Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Contents
2
4.12 Left-handed metamaterials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
5 Smart (intelligent) Materials and Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
5.1 Color Changing Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
5.1.1 Photochromic materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
5.1.2 Thermochromic materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
5.2 Light Emitting Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
5.2.1 Electroluminescent materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.2.2 Fluorescent materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.2.3 Phosphorescent materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
5.3 Moving Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
5.3.1 Conducting polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
5.3.2 Dielectric elastomers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
5.3.3 Piezoelectric materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
5.3.4 Polymer gels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
5.3.5 Shape memory materials (SMM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
5.3.6 Nanostructured Shape Memory Materials . . . . . . . . . . 95
5.3.7 Magnetic Shape Memory (MSM) Materials . . . . . . . . . 96
5.4 Temperature Changing Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
5.4.1 Thermoelectric materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
6 Functional Gradient Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
7 Solar Cell Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
7.1 Light-absorbing materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
7.2 Silicon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
7.3 Thin films . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
7.4 Silicon solar cell device manufacture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
8 Nano - materials - and technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
8.1 Carbon Nanotubes (CNT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
8.1.1 Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
8.2 Nanocomposites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
8.3 Flexible ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
8.4 New type of High-performance Ceramic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
8.5 Back to square one? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
9 Cellular Solids, Structures & Foams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
9.1 Metal Foams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
9.1.1 Aluminium foam: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
9.2 Polymeric foam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
9.3 Refractory foams / Ceramic foam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
3
9.3.1 Carbon foam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
9.4 Hierarchical structures (multiscale structures) . . . . . . . . . . . 123
9.5 Biomaterials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
4
III Cellular Solids 180
14 Some definitions of cellular solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
14.1 Mechanics of honeycombs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
14.2 In-plane deformation properties, uniaxial loading of hexagonal hon-
eycombs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
14.2.1 Linear-elastic deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
14.3 Out-of-plane deformation properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
14.3.1 Linear-elastic deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
5
24.5 Laser Engineered Net Shaping (LENS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
24.6 Stereo lithography - SLA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
24.7 Solid ground curing - SGC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
24.8 Three dimensional printing (3DP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
24.9 PowderProcessing/PowderMetallurgy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
24.10Vapor Deposition CVD/PVD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
24.11Selection of a layered manufacturing process . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
25 Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
25.1 Designing for Manufacturability (DFM) ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
25.2 Product design guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
25.3 Evaluation of design alternatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
25.4 The meaning of colors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
6
Preface
This manuscript is written in order to use it as lecture notes in the course ”Ad-
vanced materials” given at Narvik University College for master students in the
field of Engineering Design. In the course the students will be familiar with differ-
ent kind of advanced materials and structures such as for instance smart materials,
functional gradient materials, polymers and plastics, nano-materials, elastomers
and rubbers, biopolymers, cellular solids and structures, and different types of
composite materials, which can be found in Part 1 of this report. In Part 2, the
fabrication-processes of different advanced materials, structures and forms is de-
scribed. The different types of sandwich constructions included the design of such
structures are subjects that are discussed in Part 3, while in Part 4 we will have
a closer look at mechanics and effective properties of composite structures and
honeycombs.
This report may also be used as literature for students studying mechanical
engineering, material science, production engineering. We assume that the reader
has a bachelor degree in Engineering.
7
Figure 0.1: Classes of materials.
Part I
Materials and Structures
In this part we will mainly consider the concepts of materials and structures. The
difference between a material and a structure is not clearly defined. Many draw
the lines between what you understand as a homogeneous material when you see
it with your bare eyes, and the inhomogeneous material structure that you clearly
see is made up of a fixed geometry or mixing of materials. For instance an alloy is
by this definition a material even though it consists of two or more components,
but a honeycomb core built up of two different components is a structure.
Materials are often classified into the six broad classes that are shown in figure
0.1; metals, ceramics, glasses, elastomers, polymers and composites. But, when
we also include material structures, the number is bigger, and the classification
of the term ”materials and structures”, even though it is not a conventional way
of making a classification, may look like the one purposed in figure 0.2. We will
in this book briefly mention main properties of each group in figure 0.2, but the
advanced term in the title of the book refers to a thoroughly study of composites,
polymers, smart materials, sandwich constructions, nano-technology, functional
materials, cellular structures.
8
Figure 0.2: Classes of materials and structures.
9
maybe the materials we know as HPM today may not be so high-performance
tomorrow, since the materials-science is rapidly changing and growing.
While research laboratories are still exploring ways to exploit these materi-
als, some of them are ready for use. Because there is little data available on the
long-term results of many high-performance materials and because there is fre-
quently a relatively high initial cost, states are reluctant to take on such a venture
independently.
Questions:
What is the conventional way of making a classification of materials?
What is the new way of making a classification of materials?
What is so special about high performance materials?
References:
High-performance materials:
http://www.hiper-group.com/hcproducts.htm
http://www.greatachievements.org/?id=3809
10
1. Ceramics and glasses
A ceramic is often broadly defined as any inorganic nonmetallic material. By this
definition, ceramic materials would also include glasses; however, many materials
scientists add the stipulation that ”ceramics” must also be crystalline. Recall
that crystalline materials have their molecules arranged in repeating patterns, see
Figure 1.1. Therefore we often divide the ceramics and glasses into two separate
subgroups of materials.
1.1. Ceramics
Examples of ceramic materials can be anything from NaCl (table salt) to clay
(a complex silicate).The term ceramic comes from the Greek word keramikos,
which means burnt stuff, indicating that desirable properties of these materials
are normally achieved through a high-temperature heat treatment process called
firing. Ceramics are refractory (fireproof) materials, and has therefore a melting
◦
temperature > 1580 C.
Due to the covalent character of the chemical bond refractory ceramics exhibit
very high (about 3000◦ C) melting point, low mobility of atoms, low plasticity
and high hardness at temperatures up to 2000◦ C. Therefore, refractory materi-
als can substitute metals, alloys and intermetallics in a lot of high temperature
engineering, chemical and electronic applications.
Ceramics are in general hard, brittle, high-melting-point materials with low
electrical and thermal conductivity, low thermal expansion, good chemical and
thermal stability, good creep resistance, high elastic modulus, high compressive
strength, low density, high stiffness, high hardness, high wear resistance, and high
11
corrosion resistance. Many ceramics are good electrical and thermal insulators.
Some ceramics have special properties: some ceramics are magnetic materials;
some are piezoelectric materials; and a few special ceramics are superconductors
at very low temperatures. Ceramics are widely used in the electrical industry
mostly due to their high electrical resistance. Ceramics and glasses have one
major drawback: they are brittle. Their extremely low fracture toughness is the
drawback of ceramics in comparison with metals. It means that ceramics have a
very low tolerance of crack-like flaws.
Ceramic fibers such as graphite and aluminum oxide with their extremely high
stiffness have led to the production of fiber-reinforced composites. These materials
are only a few of an ever-growing list of industrially important ceramics. Recently,
new groups of ceramics have emerged with the possibility to use them as load-
bearing materials.
1.2. Glasses
Glass is an inorganic nonmetallic material that does not have a crystalline struc-
ture. Such materials are said to be amorphous. Recall that amorphous materials
have their molecules arranged randomly and in long chains which twist and curve
12
Figure 1.3: A transmission cable containing hundreds of glass optical fibers.
13
1.4. Industrially Important Glasses
Silicon [Si] (do not confuse with Silicone which are mixed inorganic-organic poly-
mers) has many industrial uses, for instance is it the principal component of
most semiconductor devices (whose electrical conductivity is in between that of
a conductor and that of an insulator), most importantly integrated circuits or
microchips.
In the form of silica and silicates, silicon forms useful glasses, cements, and
ceramics. It is also a component of silicones, a class-name for various synthetic
plastic substances made of silicon, oxygen, carbon and hydrogen, often confused
with silicon itself.
• Silica glass (SiO2 ) is used for optical fibers when it is very pure.
• Soda-lime glass (SiO2 -Na2 O-CaO) is the standard glass used for bottles and
windows due to its low cost and easy manufacturing.
• Lead glass (SiO2 -PbO) commonly known as ”crystal”, this glass has a high
index of refraction causing it to sparkle (much like a diamond)
14
Figure 1.4: Products made of ceramic material.
The terms used above are often still used in classify technical ceramics. How-
ever a precise classification is only possible if the materials are listed under their
following chemical composition:
• silicate ceramics
15
— steatite (major component: soapstone, additives: clay and flux)
— cordierite (these magnesium silicates occur during the sintering of soap-
stone with added clay, kaolin, corundium and mullite.)
— mullite-ceramic (Al2 O3 and SiO2 ,where mullite: (3 Al2 O3 2 SiO2 ) and
corundium (Al2 O3 ) )
• oxide ceramics
• nonoxide ceramics:
Questions:
• What is the special properties of ceramics and glasses?
• What are they used for?
• What are the industrally important glasses?
• What kind of different ceramics are there?
• What is a high-performance ceramic?
• What is the drawback of ceramics compared to metals?
References:
http://www.keramverband.de/keramik/englisch/fachinfo/
werkstoffe/definitionen.htm
16
http://www.globaltechnoscan.com/
31stOct-6thNov02/high_performance_ceramics.htm
http://www.globaltechnoscan.com/
http://www.sciam.com/explore_directory.cfm
http://www.mse.cornell.edu/courses/engri111/ceramic.htm
http://www.mse.cornell.edu/courses/engri111/impglass.htm
http://biotsavart.tripod.com/327.htm
http://www.engr.sjsu.edu/WofMatE/
17
Figure 2.1: A suspension bridge.
Pure metals are elements which comes from a particular area of the periodic
table. Examples of pure metals include copper in electrical wires and aluminum
in cooking foil and beverage cans.
Metal Alloys contain more than one metallic element. Their properties can be
changed by changing the elements present in the alloy. Examples of metal alloys
include stainless steel which is an alloy of iron, nickel, and chromium; and gold
jewelry which usually contains an alloy of gold and nickel.
Some metal alloys, such as those based on aluminum, have low densities and
are used in aerospace applications for fuel economy. Other examples: Many metal
alloys also have high fracture toughness, which means they can withstand im-
pact and are durable. Many beverage cans are made of aluminum metal. Many
structures, such as this suspension bridge, are made of steel alloys, see Figure
2.1. Aircraft skins are made of lightweight aluminum alloys with high fracture
toughness.
18
2.1. High-peformance Metals
When metal components must perform under critical conditions, manufacturers
need high-performance metals. Titanium-base alloys, and specialty steels for the
aerospace industry are metals of exceptional wear resistance, corrosion resistance,
heat resistance, toughness, and strength. Nickel- and cobalt-based materials are
known as superalloys. Turbine blades are for instance made of superalloys in
◦
order to withstand the temperatures well above 2,000◦ F (1093.3 C). The most
advanced of these turbine blades are grown from molten metal as single crys-
tals in ceramic molds, in order to obtain maximum possible resistance to high-
temperature deformation.
