lack of access Lo legally sancuoned modes of Lravel promoLes undocumenLed
[ourneys, whlch furLher compllcaLes ldenucauon of vlcums and
deLermlnauon of personal deLalls.
ollucal lssues:
no AusLrallan agencles have an expllclL mandaLe Lo collaLe lnformauon on
border-relaLed deaLhs.
8ereaved relauves are relauvely powerless or lnvlslble, elLher because Lhey
reslde abroad or because Lhey have fraglle lmmlgrauon sLaLus or lack Lhe
pollucal caplLal derlved from cluzenshlp.
ulspuLes may occur over [urlsdlcuon for respondlng Lo deaLhs or eecung
rescue or recovery of bodles due Lo Lhe conLracung ouL of deLenuon and
processlng arrangemenLs Lo oLher counLrles and Lhe exLenslon of aerlal and
naval survelllance beyond AusLralla's LerrlLorlal waLers.
1he consLrucuon of lrregular Lravel as a form of crlmlnallLy clouds Lhe
percepuon of Lhose who dle aL sea as blameless vlcums and ls used by
auLhorlues Lo [usufy wlLhholdlng of lnformauon on securlLy and operauonal
grounds.
uenluonal complexlues:
Pow do we record personal lnformauon such as age, sex and nauonallLy ln
Lhe absence of deLalled reporLs?
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
197
Should deaLhs LhaL occur ln counLrles of LranslL (for example, whlle ln
AusLrallan-funded deLenuon cenLres ln lndonesla) be lncluded ln counLs of
deaLhs en rouLe Lo AusLralla?
Whlch marlume boundarles are relevanL ln classlfylng oshore deaLhs LhaL
occur wlLhln or beyond AusLrallan [urlsdlcuon - LerrlLorlal waLers, exLended
economlc zone, aerlal survelllance zone?
Pow do we deLermlne whlch deaLhs are Lo counL as deaLhs ln cusLody," glven
LhaL Lhls ls a relevanL caLegorlzauon ln AusLrallan law?
ulumaLely, clarlfylng Lhe purpose for whlch lnformauon on border-relaLed deaLhs
ls collecLed ls [usL as lmporLanL as Lhe Lask of overcomlng Lhese pracucal and
pollucal obsLacles. As CranL (2011a) has argued, whlle an lnLernauonal daLabase
of mlgrauon-relaLed deaLhs would be a greaL asseL Lo relauves sLruggllng Lo
Lrace Lhelr mlsslng loved ones, ln Lhe conLexL of Lhe wldespread demonlzauon
of lrregular mlgrauon, clvll socleLy groups wlll have cause for concern LhaL such
lnformauon could be used lnsLead Lo furLher resLrlcL Lhe moblllLy of parucular
groups.
6.6.2 Recommendations
We urge LhaL all posslble eorLs are made Lo reverse Lhe crlmlnal LalnL LhaL has
become auached Lo lrregular mlgrauon, parucularly when undergone for Lhe
purpose of seeklng asylum, and Lo Lhose who nd Lhemselves ln lmmlgrauon
deLenuon. ueaLhs aL sea or ln deLenuon should be LreaLed rsL as human
Lragedles, and noL - or aL leasL noL prlmarlly - as crlmlnal evenLs ln whlch Lhe
vlcums" are reduced Lo Lhe role of wlLnesses or LreaLed as Lhough Lhey were
suspecL Lhemselves.
Slnce deaLhs durlng mlgrauon are ln a very real sense Lransnauonal deaLhs"
(CranL, 2011b), our recommendauons conLaln boLh lnLernauonal and domesuc
elemenLs - based on prlnclples of equlLy and Lhe appllcauon of lnLernauonal
sLandards for beuer counung, accounung for, and prevenuon of deaLhs arlslng
from lrregular mlgrauon. We belleve LhaL lnLernauonally agreed and resourced
procedures are needed Lo deal wlLh deaLhs ln lnLernauonal waLers or reglons
of dlspuLed or dlluLed soverelgnLy, and LhaL Lhese proLocols can also provlde
guldance for responses Lo deaLhs ln AusLrallan LerrlLory.
A comprehenslve and accounLable posL-faLallLy response musL go beyond mere
counLs of border deaLhs. 1hese proLocols musL be gulded by esLabllshed human
rlghLs prlnclples and duues under crlmlnal law, humanlLarlan law and marlume
law whlch emphaslze prevenuon, resLorauon of famlly llnks, clarlcauon of
Lhe faLe of mlsslng persons, Lhe rlghL of famllles Lo know, prosecuuon of human
rlghLs vlolauons, Lhe legal sLaLus of mlsslng persons, and Lhe 'managemenL' of
Lhe dead and ldenucauon of Lhelr remalns" (CranL, 2011a:143).
Chapter 6 Counnng and Accounnng for Deaths of Asy|um-seekers en koute to Austra||a
198
As Lhe maln agencles operaung ln border zones and ulumaLely responslble for
evenLs ln oshore deLenuon, sLaLes wlll remaln Lhe prlmary source of lnformauon
ln relauon Lo border-relaLed deaLhs ln many clrcumsLances, however, due Lo
Lhe hlghly polluclzed conLexL ln whlch border-relaLed deaLhs occur, counung
should be done by organlzauons noL lnvolved ln border conLrol and mlgrauon
managemenL reglmes - aL boLh nauonal and lnLernauonal levels.
AL Lhe nauonal level, bodles such as Lhe CommonwealLh Cmbudsman or Lhe
AusLrallan Puman 8lghLs Commlsslon have Lhe credlblllLy and lndependence Lo
handle reporLs of border-relaLed deaLhs - where appllcable, referrlng cases Lo
sLaLe coroners for lnvesugauon, or Lo Lhe nauonal deaLhs ln cusLody monlLorlng
programme for sLausucal recordlng, whlle also llalslng wlLh relevanL lnLernauonal
bodles.
AL Lhe Lransnauonal level, Lhere are a range of agencles LhaL already have Lhe
capaclLy Lo respond Lo large-scale dlsasLers or lndlvldual deaLhs LhaL occur away
from Lhe deceased person's counLry of orlgln or develop relevanL proLocols
(CranL, 2011a). 1hls lncludes Lhe lnLernauonal Commluee of Lhe 8ed Cross
(parucularly ln relauon Lo ldenucauon and proper handllng of bodles), and
Lhe un lnLer-Agency SLandlng Commluee (responslble for Lhe Cperauonal
Culdellnes on Puman 8lghLs and naLural ulsasLers).
1here should be legal requlremenLs for governmenLs Lo cooperaLe wlLh
deslgnaLed nauonal and lnLernauonal auLhorlues ln Lhe evenL of mlgrauon-
relaLed deaLhs wlLhln Lhelr [urlsdlcuons, under agreed proLocols for lnformauon
exchange. 1hls requlremenL Lo reporL ls parucularly lmporLanL ln a cllmaLe of
lncreased secrecy around Lhe release of lnformauon LhaL ls assoclaLed wlLh Lhe
mlllLarlzauon of oshore border conLrol ln many conLexLs. LxpllclL agreemenLs
are needed Lo cover slnklngs ln lnLernauonal waLers.
ulscusslons abouL nauonal and lnLernauonal proLocols should lnclude ln a
meanlngful way aecLed mlgranL communlues and human rlghLs nCCs, as
well as border conLrol auLhorlues, ln order Lo esLabllsh a human rlghLs-drlven
framework LhaL ls noL domlnaLed by sLaLe concerns.
CranL (2011b) has made Lhe lnLeresung, lf ambluous, suggesuon LhaL Lhe
resources needed Lo esLabllsh such an lnLernauonal framework Lo respond Lo
border-relaLed deaLhs could be ralsed by sLaLes dlverung funds LhaL are currenLly
dlrecLed Lowards border conLrol, ln recognluon of Lhe role played by border
conLrol ln Lhe clrcumsLances of Lhe deaLhs.
1hose of us concerned wlLh bulldlng emplrlcal daLaseLs for Lhe purposes of
undersLandlng Lrends and prevenung deaLhs musL remaln mlndful of Lhe
pollucs and eLhlcs, as well as Lhe meLhodology, of Lhe counL. Whlle Lhe facuclLy
of numbers aL work ln counung border-relaLed deaLhs plays a vlLal role ln
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
199
esLabllshlng Lhe naLure and scale of harms, Lhere ls an even greaLer lmporLance
ln esLabllshlng an lncluslonary accounL of border-relaLed deaLhs.
1o overcome Lhe use of deaLh counLs for purposes of greaLer excluslon, harm
and deaLh, we need Lo develop alLernauve ways of occooouoq for border deaLhs.
1hls wlll requlre expandlng Lhe conversauon beyond agreemenLs for respondlng
Lo deaLhs LhaL occur durlng auempLs Lo cross borders, ln order Lo confronL Lhe
full range of facLors LhaL conLrlbuLe Lo Lhese deaLhs, lncludlng Lhe ways ln whlch
sLaLes currenLly conLrol Lhelr borders.
1he head of Lhe AusLrallan search Leam ln Lhe case of mlsslng alrllner MP370 ls
quoLed as saylng, ln response Lo Lhe evldence LhaL Lhe alrcra's Lracklng sysLem
had been Lurned o: l Lhlnk LhaL's someLhlng LhaL we, as a world communlLy,
have Lo correcL as soon as posslble". lf asylum-seekers and oLher mlgranLs are Lo
share ln a fuLure of safer Lravel, Lhen concern over border-relaLed deaLhs should
become an equally hlgh prlorlLy for Lhe lnLernauonal communlLy.