19
Figure 2.2: Aerospace industry.
20
parts. Hafnium and zirconium are always found together are they make it possible
to control nuclear reactors in a precise way. The superior corrosion resistance of
zirconium makes it (and its alloys) very useful in the chemical industry and for
surgical implants. Pure zirconium has for a long time been used as the light
source in photo flash tubes, since it is a reactive metal that burns in air with a
brilliant white light. Tantalum (often occurs as the mineral columbitetantalite) is
◦
very malleable and ductile. Its melting point is at 2996 C, and is often used as a
replacement for platinium in chemical, and dental equipment and instruments. It
is also used to make electrolytic capacitors and are used in vacuum furnaces.
A superconducting material transmits electricity with virtually no energy loss.
Superconductivity, which occurs in many metals and alloys, is very new and is
therefore not yet in widespread use. Superconductivity is a phenomenon occurring
in certain materials at extremely low temperatures, characterized by exactly zero
electrical resistance and the exclusion of the interior magnetic field (the Meiss-
ner effect). Superconductivity occurs in a wide variety of materials, including
simple elements like tin and aluminium, various metallic alloys and some heavily-
doped semiconductors. Superconductivity does not occur in noble metals (metals
that are resistant to corrosion or oxidation, for instance gold, silver, tantalum,
platinum, palladium and rhodium; unlike most base metals), nor in most ferro-
magnetic metals.
Questions:
•Why are metals and metal alloys used?
•What is so special about high performance metals?
• In the space-age, what features in a material or material structure would be
important in the future?
•What kind of metals are used in space equipment, and why are they used?
References:
http://www.mse.cornell.edu/courses/engri111/metal.htm
http://www.allvac.com/
http://www.greatachievements.org/
http://www.hiper-group.com/hcproducts.htm
http://www.spacedaily.com/news/materials-02zh.html
http://www.alcotec.com/ataafi.htm
http://www.weldreality.com/aluminumalloys.htm
High Performance Steel Designers’ Guide:
http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bridge/guidetoc.htm
21
http://www.mmc.co.jp/alloy/english/products/taisyoku/gijyutsu3.html
R. Gregg Bruce, Mileta M. Tomovic, John E. Neely and Richard R. Kibble, Mod-
ern materials and manufacturing processes, ISBN: 0-13-186859-4, Second edition,
Prentice Hall, 1998.
22
Figure 3.1: Polymerization by addition of equal monomers.
23
Figure 3.2: Methane and ethane.
Cn H2n+2 ,
as we see in Figure 3.2. Hydrogen can be replaced by chlorine, flouring and also
benzene. Carbon can be replaced by oxygen, silicon, sulfur or nitrogen. These
possibilities are the reason why a wide range of organic compounds can be created.
By the description of polymers we see that wood (cellulose-type materials, see
Figure 3.3) are included in the group of polymer. It has been accepted for many
years that cellulose is a long chain polymer, made up of repeating units of glucose,
a simple sugar. As a carbohydrate, the chemistry of cellulose is primarily the
chemistry of alcohols; and it forms many of the common derivatives of alcohols,
such as esters, ethers, etc. These derivatives form the basis for much of the
industrial technology of cellulose in use today. Cellulose derivatives are used
commercially in two ways, as transient intermediates or as permanent products.
24
Figure 3.3: The structure of cellulose.
Figure 3.4: A polymer with the combination of amorphous and crystalline areas, from:
http://plc.cwru.edu/tutorial/enhanced/files/polymers/orient/orient.htm
25
chains are tangled. There are some polymers that are completely amorphous, but
most are a combination with the tangled and disordered regions surrounding the
crystalline areas. Most thermoplastics have crystalline regions alternating with
amorphous regions, while
26
Figure 3.5: Comparison between a crystalline material (1) and an amorphous material
(2). From: http://plc.cwru.edu/tutorial/enhanced/files/polymers/therm/therm.htm
polymer can have both a glass transition temperature and a melting temperature.
But you should know that the amorphous portion undergoes the glass transition
only, and the crystalline portion undergoes melting only.
According to Wikipedia, the disaster of the space Shuttle Challenger was
caused by rubber O-rings that were below their Tg , on an unusually cold Florida
morning, and thus could not flex enough to form proper seals between sections
of the two solid-fuel rocket boosters (SRB), see Wikipedia. SRB’s are used to
provide the main thrust (reaction force) in spacecrafts launches from the earthe
up to about 45 kilometres.
Polymer science is a broad field that includes many types of materials which
incorporate long chain structure of many repeat units as discussed above. The
two major polymer classes are:
• Elastomers
• Plastics
27
Figure 3.6: Plastics.
main types of behavior: elastic and plastic. Elastic materials will return to their
original shape once the force is removed. Plastic materials will not regain their
shape. In plastic materials, flow is occurring, much like a highly viscous liquid.
Most materials demonstrate a combination of elastic and plastic behavior, showing
plastic behavior after the elastic limit has been exceeded.
3.3. Plastics
Plastics, see Figure 3.6, are a large group of polymers that has properties between
elastomers and fibers, and has plastic behavior. As such, plastics have a wide
range of properties such as flexibility and hardness and can be synthesized to
have almost any combination of desired properties.
Plastics are polymers which, under appropriate conditions of temperature and
pressure, can be molded or shaped (such as blowing to form a film). In contrast
to elastomers, plastics have a greater stiffness and lack reversible elasticity. All
plastics are polymers but not all polymers are plastics.
Cellulose is an example of a polymeric material which must be substantially
modified before processing with the usual methods used for plastics. Every day
plastics such as polyethylene and poly(vinyl chloride) have replaced traditional
materials like paper and copper for a wide variety of applications.
28
• Light weight: Most plastics have a specific gravity (SG) between 1.1 and
1.6. Magnesium has a SG about 1.75. Specific gravity is the heaviness of
a substance compared to that of water, and it is expressed without units. In
the metric system specific gravity is the same as in the English system. If
something is 7.85 times as heavy as an equal volume of water (such as iron
is) its specific gravity is 7.85. Its density is 7.85 grams per cubic centimeter,
or 7.85 kilograms per liter, or 7.85 metric tons per cubic meter.
• Variety of optical properties: You can get a plastic in almost any color
you would like, and the color can go throughout (not only at the surface).
You can also get transparent or opaque plastics.
• Formability: Plastics are easy to form (often in only one single operation).
Extrusion, casting and molding are widely used.
• Surface finish: You can get the surface you want, from rough to excellent
surface finish.
The mechanical strength of plastics are not especially high, compared to met-
als, but the low density makes them comparable to metals due to their strength-
to-weight ratio (or specific strength). A material has high specific strength if the
ratio of its strength to its weight is high.
Plastics are usually divided into two main groups: thermosettings or thermo-
plastics. The terms refer to the materials response to elevated temperature. It is
important to know whether the plastic is a thermosetting or a thermoplastic since
it determines how the plastic will perform in service.
29
3.4.1. Thermosettings
In some plastics, polymerization produces cross linkage between long molecular
weight chain molecules. These plastics are known as thermosetting plastics be-
cause they are permanently hardened by heat. The setting process is irreversible,
so that these materials do not become soft under high temperatures. Additional
heating do not lead to softening, but the material maintain their mechanical prop-
erties up to the temperature at which they char, or burn.
Thermosetting plastics usually have a highly cross-linked or three dimensional
framework structure in which all atoms are connected by strong, covalent bonds.
They are generally produced by the process of condensation polymerization where
elevated temperature promotes the irreversible reaction, hence the term thermoset-
ting.
The thermosettings are stronger and more rigid than the thermoplastics, but
have a lower ductility and poorer impact properties. These plastics also resist
wear and attack by chemicals and they are very durable, even when exposed to
extreme environments.
Typical thermosetting-type plastics are the aminos, most polyesters, alkyds,
epoxies, phenolics and urethanes.
30
EP - Epoxy
Epoxy is a strong and very resistant thermoset plastic. It is used as an adhesive
agent, as filling material, for moulding dies, and as a protective coating on steel
and concrete. Many composite materials are reinforced epoxy.
Epoxy is resistant to almost all acids and solvents, but not to strong bases or
solvents with chlorine content.
By adding a hardening agent curing takes place. The type of hardener has a
major influence on properties and applications of epoxies.
Products: Surfing board, Composite bicycle, Badminton racket, Wheel chair,
Knee support, Soda stream pressure, container, Skull, model, Car space frame,
Wheel chair ramp, Swing wheel.
UP - Unsaturated Polyester
UP is widely used as filler material with glass fibre in sailing boats, hard tops
for cars, furniture, etc. In general UP is not resistant to solvents and bases.
Apart from sulphuric acid it resists acids. To improve appearance and resistance
a surface layer (gel coat or paint) is often added. UP does not require expensive
equipment or tooling to work with UP, and it is therefore often used for prototypes
and low-volume production.
Products: Sailing boat, Chair, Hard top for car, Printed circuit board, Pedes-
trian bridge.
UF - Urea formaldehyde
Urea thermoset molding compounds offer a wide range of applications for
every-day living and industry. Urea formaldehyde (UF) thermosets are economi-
cally priced, they are strong, glossy, and durable. They are not affected by fats,
oils esters, ether, petrol, alcohol or acetone, nor by detergents or weak acids, and
they exhibit good resistance to weak alkalis.
Their high mechanical strength, heat and fire resistance, and good electrical
arc and tracking resistance make them an ideal plastic for numerous industrial and
household applications, from doorknobs and toilet seats to electrical components
and cosmetics enclosures. You name it — if it can be plastic, it can be stronger
and brighter as a (Perstorp) urea thermoset.
MF - Melamine formaldehyde
Melamine thermoset plastics are similar to urea molding compounds, but
melamine has even better resistance to heat, chemicals, moisture, electricity and
scratching.
31
Melamine formaldehyde (MF) thermosets are ideal for dinnerware, kitchen
utensils, bathroom accessories, and electrical components. The molded com-
pounds are bright, inviting, and highly resistant to scratches and staining. (Per-
storp’s) melamine thermosets are approved for contact with foodstuffs, and they
do not affect the food’s flavor - even at high temperatures. They are very, very
durable.
Like urea molding compounds, melamine thermosets consist of plastic that has
high surface hardness and gloss, brilliant and precise colors, and light fastness.
UF or MF thermosets can be manufactured in a precise and vibrant array of
colors. Two-tone compression molding using doublepunch tools will enable you
to express your creative designs. For example, your cups or sinks can have white
inside and tasteful color outside. The choice of color and shape is limited only by
your imagination.
Alkyd resins
This group of polyesters are usually compression moulded from powders. Orig-
inally produced for inclusions in paints, they are resistant to heat and electricity
and will withstand attack by acids and solvents. Alkyd plastics find applications
in enamels for cars, refrigerators and washing machines and are also used for
electric motor insulation and some television parts.
Silicones
Silicon is an element whose atoms have similar linking properties to those of
carbon, but it is stable at much higher temperatures. To utilize the properties of
silicon, certain plastics, called silicones have been developed based on the element.
Although they are much more expensive, they contain excellent properties. These
super materials are available as oil, plastics and rubbers. To quote an example
illustrating their value: silicone rubber will retain its elasticity over a temperature
range of -80◦ C to 250◦ C. The stability of silicones under widely varying service
conditions make them valuable materials for applications such as laminates in the
aerospace industry, gaskets and seals for engineering purposes and cable insulation
for aircraft electrical systems.
3.4.3. Thermoplastics
Thermoplastics, alternatively thermosoftenings, as the name implies, are hard at
low temperatures but soften when they are heated. The softening and hardening
can be repeated without any change in the chemical structure. Although they are
32
Figure 3.7: The easiest way to identify the type of thermoplastic you’re working with
is to look for the Plastic ID symbol the backside of the part.
less commonly used than thermosetting plastics they do have some advantages,
such as greater fracture toughness, long shelf life of the raw material, capacity for
recycling and a cleaner, safer workplace because organic solvents are not needed
for the hardening process.
Thermoplastics have weak bonds between the neighboring molecules and they
are weakened by elevated temperature which means they soften at high temper-
ature and are stronger and harder when cooled. They do not have any definite
melting temperature, they have a range of temperatures where they soften. When
cooled below the glass transition temperature, Tg , the linear polymer retains its
amorphous structure, but becomes hard, brittle, and glasslike.
Thermoplastics are not cross-linked and can be softened and hardened over and
over again. The majority of polymers are thermoplastic. Today there are primar-
ily six commodity polymers in use, namely polyethylene terephthalate (PETE),
polyethylene (PE), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polypropylene (PP), polystyrene
(PS) and polycarbonate (PC). These make up nearly 98% of all polymers and
plastics encountered in daily life, see ref.[33].
The Society of the Plastics Industry, Inc. (SPI) introduced its resin identifica-
tion coding system in 1988 at the urging of recyclers around the country. The SPI
code was developed to meet recyclers needs while providing manufacturers a con-
sistent, uniform system that could apply nationwide, see figure 3.7. Look at the
bottom of a recyclable plastic bottle - chances are you will see a PE or PS which
means polyethylene or polystyrene. These materials are examples of what happens
33
to polymers when they solidify: the chains are entangled and packed together to
make light, tough, flexible materials. If you heat up PE or PS to moderate tem-
peratures, if the chains have not been chemically stuck together (‘cross-linked’)
they will melt, and turn into goopy liquids, which are called polymer melts. Some
polymers melts even at room temperature, like polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), or
poly(ethylene-propylene) (PEP).
34
• HDPE - high density polyethylene: HDPE is the high density version
of PE plastic. It is harder, stronger and a little heavier than LDPE, but less
ductile. Dishwasher safe. HDPE is lighter than water, and can be moulded,
machined, and joined together using welding (difficult to glue). The appear-
ance is wax-like, lusterless and opaque. The use of UV-stabilizators (carbon
black) improves its weather resistance but turns it black. Some types can be
used in contact with food. Products: Milestone, Bottle for motor oil, Bot-
tle for organic solvents, Street bollard, Hedge cutter, Gasoline tank, Milk
bottles, Plastic bag (stiff type that crackles), Children’s toys, Lid for honey
pot, Beer crate, Dolphin bicycle trailer.
35
and water. It is resistant to most strong mineral acids and basics. PP is not
resistant to nitrous gasses, halogens and strong oxidizing acids.
Products: Childrens toy bin, transport box, fuel tank, suitcase, garbage bin,
rope, shaver (rechargeable), air intake, tubes, packing material, auto parts etc.
The material is often used for hinges as it can be flexed millions of times before
breaking.
PS - Polystyrene
Polystyrene is an inexpensive amorphous thermoplastics that has good me-
chanical proprieties. It is vitreous, brittle and has low strength. However it is
also hard and stiff. Foamed PS is used for packaging and insulation purposes.
PS is not weather resistant, and therefore not suitable for outdoor uses. PS is
transparent (it transmits about 90% of the sunlight) and has unlimited dyeing
possibilities. Assembly can be done with gluing.
Products: CD and MC covers, disposable drinking glass, glass for bicycle
lamp, salad bowl, razor (ordinary), razor (biodegradable), disposable articles,
signs, machine parts and picture frames etc.
PC - Polycarbonate
Polycarbonate is an amorphous plastic with very high impact strength, good
ductility and high stiffness. It is very difficult to break and the material is therefore
considered fracture-proof (e.g. bullet-proof glass).
Light transmission is 85-90% but depends on the thickness. It has good out-
doors resistance in the UV-stabilized form, but it tends to turn yellow by long
exposition to sunlight. PC is transparent and can be dyed in many colors. PC
has a relatively good chemical resistance.
Products: PC is commonly used for shielding of work places and machines,
sight glass, tubes etc. due to its transparency and high impact resistance, CD
compact disc, bullet-proof glass, water container.
ABS -Acrylonitrile-butadiene- styrene
Acrylnitrile contributes with thermal and chemical resistance, and the rub-
berlike butadiene gives ductility and impact strength. Styrene gives the glossy
surface and makes the material easily machinable and less expensive.
Generally, ABS has good impact strength also at low temperatures. It has sat-
isfactory stiffness and dimensional stability, glossy surface and is easy to machine.
If UV-stabilizators are added, ABS is suitable for outdoor applications.
Products: LEGO building bricks, Computer mouse, Vacuum jug, KimBox
suitcase, Ceramic advanced wet shave razor, Hedge cutter handle, Handle for
36
high pressure cleaner, Shaver, rechargeable, Ensemble chair (ABS blended with
PA), auto body parts, suitcases, toys etc. Extruded profiles, tubes and bolts can
be made from ABS when the requirements are high impact resistance and a nice
surface.
PA - Polyamide (nylon)
PA is a group of amorphous (transparent) and semi-crystalline (opal-white)
plastics. Arguments for using PA include strength (fishing line, axe handle),
wear resistance (bearings), barrier properties (food packaging) and machinability.
Polamide is recognised for good abrasion resistance, low friction coefficient, good
resistance to heat and good impact resistance. PA absorbs water which makes it
softer. UV-stabilizators are required for outdoor applications.
Products: Nylons (stockings), fishing line, bicycle trailer (rainproof cover),
bearing, axe, hedge cutter, handle for, high pressure cleaner, bottle for tomato
ketchup (barrier layer), ensemble chair (PA blended with ABS), bottle-opener.
Kevlar (aramid fibre) is a family of nylons.
Acrylic - PMMA (plexiglas)
PMMA (polymethyl-methacrylate) is an amorphous thermoplastic material
with very good optical properties (as transparent as glass and it allows 92% of
the sunlight to pass!).
PMMA is hard, stiff and medium strong, easy to scratch, notch sensitive,
but easy to polish and has a very good weather resistance. Exceptional outdoor
performance, such as weather and sunlight resistance, without reduction neither of
optical nor mechanical properties. PMMA is resistant to water, basics, inorganic
salts diluted in water, most diluted acids. It is not resistant to strong acids, basics
and polar solvents.
Products: Tail light glass, exhibition case, folding chair, kitchen scale, decora-
tion articles, transparent tubes, signs, windows, level glass etc..
POM - (polyoxymethylene) Acetal
Acetal is a crystalline plastic often used for technical applications due to its
strength, ductility and good machinability. It has good creep properties which
makes it suitable for click connections (e.g. bicycle lamp holder). It exhibits good
stiffness, strength and hardness up to 120◦ C, and the elasticity is comparable
with that of many metals. Acetal is wear resistant and has a very low friction
coefficient. The color is opaque white. To protect it from UV-light carbon black
can be added, changing its color into black.
37
Products: Vacuum jug (top), Holder for bicycle lamp, Fitting for Vico Duo
chair, Gearwheel.
PTFE - Fluoropolymer (Teflon)
Fluoropolymers can be used to make a variety of articles having a combination
of mechanical, electrical, chemical, temperature and friction-resisting properties
unmatched by articles made of any other material. Commercial use of these and
other valuable properties combined in one material has established TEFLON° R
resins as outstanding engineering materials for use in many industrial and mil-
itary applications. TEFLON° R
resins may also be compounded with fillers or
reinforcing agents to modify their performance in use.
TEFLON° R
PTFE resins have a continuous service temperature of 260◦ C
◦
(500 F). Much higher temperatures can be satisfactorily sustained for shorter
exposures.
Teflon is used in: Food processing, Electrical parts, Coaxial cable connectors,
Terminal insulators, Transformers, Relays, Medical industry, Washers, Gaskets,
Flanges, Valve components, Pump Components, Baffles, Seals, Bearings, Rings,
Bushings , High heat applications. Teflon is available as: Sheets, Rods, Tubes,
Heavy wall tubing, Film, Rectangular bar, Pressure sensitive, tape.
TPUR - Thermoplastic urethane (or TPU)
TPU is a urethane based TPE (thermoplastic elastomer). It is made of long
chained molecules of diols and diisocyanates. Urethane is the unit which is re-
peated in polyurethane. TPU has a very good abrasion resistance. It is a tough
material with a good elasticity over a wide temperature range. TPU is filling the
gap between rubber material and the more traditional thermoplastics.
The electrical conductance is very low. TPU is a hygroscopic material, and
the conductance is dependent on the content of moisture. TPU is resistant to
oil, fat, gasoline, and ozone. It is not resistant to hot water, steam, strong acids
and basics. Polyether based TPU is resistant to microbes. TPU is available in a
variety of qualities.
Products: Bumpers, hoses, tubes, sleeves, cushions, coating, insulators, apron
rollers etc.
PEEK - Polyetheretherketone
PEEK is a high temperature resistant engineered thermoplastic with excel-
lent chemical and fatigue resistance plus thermal stability. They exhibit superior
mechanical and electrical properties. With a maximum continuous working tem-
perature of 249◦ C (480◦ F), they have excellent retention of mechanical properties
38
up to 299◦ C (570◦ F) in a steam or high-pressure water environment. Superior
chemical resistance has allowed them to work effectively as a metal replacement
in harsh environments. They are inert to all common solvents and resist a wide
range of organic and inorganic liquids. When ∆extensive machining is required,
a secondary annealing process should be considered.
PEEK is an excellent material for a wide spectrum of applications where ther-
mal,chemical, and combustion properties are critical to performance. The addi-
tion of glass fiber and carbon fiber reinforcements enhances the mechanical and
thermal properties of the basic PEEK material.