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Chapter 6 Counnng and Accounnng for Deaths of Asy|um-seekers en koute to Austra||a
204
A sinking ship
kokaya Satar and Na[ah Mus|n are among the few surv|vors of the SILV k boat
tragedy that occurred |n Cctober 2001 |n |nternanona| waters o the coast of
Indones|a. kokaya |ost her husband and two young daughters |n the tragedy.
Na[ah |ost her son, four brothers and a s|ster.
26
When Lhey came Lo us and showed us Lhe boaL, we were Lold LhaL Lhls
boaL was noL Lhe one Lo geL us Lo AusLralla. lL was only a LranslL boaL LhaL
would geL us Lo Lhe boaL LhaL would brlng us Lo AusLralla. (8okaya)
8okaya and na[ah were among many oLhers
on Lhe boaL maklng Lhe [ourney Lo AusLralla
from lraq. MosL were famllles who ed lraq
vla Lhe lslamlc 8epubllc of lran. Powever,
once Lhere, mlgranLs were banned from
renung houslng and gemng [obs, and Lhelr
chlldren were noL allowed Lo auend school.
Seeklng opporLunlLy, Lhe mlgranLs Lravelled
Lo lndonesla from where Lhey would cross Lo
AusLralla by boaL. 1he boaL was overcrowded,
packed wlLh 400 oLhers, lncludlng abouL 130
chlldren who were crammed lnLo Lhe cabln
of Lhe boaL wlLh Lhelr moLhers, whlle Lhe
men sLayed on deck.
Already before Lhe lncldenL, some people
were seaslck and many were afrald and
crylng. 1he shlp salled along Lhe coasL of lndonesla for abouL nlne hours before
Lhe englne sLopped worklng and Lhe vessel cracked and began Lo slnk. Some
passengers Lrled Lo x Lhe englne and Lo Lake waLer ouL of Lhe boaL, whlle oLhers
sLarLed movlng le and rlghL ln a panlcked auempL Lo keep Lhe boaL balanced ln
Lhe waLer. Cnly abouL a hundred llfe [ackeLs were avallable.
1he boaL broke up wlLhln seconds, Lhe waves washed Lhe famlly members
aparL. l saw a woman glvlng blrLh ln Lhe ocean, l saw my broLher belng
washed away by Lhe waves, l called ouL Lo hlm buL saw hlm weeplng.
(na[ah)
ln Lhe panlc LhaL followed, many passengers were pushed under by oLhers who
were looklng for famlly members or Lrylng Lo geL ouL of Lhe slnklng cabln. 8okaya
losL boLh her daughLers Lhls way. She laLer found Lhem dead.
26
1hls sLory ls an adapLauon of an orlglnal LranscrlpL of Lhe vldeoLaped lnLervlew wlLh Lhe survlvors ln Lhe
week followlng Lhe shlpwreck. lL was publlshed on slevx.com, whlch galned access Lo Lhe documenL vla 1ony
kevln, who presenLed Lhe documenL Lo Lhe CMl lnqulry as an auachmenL Lo hls rsL submlsslon.
1be boot btoke op
wltblo secooJs, tbe
woves wosbeJ tbe fomlly
membets opott. l sow o
womoo qlvloq blttb lo tbe
oceoo, l sow my btotbet
beloq wosbeJ owoy
by tbe woves, l colleJ
oot to blm bot sow blm
weeploq. (Nojob)
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
203
l saw my small daughLer Alya oaung, eyes open, dead. A llule laLer, we
saw Lhe body of my elder daughLer. My husband looked qulLe sLrong unul
he saw hls daughLers and he sLarLed choklng. Pe sald, l have losL my
famlly, l have broughL you Lo Lhls, l do noL deserve Lo llve," he sald l
cannoL sLay, l do noL wanL Lo see you dle ln fronL of me." As he was Lalklng,
he was looklng very ured, he was crylng, hls grlp became loose because
of hls exhausuon. 1hen a wave came and washed hlm away from Lhe
umber. l felL alone unul Lhe mlddle of Lhe nlghL. l heard crles from oLhers
from ume Lo ume, buL l could noL see Lhe oLher survlvors. LaLer, l saw Lwo
people. l yelled ouL Lo Lhem: Lake me wlLh you, l am alone, Lhey pulled my
plank Lowards Lhelrs where Lhere was anoLher woman holdlng on. 1he
oLher woman became ured and sank under Lhe waLer Lwlce and dled.
[. . . ] We remalned unul Lhe boaLs came and rescued us. (8okaya)
AbouL a hundred passengers managed Lo survlve Lhe lnlual slnklng by holdlng
on Lo Lhe oaung debrls. When nlghL came, many more dled ln Lhe waLer of
exhausuon, hunger, LhlrsL and Lhe consumpuon of fuel-polluLed seawaLer. Some
wlLhouL llfe [ackeLs dled of Lhe cold. 1he nexL mornlng, 43 survlvors were rescued
by an lndoneslan boaL.
Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
207
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Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
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Iata| Iourneys: 1rack|ng L|ves Lost dur|ng M|granon
211
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212
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r
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.
Annex

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