Products: automobile engine parts, medical equipment, aerospace products.
Today there are primarily six commodity polymers in use, namely polyethylene,
polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride, polyethylene terephthalate, polystyrene and
polycarbonate. These make up nearly 98% of all polymers and plastics encoun-
tered in daily life.
3.5. Classification
• Standard plastics used in non-critical and low-stress applications are mate-
rials like PS, ABS, PVC, PP, HDPE, and LDPE.
• Engineering plastics that are used in general structural, bearing and wear
purpose are plastics like PPO (Polyphenylene oxide, modified), Acrylic, PC
(Polycarbonate), PET-P (Polyethylene Terephtalate), POM (Poly-oxymethylene
=Acetal), PA (Polyamide = Nylon), and UHMW-PE (Ultra high mole wt.
Polyethylene).
• improved properties
39
• reduced cost
• improved moldability
• wanted color
40
can be processed per extruder in a given period of time, and endothermic foaming
agents absorb heat and improve injection molding cycle time.
Antifogging agents
Antifogging agents reduce the formation of condensed droplets on the surface
of polyolefin films, such as for food-packaging or agricultural films, resulting in
better film transparency and consequently providing better food preservation.
Antistatic agents
These new permanent antistatic agents, form a conductive network throughout
the polymer matrix which dissipates the electrical charge as it builds up. They
are already effective for processing and even work at low environmental humidity.
Clarifying agents/Optical brighteners
Clarifying agents/optical brighteners are designed to give brilliance and whiten-
ing to a variety of applications. Synthetic fibers for example, have an inherent
yellowish tint. Add optical brighteners and the fibers appear cleaner and whiter.
IRGACLEAR° R
is a range of products that not only improves the clarity and
transparency of polypropylene, but also enhances the mechanical properties.
41
Figure 3.8: Presentation of the alignment of the plastic molecules in the orienting
process.
42
Like plastics, elastomers are either thermoplastic material (they can be remelted)
or thermoset material (that cannot be remelted). Rubber is an older name for
elastomers.
Elastomeric polymers do not follow Hooks’s law (as most engineering material
do). The behavior of the elastomers is a bit more complex due to the molecular
shape and the fact that small degree of viscous deformation in produced when
load is applied.
43
Figure 3.10: Common use of rubber.
1839.
Vulcanized rubber has numerous practical applications, such as
• excellent abrasion resistance which makes it valuable for the treads of vehicle
tires, conveyor belts (soft rubber), pump housings and piping used in the
handling of abrasive sludges (hard rubber).
• flexibility characteristics which makes it suitable for use in hoses, tires, and
rollers for a wide variety of devices ranging from domestic clothes wringers
to printing presses.
• its elasticity makes it suitable for various kinds of shock absorbers and for
specialized machinery mountings designed to reduce vibration. Since it its
relatively impermeable to gases its used as air hoses, balloons, balls, and
cushions.
• resistance to water and to the action of most fluid chemicals has led to its
use in rainwear, diving gear, and chemical and medicinal tubing, and as a
lining for storage tanks, processing equipment, and railroad tank cars.
44
• high electrical resistance, soft rubber goods are used as insulation and for
protective gloves, shoes, and blankets. Hence, hard rubber is used for articles
such as telephone housings, parts for radio sets, meters, and other electrical
instruments.
Rubber that has not undergone the vulcanization process has few practical
uses because of its poor heat resistance and high plasticity. It is used for cements,
adhesive, insulating, friction tapes and for crepe rubber used in insulating blankets
and footwear.
45
Figure 3.11: Poly(styrene-butadiene-styrene), or SBS.
46
Figure 3.12: Biopolymers.
cones can stand high temperatures without decomposing, but they have very low
glass transition temperatures.
3.8. Biopolymers
Biopolymers are an alternative to petroleum-based polymers (traditional plastics)
produced by living organisms. The field of biopolymers, is still in its early stage,
but is growing in popularity every day. The term biopolymers is often used for all
polymers that are made from natural renewable resources and/or are completely
biodegradable. Biopolymers can be produced by biological systems like micro-
organisms, plants and animals, or chemically synthesized from biological starting
materials (e.g. sugars, starch, natural fats or oils, etc.). Most of the biopolymers
are biodegradable, some of them are even water soluble, most of the biopolymers
are compostable or will biodegrade in landfill, time can vary from a couple of days
to even years, but they will eventually degrade.
Biopolymers can be used in all kinds of applications, and with all kinds of pro-
duction techniques, like injection moulding, thermoforming and blow moulding!
Some biopolymers can directly replace synthetic plastics in traditional applica-
tions, while others possess unique properties that may open new applications.
47
able, and not toxic to produce. According to the American Society for Testing and
Materials (ASTM), biopolymers are degradable polymers in which degradation
results from the action of naturally occurring micro-organisms such as bacteria,
fungi and algae.
• Nucleic acids (complex polymeric molecules which store and translate ge-
netic information )
48
be produced from different raw materials. Some examples of different types of
biopolymers are:
Starch-based polymers (SBP) are often a blend of starch and other plas-
tics (e.g PE), which allows for enhanced environmental properties. Starch is a
polymeric carbohydrate (a polysaccharide), in which the monomers are glucose
units joined to one another
Starch is abundantly present in many crops. The starch is stored in granules
within the plant. This facilitates the isolation from the plant. Starch may be
modified in order to become a thermoplastic. This makes the starch polymer
suitable for current processes in the plastics industry like: injection moulding
and extrusion. Thermoplastic starch has an affinity with moisture. The material
therefore is not suitable for wet food packaging applications. Direct contact with
water only is possible for a short time. By acetylation a certain resistance to
water may be achieved. By adding PCL the flexibility of the bioplastic increases.
Starch polymer has good oxygen barrier properties. Starch polymers are the most
produced and used biopolymers at the moment. Starch (in particular cornstarch)
is used in cooking for thickening foods such as sauce. In industry, it is used in the
manufacturing of adhesives, paper, textiles and as a mold in the manufacture of
sweets such as wine gums and jelly beans. It is a white powder, and depending
on the source, may be tasteless and odourless.
Cellulose polymers (cellulose esters, cellulose ethers, cellophane)
Cellophane is one of the oldest packaging materials. Cellulose pulp from trees
or cotton may be used to produce cellophane. It is a relatively expensive packaging
material which can be used for a wide range of products such as cd’s, candy and
cigarettes. The higher price is a reason why a large market share was lost to
polypropylene. At the moment new applications in which the specific properties
may be used, are sought for. The material is transparent and has good folding
properties. The foil has a high gas barrier and if a coating is applied may resist
water vapor as well.
Protein polymers
There is no information about protein polymers available yet, but see for in-
stance http://www.ppti.com/Technology/technology.htm.
49
3.8.4. Additional information on raw materials in biopolymers
Lactic acid is produced by the microbial fermentation of sugars such as glu-
cose or hexose. Feedstocks can include potato skins and corn. The lactic acid
monomers can be used to create low or high molecular weight polylactide poly-
mers (PLA). PLA commodity polymers are being developed for use as pulping
additives in paper manufacturing and as biodegradable packing materials, clothes,
cups, packaging and many other everyday products.
Polylactic acid (PLA) is derived from lactic acid for which carbohydrates
in sugar beets, potatoes, wheat, maize and milk are the source. Polylactic acid
is a substance familiar to the human body, as we ourselves produce it by every
muscle contraction. It can be broken down by the body.
PLA can be processed through for example injection moulding, foil blowing
and deep drawing. PLA may be applied as a coating. PLA is water resistant but
cannot withstand high temperatures (>55◦ C). In comparison to starch biopolymer
the degradation process is very slow. However, within a composting facility it can
be broken down in 3 to 4 weeks.
Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) (polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB), polyhydrox-
ybutyrate/valerate (PHB/HV))
PHA’s are generally derived through fermentation of glucose, sucrose of fatty
acids by micro-organisms.
PHB can be processed through for example injection moulding and deep draw-
ing. It is an excellent material for the coating of paper coffee cups. The most
important features of PHB are the resistance to high temperatures up to 120◦ C
and the resistance to water.
Chitin, a polysaccharide found in the exoskeletons of insects and shellfish,
possesses many desirable characteristics. Chitin’s most important derivative, chi-
tosan, is nearly a ”model” biopolymer with it’s useful physical and chemical prop-
erties, high strength, biodegradability, and nontoxicity. In fact, chitosan brings
new meaning to the word ”biodegradable” as the human body easily breaks it
down into simple carbohydrates, carbon dioxide, and water. This accounts for
the research that is trying to use chitosan in drug delivery systems.
Other natural Biopolymers:
Protein
Proteins are biopolymers consisting of one or more strings of amino acid
residues joined head-to-tail via peptide bonds. Protein also makes up much of
50
the structure of animals: collagen and keratin are components of skin, hair, and
cartilage; and muscles are composed largely of proteins.
Peptides
Peptides are the family of molecules formed from the linking, in a defined
order, of various amino acids. Peptides differ from proteins, which are also long
chains of amino acids, by virtue of their size. Traditionally, those peptide chains
that are short enough to make synthetically from the constituent amino acids are
called peptides rather than proteins. The dividing line is at approximately 50
amino acids in length, since naturally-occurring proteins tend, at their smallest,
to be hundreds of residues long.
DNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is the molecule in living things that contains
the coding information for creating proteins. It is also the molecule of heredity—
whenever an organism reproduces, each offspring gets a copy of its parents’ DNA.
RNA
Ribonucleic acid, a nucleic acid structurally distinguished from DNA by the
presence of an additional hydroxyl group attached to each pentose ring, and func-
tionally distinguished by its multiple roles in the intracellular transmission of
genetic information from the site of transcription (from DNA) to the site of trans-
lation (into protein).
51
Figure 3.13: One fifth of urban rubbish is plastics like polystyrene. °
c GettyImages
By weight, less than 3% of the final polymer is sugar, so the material is more
or less the same. But bacteria such as Pseudomonas and Bacillus break open the
chains when they chomp on these sugary snacks, kicking off decay.
It remains to be seen whether the polymer biodegrades into entirely non-toxic
substances. Fully broken down, the end products are carbon dioxide and water.
But along the way, all sorts of other compounds are produced, such as organic
acids and aldehydes.
Indeed, it is not yet clear how far, or how quickly, the plastic will break down
in the real world. And adding the sugar would require significant manufacturing
changes, which could be costly.
Other additives that make polythene, polystyrene and polypropylene biodegrad-
able have been toxic and can leach out of garbage. Another approach is to initiate
the breakdown process using heat, ultraviolet light or exposure to oxygen, but
this is cumbersome and expensive.
Published in: Nature News Service, 2.december 2002; see also
http://www.nature.com/nsu/021125/021125-12.html.
References:
Polymers:
http://www-materials.eng.cam.ac.uk/mpsite/
http://www.plasticsusa.com/
http://www.polymer-age.co.uk/directry/plastic.htm
http://www.mse.cornell.edu/courses/engri111/
http://www.amco.ws/home.asp
52
http://naturalrubber.cjb.net/
http://www3.jaring.my/inro/
http://www.phy.uni-bayreuth.de/theo/tp3/members/elast.htm
http://www.psrc.usm.edu/macrog/crystal.htm
http://www.uvi.edu/Physics/SCI3xxWeb/Structure/Polymerization.html
http://www.zeusinc.com/
http://islnotes.cps.msu.edu/trp/toc.html
http://abalone.cwru.edu/tutorial/enhanced/files/textbook.htm
http://www.thermosets.com/thermosets.html
http://www.aipma.org/t&ti/thermos.htm
http://www.polymer-age.co.uk/techlink.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_transition_temperature
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymer#Polymer_science
Elastomers:
http://www.psrc.usm.edu/macrog/elas.htm
Biopolymers:
http://www.biopolymer.net/
http://www.biopolymer.com/
http://www.biotec.de
http://www-classes.usc.edu/engr/ms/125/MDA125/biopolymers/
http://online.itp.ucsb.edu/online/infobio01/lancet2/
http://www.cheresources.com/biopoly2zz.shtml
http://www.proterra.nl/norms.html
http://www.dblab.helsinki.fi/~rtuma/biopolymers.htm
http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biopolymer
http://www.brooklyn.cuny.edu/bc/ahp/SDPS/PSLectNotes/SD.PS.LectP2.html
http://www.bipp.nl/about_3.html
http://www.forskning.no/Artikler/2002/desember/1038997297.18
http://www.nature.com/nsu/021125/021125-12.html
http://www.ppti.com/Technology/technology.htm
Galgali, P., Varma, A. J., Puntambekar, U. S. & Gokhale, D. V. Towards biodegradable
polyolefins: strategy of anchoring minute quantities of monosaccharides and dis-
accharides onto functionalized polystyrene, and their effect on facilitating polymer
biodegradation. Chemical Communications, 2002, 2884 - 2885, (2002).
Questions
• Explain the expression thermosetting and thermoplastic.
53
• What is the glass transition temperature?
• What is the difference between an amorphous and crystalline plastic?
• What happens to a thermoplastic when it is cooled down below melting tem-
perature?
• How do thermosetting polymers respond to subsequent heating?
• What is the difference between a saturated and an unsaturated molecule?
• Describe the two different processes of forming polymers: addition and conden-
sation.
• What are some attractive engineering properties of plastics, and in what area
do they fall?
• What are some reasons that additive agents are incorporated into plastics?
• What kind of additive agents are there, and what are their objective?
• What is the primary engineering benefit of an oriented plastic?
• What is the unique mechanical property of elastomeric materials?
• What is vulcanization?
• What is rubber?
• What is a SPI code, and what is it good for?
• What groups of SPI codes are there?
• What is a biopolymer?
• What kind of different biopolymers exist?
• What products can be made from biopolymers?
Polymers can be described as being thermosetting or thermoplastic
a. Why are the thermosetting polymers so different from thermoplastic polymers?
b. What decides if a polymer will be thermosetting or thermoplastic?
c. What are three important, common thermosetting polymers?
d. What are three important, common thermoplastic polymers?
Polymers can be described as being amorphous or crystalline polymers
a. Compare the physical and chemical properties of amorphous and crystalline
polymers.
b. What are three important amorphous polymers?
c. What are three important crystalline polymers?
d. How does light penetration qualities depend on the degree of crystallization?
54
4. Composites
Composite materials are materials that combine two or more materials (a selected
filler or reinforcing elements and compatible matrix binder) that have quite differ-
ent properties that when combined offer properties which are more desirable than
the properties of the individual materials . The different materials work together
to give the composite unique properties, but within the composite you can easily
see the different materials, they do not dissolve or blend into each other.
The key characteristic of composites is the
Composites are not a single material but a family of materials whose stiffness,
strength, density, and thermal and electrical properties can be tailored. The
matrix, the reinforcement material, the volume and shape of the reinforcement,
the location of the reinforcement, and the fabrication method etc. can all be
varied to achieve required properties.
Composite applications
Specific composite applications are detailed in each market category:
• Transportation
• Electrical/Electronics
• Building Construction
• Infrastructure
• Aerospace/Defense
• Consumer/Recreation
• Medical Products
• Sport equipment
55
4.1. The history of composites
The theory behind the construction of composite materials comes from the need
to create a strong stiff and light material.
Materials such as glass, carbon and Kevlar have extremely high tensile and
compressive strength, but in solid form, many random surface flaws present in such
materials, cause them to crack and fail at a much lower stress that it theoretically
should.
To overcome this problem, the material is produced in a fibre form, although
the flaws will occur at the same frequency, the flaws will be reduced to a small
number of fibres at any one point, and the remaining ones will carry the load with
the materials theoretical strength. To prevent flaws occurring from abrasion on
the surface of the material, or from existing flaws transferring to other fibres, it is
necessary to isolate the fibres. This is why a resin matrix system is used.
Another well-known composite is concrete. Here, aggregate (small stones or
gravel) is bound together by cement. Concrete has good strength under compres-
sion, and it can be made stronger under tension by adding metal rods, wires, mesh
or cables to the composite (so creating reinforced concrete).
Most composites are made up of just two materials. One material (the matrix
or binder) surrounds and binds together a cluster of fibres or fragments of a much
stronger material (the reinforcement). There are both natural and man-made
composites.
Spider silk
Spider silk is a biopolymer fibre and a natural composite material, see Figure
4.2.
Its composition is a mix of an amorphous polymer (which makes the fibre
elastic), and the two simplest proteins (which give it toughness), in other words,
it is simply a protein. The result is a good combination of strength and toughness.
56
Figure 4.1: The cell-structure of a natural composite, a tree.
Human hair, bone and muscles are also natural composites. These kind of
structures are also called hierarchical structures since they have structures in
many levels, see also chapter 9.4.
57
Figure 4.2: Spidersilk.
58
Figure 4.3: Composite materials with different types of reinforcements.
The threads of glass in fiberglass are very strong under tension but they are
also brittle and will snap if bent sharply. The matrix not only holds the fibres
together, it also protects them from damage by sharing any stress among them.
The matrix is soft enough to be shaped with tools, and can be softened by suitable
solvents to allow repairs to be made. Any deformation of a sheet of fiberglass
necessarily stretches some of the glass fibres, and they are able to resist this, so
even a thin sheet is very strong. It is also quite light, which is an advantage in
many applications.
Over recent decades many new composites have been developed, some with
very valuable properties. By carefully choosing the reinforcement, the matrix,
and the manufacturing process that brings them together, engineers can tailor
the properties to meet specific requirements. They can, for example, make the
composite sheet very strong in one direction by aligning the fibres that way, but
weaker in another direction where strength is not so important. They can also
select properties such as resistance to heat, chemicals, and weathering by choosing
an appropriate matrix material.
59
4.3.1. Fiber-Reinforced Composites
Fiber Reinforced Plastics (FRP) is a general term for composite materials or parts
that consist of a resin matrix that contains reinforcing fibers such as glass or fiber
and have greater strength or stiffness than the resin. FRP is most often used to
denote glass fiber-reinforced plastics.
Reinforcing fibers can be made of metals, ceramics, glasses, or polymers that
have been turned into graphite and known as carbon fibers.
Fibers increase the modulus of the matrix material. The strong covalent bonds
along the fiber’s length gives them a very high modulus in this direction because
to break or extend the fiber the bonds must also be broken or moved. Fibers are
difficult to process into composites, making fiber-reinforced composites relatively
expensive.
Fiber-reinforced composites are used in some of the most advanced, and there-
fore most expensive, sports equipment, such as a time-trial racing bicycle frame
which consists of carbon fibers in a thermoset polymer matrix. Body parts of
race cars and some automobiles are composites made of glass fibers (fiberglass) or
carbon fibers in a thermoset matrix.
On the basis of stiffness and strength alone, fibre reinforced composite ma-
terials do not have a clear advantage particularly when it is noted that their
elongation to fracture is much more lower than metals with comparable strength.
The advantage of composite materials appear when the modulus per unit weight
(specific modulus) and strength per unit weight (specific strength) are considered.
The higher specific weight and high specific strength of the composite materials
means that the components weight can be reduced.
Although glass fibres are by far the most common reinforcement, many ad-
vanced composites now use fine fibres of pure carbon. Carbon fibres are much
stronger than glass fibres, but are also more expensive to produce. Carbon fibre
composites are light as well as strong. They are used in aircraft structures and in
sporting goods (such as golf clubs), and increasingly are used instead of metals to
repair or replace damaged bones. Even stronger (and more costly) than carbon
fibres are threads of boron.
60
(AFRP). Another familiar term used is Fiber Reinforced Plastics. In addition,
other acronyms were developed over the years and its use depended on geograph-
ical location or market use. For example, Fiber Reinforced Composites (FRC),
Glass Reinforced Plastics (GRP), and Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC) can
be found in many references. Although different, each of before mentioned terms
mean the same thing; FRP composites.
There are many ways of classifying composite materials. For instance, we can
classify the microcomposite materials based on the size, shape and distribution of
the different phases in the composite for instance like this:
• Continuous fibres in matrix: aligned, random
• Short fibres in matrix: aligned, random
• Particulates (spheres, plates, ellipsoids, irregular, hollow or solid) in matrix
• Dispersion strengthened, as for the point above, but the particle size <
10−8 m
• Lamellar structures (used in laminates)
• Skeletal or interpenetrating networks
• Multicomponent, fibres, particles etc.
Clearly, the distinction between the different groups is not always a sharp one.
Nanocomposites are composites on nanoscale (10−9 meter). They have con-
stituents that are mixed on a nanometer-length scale.
Mostly, we classify composites according to their matrix phase. The role of the
matrix is to act as a medium to keep the fibers properly oriented and to protect
them from the environment. There are ceramic matrix composites (CMC’s), metal
matrix composites (MMC’s), and polymer matrix composites (PMC’s). Materials
within these categories are often called ”advanced” if they combine the properties
of high strength and high stiffness, low weight, corrosion resistance, and in some
cases special electrical properties. This combination of properties makes advanced
composites very attractive for aircraft and aerospace structural parts.
61
Figure 4.4: Failure modes for monolithic ceramic and CFCCs.
matrix composites (CMCs) have thus been developed that combine a matrix mate-
rial with a reinforcing phase of different composition (such as alumina and silicon
carbide) or the same composition (alumina/alumina or silicon carbide/silicon car-
bide).
Figure 4.5 compares the approximate service temperature ranges of some im-
portant polymers, metals and ceramics.
The CMC market is divided into two classes; the oxide and non-oxide mate-
rials. Some of the more common oxide matrices include alumina, silica, mullite,
barium aluminosilicate, lithium aluninosilicate and calcium aluminosilicate. Ox-
ide matrices are often more mature and environmentally stable, but non-oxide
ceramics have more superior structural properties and hardness are rapidly enter-
ing the marketplace. Examples of non-oxide ceramics are silicone carbide (SiC),
silicone nitride (Si3 N4 ), boron carbide (B4 C) and aluminium nitride (AlN).
The oxide CMCs often consist of oxide fibers (for instance alumina Al2 O3 ),
while the non-oxide CMCs consist of non-oxide fibers (for instance SiC) (see also
Chapter 4.7 for more information concerning fibers). Non-oxide CMCs are more
advanced than oxide CMCs since they have higher thermal conductivity, lower
62
Figure 4.5: Service temperature ranges of some important polymers, metals and ce-
ramics.
thermal expansion and are more stable at high temperatures than oxide CMCs.
The non-oxide CMCs are used in thermally loaded components (combustor liners,
vanes, blades and heat exchangers). The oxide CMCs have good oxidation resis-
tance, alkali corrosion resistance, low dielectric constants and potentially low cost,
and are therefore used for hot gas filters, exhaust components of aircraft engines,
and in long-life, lower temperature components.
The reinforcements of CMCs can include carbides, borides and oxides. Specific
examples of reinforcements include carbon, silicon carbide, titanium diboride,
silicon nitride and alumina. Some of the more common ceramic discontinuous
reinforcement include whiskers, platelets, and particulates having compositions of
Si3 N4 , SiC, AlN, titanium dibori, boron carbide, and boron nitride.
Ceramics and CMCs can also result in fuel efficiency in heat engines because of
higher operating temperatures, and reduction or elimination of cooling systems.
The temperature requirement in such applications is not as high as in aerospace
materials applications. Other applications of CMCs include wear parts, such as
seals, nozzles, pads, liners, grinding wheels, brakes, etc. For instance, carbon fiber
reinforced carbon composites are being used in aircraft brakes.
63
4.5. Metal Matrix Composites MMC
Metal Matrix Composites (MMC’s) are increasingly found in the automotive in-
dustry. They consist of a metal such as aluminium as the matrix, and a reinforce-
ment that could be continuos fibres such as silicon carbide, graphite or alumina,
wires such as tungsten, beryllium, titanium and molybdenium, and discontinuous
materials. Metals containing ceramic particles, whiskers or (short or long) fibers
are also gaining importance. MMC are said to be materials for the demands of
the future.
When the demands for high thermal conductivity, reduced weight, heat dissi-
pation, and high strength are factors for design, MMCs represent the Next Genera-
tion of solutions for today’s electronic requirements. Metal-matrix composites are
either in use or prototyping for the Space Shuttle, commercial airliners, electronic
substrates, bicycles, automobiles, golf clubs, and a variety of other applications.
While the vast majority are aluminum matrix composites, a growing number of
applications require the matrix properties of superalloys, titanium, copper, mag-
nesium, or iron.
Regardless of the variations, however, aluminum composites offer the advan-
tage of low cost over most other MMCs. In addition, they offer excellent thermal
conductivity, high shear strength, excellent abrasion resistance, high-temperature
operation, nonflammability, minimal attack by fuels and solvents, and the ability
to be formed and treated on conventional equipment. Aluminum MMCs are ap-
plied in brake rotors, pistons, and other automotive components, as well as golf
clubs, bicycles, machinery components, electronic substrates, extruded angles and
channels, and a wide variety of other structural and electronic applications.
Compared to monolithic metals, MMCs have:
• Higher strength-to-density ratios
• Higher stiffness-to-density ratios
• Better fatigue resistance
• Better elevated temperature properties: -Higher strength
-Lower creep rate
• Lower coefficients of thermal expansion
• Better wear resistance
64
• Higher temperature capability
• Fire resistance
• Higher transverse stiffness and strength
• No moisture absorption
• Higher electrical and thermal conductivities
• Better radiation resistance
• No outgassing
• Fabricability of whisker and particulate-
reinforced MMCs with conventional metalworking equipment
Some of the disadvantages of MMCs compared to monolithic metals and poly-
mer matrix composites are:
• Higher cost of some material systems
• Relatively immature technology
• Complex fabrication methods for fiber-reinforced systems (except for casting)
• Limited service experience
65
Figure 4.6:
66
4.7.1. Choosing fibers
The fibers in advanced composites are usually non-metallic in nature, consisting
of such materials as glass, carbon, silicon carbide, alumina, boron or Kevlar.
Other fibers such as spectra and quartz are also available, but these are usually
reserved for specialized application. The table below shows some advantages and
disadvantages of some fibertypes, while Figure 4.7 shows some properties of some
fibers.
Fiber Advantages Disadvantages
E-, S-Glass - High strength - Low stiffness
- Low cost - Short fatigue life
- High temp sensitivity
Aramid (Kevlar) - High tensile strength - Low comp. strength
- Low density - High moisture absorp.
Boron - High stiffness - High cost
- High comp. strength
Carbon (AS4, T300) - High strength - Moderate cost
- High stiffness
Graphite (pitch) - Very high stiffness - Low strength
- High cost
Ceramic (silicon - High stiffness - Low strength
carbide, alumina) - High use temp - High cost
Figure 4.8 shows a plot of specific strength vs. specific stiffness of some fibers.
67
Figure 4.7: Properties of some fibers.
68
interface. Attention to fiber surface preparation, such as use of a surface finish
or coupling agent and selection of a compatible fiber and matrix combination,
ensures good adhesion.
We will have a closer look at some types of fibers.
to the chemical composition of the mixture, but they are also influenced by the
spinning way. Usually, they are divided into:
69
The two types of glass fibers that are most common are the E-glass and S-
glass. The first type is the most used, and takes its name from its good electrical
properties (no electrical interference in thunderstorms, and no sparks). The second
type is very strong (S-glass), stiff, and temperature resistant. They are used as
reinforcing materials in many sectors, e.g. automotive and naval industries, sport
equipment. S-glass are used for instance in aircraft flooring, helicopter blades etc.
Some properties for E- and S- glass are listed in the following table:
E-glass S-glass
◦ ◦
- softens at ≈850 C - softens at ≈1000 C
- most inexpensive fiber ≈ 30% stronger than E-glass
- most commonly used fiber today ≈ 15% stiffer than E-glass
- insulators and capacitors ≈ 3 times as expensive as E-glass
- high quality glass fiber
- high technical purposes
The most widely used composite material is fiberglass in polyester resin, which
is commonly referred to as just fiberglass. Fiberglass is light weight, corrosion
resistant, economical, easily processed, has good mechanical properties, and has
over 50 years of history. It is the dominant material in industries such as boat
building and corrosion equipment, and it plays a major role in industries such as
automotive, medical, recreational, and industrial equipment.
Quartz fibers Quartz fibers (SiO2 ) are very high silica version of glass with
much higher mechanical properties and excellent resistance to high temperatures
◦
and can be used continuously to 1048.9 C and for short-temperature applications,
◦
even to 1248,9 C. They are more expensive than E-glass and S-glass, provide
significantly better electromagnetic properties than glass, making them a good
choice for parts such as aircraft radomes.
70
Figure 4.10: Carbon fibre.
Carbon fibers, see Figure 4.10, are the stiffest and strongest reinforcing fibres for
polymer composites, the most used after glass fibres. Made of pure carbon in
form of graphite, they have low density and a negative coefficient of longitudi-
nal thermal expansion. Carbon fibres are very expensive and can give galvanic
corrosion in contact with metals. They are generally used together with epoxy,
where high strength and stiffness are required, i.e. race cars, automotive and space
applications, sport equipment.
71
alumina, carbon, zirconia, and silicon carbide in addition. The more sophisticated
kinds of fibers, have a basis of borate, carbide, silicon nitrure and borate nitrure.
They are very expensive fibers because only a small quantity is produced, and
they are used in particular fields such as aerospace.
Ceramic fibers offer high to very high temperature resistance but poor im-
pact resistance and relatively poor room-temperature properties. They are often
divided into the following two groups:
* Non-oxide fibers can be such as Siliconcarbide (SiC), boron nitride (BN),
silicon nitride (SiN), aluminium nitride (AlN) and multiphase fibers consisting of
silicon, carbon, boron, nitride, titanium, (Si-C-B-N-Ti).
* Oxide fibers can be such as aluminium oxide (Al2 O3 ), alumina zirconia mix-
tures (Al2 O3 +Zr2 O2 ), yttria-alumina-garnet (YAG), and mullite (3Al2 O3 -2SiO2 ).
Ceramic fibers of pure Al2 O3 in a single crystalline microstructure are called sap-
phire fibers.
impenetrability is required, e.g. bulletproof vests, bike tires, airplanes wings, and
sport equipment. These fibres are not as spread as glass or carbon fibres, mostly
because of their cost, high water absorption, and their difficult post-processing.
72
(References: DuPont (Kevlar° R
) Fibers of KEVLAR° R
consist of long molec-
ular chains produced from poly-paraphenylene terephthalamide). PPTA is the
acronym for para-phenylen-terephthalamid.
Polymers are not only used for the matrix, they also make a good reinforcement
material in composites. For example, Kevlar is a polymer fibre that is immensely
strong and adds toughness to a composite. It is used as the reinforcement in
composite products that require lightweight and reliable construction (e.g., struc-
tural body parts of an aircraft). Composite materials were not the original use
for Kevlar; it was developed to replace steel in radial tires and is now used in
bulletproof vests and helmets. Kevlar, and aramid-fiber composite can be used
as textile fibers. Applications include bullet-proof vests, tires, brake and clutch
◦
linings. Servicetemperature of Aramid fibre is up to 250 C, and its melting tem-
◦
perature is 426.7 C.
73
Figure 4.13: Liquid crystal polymer.
74
Figure 4.14: Spidersilk.
75
Figure 4.15: Crayons on Aerogel over a flame.
76
effect of the materials. For instance can we add metal salts, or other compounds
to a sol before gelation. Then we may obtain a deep blue aerogel by adding nickel;
while a pale green color appears by adding copper; a black gel contains carbon
and iron; and orange aerogel is added iron oxide. It is also possible to obtain a
magnetic aerogel by using chemical vapor infiltration to get iron oxide introduced
in the material. The aerogel can also be made photoluminescent, which means
that it glows-in-the-dark by using a pigment that absorbs light and emits that
energy over a period of time -even after the light source has been removed. The
pigment is rechargeable.
Flexible aerogels
In the mid to late 1990’s, Aspen Systems perfected proprietary changes in
the formulation, processing and drying of aerogels, reducing drying time to a few
hours. Besides a cost effective drying time, the aerogels were also isolated in the
form of thin, flexible blankets. The blankets were much more robust than the
monoliths and beads, and could also be easily installed like any other flexible bat-
ting. These breakthroughs led to the formation of Aspen Aerogels, Inc. in 2001,
and the commercialization of aerogel technology for broad use, see for instance
the Figure 4.16
Aspen Aerogels has created a variety of organic and inorganic/organic hy-
brid aerogel formulations including those made from polydimethylsiloxane/silica,
cellulose polyurethane, polyimide, polymethylmethacrylate/silica, and polybuta-
diene rubber. These materials show enhanced physical and mechanical properties
relative to pure silica aerogel.
As shown in the table below, aerogels offer significantly more insulating value
per unit of material than other insulations:
W
Material Thermal Conductivity (k) [ mK ]
Aerogel 0.012
Polyurethane foam 0.021
Polystyrene foam 0.038
Microporous silica 0.019-0.038
fiberglass 0.040
Mineral wool 0.038
Perlite 0.040-0.060
Calcium Silicate 0.047
77
Figure 4.16: Areas that Aspens flexible aerogels can be used in. The picture is from:
http://www.aerogel.com/markets.htm
78
Figure 4.17: Three dimensional braiding of composite structures.
substances such as bone or sea shells, also called bio-inspired materials. Such
biologically inspired materials can adapt to changing conditions and therefore
they can help to make airplanes and spacecraft lighter, stronger and more reliable.
New advanced materials can also be able to change their shapes (i.e. airplane
wings which today is done with hydraulics). The hope is to find materials that
change shape on command because then we could improve for instance airplanes
tremendously.
Also the so-called ’self-healing’ materials could be very important to space
exploration, thus even small sand grain particle of a meteor could puncture the
hull of existing space vehicles.
79
Figure 4.18: Self healing composite from http://www.cerncourier.com.
”Often these cracks occur deep within the structure where detection is diffi-
cult and repair is virtually impossible.” In the new material, however, the repair
process begins as soon as a crack forms.
”When the material cracks, the microcapsules rupture and release the healing
agent into the damaged region through capillary action,” White said. ”As the
healing agent contacts the embedded catalyst, polymerization is initiated which
then bonds the crack face closed.”
In recent fracture tests, the self-healed composites recovered as much as 75
percent of their original strength. And because microcracks are the precursors to
structural failure, the ability to heal them will enable structures that last longer
and require less maintenance.
The concept of the autonomic healing system.
”Filling the microcracks will also mitigate the harmful effects of environ-
mentally assisted degradation such as moisture swelling and corrosion cracking,”
White said. ”This technology could increase the lifetime of structural components,
perhaps by as much as two or three times.”
The ability to self-repair and restore structural integrity also could extend the
lifetimes of polymer composite circuit boards, where microcracks can lead to both
mechanical and electrical failure.
80
Figure 4.19: (a) In a right-handed material, where both permittivity and permeability
are positive, the index of refraction is positive and the law of optics follow our intuition.
(b) This is not the case in a left-handed material with negative permittivity and perme-
ability. In that case the index of refraction is negative and a convergent lens becomes
divergent. Figure from: http://www.ifh.ee.ethz.ch/~martin/res10.en.html
81
announced their discovery at a news conference. ”While they obey the laws of
physics, they are predicted to behave totally different from normal materials and
should find interesting applications.”
The unusual property of this new class of materials is essentially its ability
to reverse many of the physical properties that govern the behavior of ordinary
materials. One such property is the Doppler effect, which makes a train whistle
sound higher in pitch as it approaches and lower in pitch as it recedes. According
to Maxwell’s equations, which describe the relationship between magnetic and
electric fields, microwave radiation or light would show the opposite effect in this
new class of materials, shifting to lower frequencies as a source approaches and to
higher frequencies as it recedes.
Similarly, Maxwell’s equations further suggest that lenses that would normally
disperse electromagnetic radiation would instead focus it within this composite
material. This is because Snell’s law, which describes the angle of refraction
caused by the change in velocity of light and other waves through lenses, water
and other types of ordinary material, is expected to be exactly opposite within
this composite.
”If these effects turn out to be possible at optical frequencies, this material
would have the crazy property that a flashlight shining on a slab can focus the
light at a point on the other side,” said Schultz. ”There’s no way you can do that
with just a sheet of ordinary material.”
Underlying the reversal of the Doppler effect, Snell’s law, and Cerenkov ra-
diation (radiation by charged particles moving through a medium) is that this
new material exhibits a reversal of one of the ”right-hand rules” of physics which
describe a relationship between the electric and magnetic fields and the direction
of their wave velocity.
The new materials are known by the UCSD team colloquially as ”left-handed
materials,” after a term coined by Veselago, because they reverse this relationship.
What that means is physically counterintuitive-pulses of electromagnetic radiation
moving through the material in one direction are composed of constituent waves
moving in the opposite direction.
The UCSD physicists emphasized that while they believe their new class of
composites will be shown to reverse Snell’s law, the specific composite they pro-
duced will not do so at visible-light frequencies. Instead, it is now limited to
transmitting microwave radiation at frequencies of 4 to 7 Gigahertz-a range some-
where between the operation of household microwave ovens (3.3 Gigahertz) and
military radars (10 Gigahertz).
82
The composite constructed by the UCSD team-which also consisted of Willie
J. Padilla, David C. Vier, and Syrus C. Nemat-Nasser-was produced from a series
of thin copper rings and ordinary copper wire strung parallel to the rings. It is
an example of a new class of materials scientists call ”metamaterials.” ”Even
though it is composed of only copper wires and copper rings, the arrangement has
an effective magnetic response to microwaves that has never been demonstrated
before,” said Schultz.
What’s unusual about the new class of materials produced by the UCSD team
is that it simultaneously has a negative electric permittivity and a negative mag-
netic permeability, a combination of properties never before seen in a natural or
man-made material.
”And the interesting thing is that it’s produced with no magnetic material,”
said Schultz. ”It’s all done with copper.”
”The bottom line,” said Smith, ”is that this material- this metamaterial, at
frequencies where both the permittivity and permeability are negative, behaves
according to a left-handed rule, rather than a right-handed rule.”
Questions
• What is the theory behind composite materials?
• What is a composite material?
• How do we classify composite materials according to their matrix phase?
• What is the greatest advantage of composite materials?
• What is the greatest disadvantage of composite materials?
• Why is specific modulus and specific strength important?
• What does Fiber Reinforced Plastics (FRP) mean?
• What kind of reinforcement can composites have? Illustrated them.
• What kind of fibers are there, and what are their advantages/disadvantages?
• What is so special about spider silk, can you find out the prospect for commer-
cialisation of spider silk?
• What is the primary function of the reinforcement and the matrix in the com-
posite material?
• How do we find the modulus of the entire composite?
• How do we classify composites?
•What is so special about high performance materials?
• What is the strength of the composite primarily depending on?
• What is CMC, MMC, and PMC? What are the differences? Where are the
applications?
83
• What is the advantages of MMCs compared to monolithic metals?
• What is the advantages of MMCs compared to PMC’s?
• What is the disadvantages of MMCs compared to PMC’s and monolithic metals?
• How does a self-healing composite work?
• What is a left-handed material?
• What is a metamaterial?
References:
Natural composites:
http://www.imb-jena.de/~sponner/Current.html
Fibers
http://www.azonano.com/news.asp?newsID=82
MMC:
http://www.tms.org/pubs/journals/JOM/0104/Rawal-0104.html
http://www.electrovac.com/metall/indexe.htm
http://www.machinedesign.com/bde/materials/compsites/rvmat2d.html
http://www.pcc-aft.com/tech/mmc/mmc.html
Ceramics:
http://www-materials.eng.cam.ac.uk/mpsite/properties/non-IE/max_service_temp.html
http://www.albint.com/web/techweav/techw.nsf/
http://www.engr.utk.edu/~cmc/
http://www.onera.fr/dmsc-en/matcer/
http://www.mmat.ubc.ca/other/courses/mmat382/cnc63.htm
http://books.nap.edu/books/0309059968/html/7.html#pagetop
http://www.ms.ornl.gov/programs/energyeff/cfcc/iof/chap24-6.pdf
PMC
http://www.npl.co.uk/npl/cmmt/cog/cmmthm098.html
http://www.egr.msu.edu/cmsc/nsf/polymeric.html
http://www.raypubs.com
http://www.raypubs.com/hpcsb/sbover2.html#partdesign
High-performance composites:
http://www.etcusa.com/hpc/
Material database on internet:
http://www.matweb.com/index.asp?ckck=1
84
Composites:
http://composite.about.com/mbody.htm
http://composite.about.com/cs/aboutcomposites/
http://www.mil17.org/
http://www.netcomposites.com/
http://www.science.org.au/nova/059/059key.htm
http://www.efunda.com/materials/polymers/properties/
polymer_cat.cfm?MajorID=PA
http://www.sdplastics.com/
http://www.howstuffworks.com/ question87.htm
http://www.users.globalnet.co.uk/~weeks/Composite%20Materials.htm
http://callisto.my.mtu.edu/my472/
http://home.earthlink.net/~ttc/about.html
http://www.mech.utah.edu/~rusmeeha/labNotes/composites.html
http://ice.chem.wisc.edu/materials/composite.html
http://www.psrc.usm.edu/macrog/index.htm
http://callisto.my.mtu.edu/MY472/
http://www.matweb.com/searchcompenglish.htm
http://plastics.about.com/library/weekly/aa980323.htm
http://www.advancedcomposites.com/technology.htm
http://www.nap.edu/books/0309059968/html/index.html
http://www.technica.net/NF/NF2/efibreinorganiche.htm
http://www.fibreglast.com/
Aerogel materials:
http://www.ntnu.no/gemini/2002-05/16-19.htm
http://www.tu.no/snadder/article.jhtml?articleID=14148
http://stardust.jpl.nasa.gov/tech/aerogel.html
http://www.taasi.com/what.htm
http://www.aspensystems.com/
http://www.aerogel.com/technology.htm
Textile composites:
http://www.mtm.kuleuven.ac.be/Research/C2/poly/Modelling.htm
http://www.muratec.net/braider/
http://www.engr.ukans.edu/~rhale/textiles/index.htm
http://www.ntcresearch.org/pdf-rpts/AnRp00/I00-A06.pdf
http://www.innovationave.com/storage/PDF/advmaterials/ghosh.pdf
85
http://fiberarchitects.com/
http://www.mtm.kuleuven.ac.be/Research/C2/poly/wisetex.html
http://www.stru.polimi.it/Compositi/Compositi_dx.htm
John Summerscales, Microstructural characterisation of fibre-reinforced compos-
ites, ISBN 1 85573 240 8, 320 pages, 1998.
General:
http://claymore.engineer.gvsu.edu/~jackh/eod/
Race-car:
http://www.mse.cornell.edu/courses/engri111/racecar.htm
FRP manufact:
http://www.owenscorning.com/owens/composites/about/introduction.asp
Sspace-age materials:
http://www.spacedaily.com/news/materials-02zh.html
High-performance composites:
http://www.etcusa.com/hpc/
http://www.raypubs.com/hpcsb/sboverview.html
http://www.atlcomposites.com/products_composite_duflex_intro.htm
http://www.quadrantepp-europe.com/idqua001.asp
http://www.bayplastics.co.uk/
http://www.tstar.com/pdf/quadrant-DF.pdf
High-performance materials:
http://www.hiper-group.com/hcproducts.htm
Self-healing material:
http://www.news.uiuc.edu/scitips/01/0214selfheal.html
http://www.globaltechnoscan.com/21stFeb-27thFeb01/biological.htm
Left-handed composite materials/metamaterials:
http://ucsdnews.ucsd.edu/newsrel/science/mccomposite.htm
http://www-physics.ucsd.edu/lhmedia/
http://www.ing.dk/konf/root/redproduktion/sub/graenseland/html/0106.html
http://physics.ucsd.edu/~drs/left_home.htm
http://www.ifh.ee.ethz.ch/~martin/res10.en.html
http://physics.ucsd.edu/lhmedia/
86
5. Smart (intelligent) Materials and Structures
Smart materials are not smarter than you. Smart materials respond to environ-
mental stimuli with particular changes in some variables. For that reason they
are often also called responsive materials or functional materials. Depending on
changes in some external conditions, ”smart” materials change either their prop-
erties (mechanical, electrical, appearance), their structure or composition, or their
functions. They are materials able to transform other forms of energy to mechan-
ical energy and, sometimes, vice versa. These are unique type of materials and
have similarities in microstructures and deformation mechanisms. Fundamental
understanding on the behavior of these materials is still on the way, meanwhile,
various novel applications of these materials are found of successful.
The technological field of smart materials (see [16]) has evolved over the past
decades with increasing pace during the 1990s.
At a more sophisticated level, such smart materials become intelligent when
they have the ability to respond intelligently and autonomously to dynamically-
changing environmental conditions.
Potential applications are widespread and have excited interest in industrial,
military, commercial, medical, automotive and aerospace fields. Embedded fibre-
optic sensing systems are employed in many engineering disciplines to monitor
critical characteristics. Several smart skins programmes have been initiated for
both civil and military aircraft. Large space structures are also candidates for the
incorporation of smart structural systems because of the variable service condi-
tions in which they operate. Typical applications include, sensors and actuators,
vibration suppression and damping device, micro-electro-mechanical-system, bio-
medical engineering, space, robot, etc., to name a few. These materials will greatly
help us to further improve the way of living of our human being (see i.e.[19]).
Furthermore, one should note that the terms Smart materials, Intelligent Ma-
terials, Active Materials, Adaptive Materials, (and to some extent) actuators and
sensors, are almost always, used interchangeably. We will consider the following
4 main groups of smart materials in more detail
• — Color Changing Materials
— Light Emitting Materials
— Moving Materials
— Temperature Changing Materials
87
5.1. Color Changing Materials
Color changing materials are materials that change color due to different external
stimuli.
88
Figure 5.2: Thermochromic material.
89
the source of excitement is removed, see Figure 5.4.
90
Afterglow effect pigments are polycrystalline inorganic zinc sulphide (green
afterglow) or alkaline earth sulphides (red or blue afterglow), and can be used in
paints, inks or mixed to moulding or casting materials for different applications.
(PAni) and polypyrrole (PPY). Polipyrrole has been used for the development
of micro muscles. Polyaniline films sandwiched around a ion-conducting film are
considered as material for artificial muscles for robots. A current flow reduces one
side and oxidizes the other. Ions are transferred. One side expands and the other
contracts, resulting in a bending of the sandwich, see Figure 5.6. Electrical and
chemical energies are in this way transformed into mechanical energy.
Conducting polymers are still at a research level. Presently, the expected
lifetime of the muscle is of 100.000 actuations. In the Year 2000 Alan Heeger got
the Nobel Price in chemistry for the invention of a conducting polymer.
91
5.3.2. Dielectric elastomers
Dielectric elastomers (also called electrostrictive polymers) exhibit a mechanical
strain when subjected to an electric field as shown in Figure 5.7. The most com-
92
Figure 5.8: Piezoelectric material.
(up to 1000 times in volume) due to small changes in their environment (pH,
temperature, electric field). Micro sized gel fibres contract in milliseconds, while
thick polymers layers require minutes to react (up to 2 hours or even days). They
have high strength and can deliver sizeable stress (approximately equal to that of
human muscles).
The most common are polyvinylalcohol (PVA), polyacrylicacid (PAA) and
93
polyacrylonitrile (PAN). There are many potential applications for these mate-
rials (e.g. artificial muscles, robot actuators, adsorbers of toxic chemicals), but
presently, few of them have a commercial diffusion. Response time is still not
fast enough for artificial muscles. Lifetime of a gel actuator is very short. Their
structure gradually degrades and they become unusable. Commercial reality is
still far away.
Shape-memory materials are also superelastic, namely they are able to sustain
a large deformation at a constant temperature, and when the deforming force
is released they return to their original undeformed shape. Typically, they can
undergoe elastic strain up to 10%.
The shape memory effect is a unique property of certain alloys. Even though
the alloy is deformed in the low temperature phase, it recovers its original shape on
being heated to a critical higher temperature. The material is one that undergoes
a change of crystal structure at a certain temperature called the transformation
temperature. Above this temperature the material has one crystal structure (cubic
94
in the case of Cu-Al-Ni) and below this temperature it has another (orthorhombic
for Cu-Al-Ni). The low temperature structure of these types of materials allows
the material to be easily and apparently permanently deformed. However on
heating the material returns to its high temperature structure which has only
one possible shape. Thus the material has ”remembered” its shape (see also
[20]). Generally, these materials can be plastically deformed at some relatively
low temperature, and upon exposure to some higher temperature will return to
their shape prior to the deformation. Materials that exhibit shape memory only
upon heating are referred to as having a one-way shape memory. Some materials
also undergo a change in shape upon recooling. These materials have a two-way
shape memory.
Products: SMA stent for veins, Superelastic glasses, Coffeepot thermostat,
Electrical connector.
Also shape-memory ceramics and polymers (SMP) exist. Shape-memory poly-
mer for instance, converts from a temporary shape (top) to its parent shape (bot-
tom) in 45 seconds at 65o C.
Commercial SME Alloys
The only two alloy systems that have achieved any level of commercial ex-
ploitation are the NiTi alloys and the copper-base alloys. Properties of the two
systems are quite different. The NiTi alloys have greater shape memory strain (up
to 8% versus 4 to 5% for the copper-base alloys), tend to be much more thermally
stable, have excellent corrosion resistance compared to the copper-base alloys’
medium corrosion resistance and susceptibility to stress-corrosion cracking, and
have much higher ductility. On the other hand, the copper-base alloys are much
less expensive, can be melted and extruded in air with ease, and have a wider
range of potential transformation temperatures. The two alloy systems thus have
advantages and disadvantages that must be considered in a particular application.
95
Figure 5.11: Magnetically controlled shape memory materials (MSM) replace machines.
96
of an electromagnet (coil) and a needle made of MSM-material.
source, heat is moved in the direction of the current (+ to -). Usually, they are
used for thermoelectric modules where a single couple or many couples (to obtain
larger cooling capacity) are combined. One face of the module cools down while
the other heats up, and the effect is reversible. Thermoelectric cooling allows for
small size and light devices, high reliability and precise temperature control, and
quiet operation. Disadvantages include high prices and high operating costs, due
to low energy efficiency.
97
Figure 6.1: Aluminium foam / functional gradient material in car.
98
Figure 6.2: Functional (FGM) gradient materials.
99
Figure 6.3: Functional (FGM) gradient materials.
100
Figure 7.1: The picture shows a solar cell which is made from a monocrystalline silicon
wafer.
101
advantage of different light absorption and charge separation mechanisms. Many
currently available solar cells are configured as bulk materials that are subse-
quently cut into wafers and treated in a "top-down" method of synthesis (silicon
being the most prevalent bulk material). Other materials are configured as thin-
films (inorganic layers, organic dyes, and organic polymers) that are deposited
on supporting substrates, while a third group are configured as nanocrystals and
used as quantum dots (electron-confined nanoparticles) embedded in a supporting
matrix in a "bottom-up" approach. Silicon remains the only material that is well-
researched in both bulk and thin-film configurations. The following is a current
list of light absorbing materials, listed by configuration and substance-name:
7.2. Silicon
By far, the most prevalent bulk material for solar cells is crystalline silicon (ab-
breviated as a group as c-Si), also known as "solar grade silicon". Bulk silicon
is separated into multiple categories according to crystallinity and crystal size in
the resulting ingot, ribbon, or wafer.
• Ribbon silicon: formed by drawing flat thin films from molten silicon and
having a multicrystalline structure. These cells have lower efficiencies than
poly-Si, but save on production costs due to a great reduction in silicon
waste, as this approach does not require sawing from ingots.
[edit]
102
7.3. Thin films
The various thin-film technologies currently being developed reduce the amount
(or mass) of light absorbing material required in creating a solar cell. This can
lead to reduced processing costs from that of bulk materials (in the case of silicon
thin films) but also tends to reduce energy conversion efficiency, although many
multi-layer thin films have efficiencies above those of bulk silicon wafers.
• CdTe: Cadmium telluride is an efficient light-absorbing material for thin-
film solar cells. CdTe is easier to deposit and more suitable for large-scale
production. Despite much discussion of the toxicity of CdTe-based solar
cells, this is the only technology (apart from amorphous silicon) that can be
delivered on a large scale.
• CIGS: are multi-layered thin-film composites. The abbreviation stands for
copper indium gallium diselenide. The best efficiency of a thin-film solar
cell as of December 2005 was 19.5% with CIGS absorber layer. Higher
efficiencies (around 30%) can be obtained by using optics to concentrate the
incident light.
• CIS: CIS is an abbreviation for general chalcopyrite films of copper indium
selenide (CuInSe2), CIGS mentioned above is a variation of CIS. While these
films can achieve 13.5% efficiency, their manufacturing costs at present are
high when compared with a silicon solar cell but continuing work is leading
to more cost-effective production processes
• Gallium arsenide (GaAs) multijunction:High-efficiency cells have been devel-
oped for special applications such as satellites and space exploration. These
multijunction cells consist of multiple thin films produced using molecular
beam epitaxy. A triple-junction cell, for example, may consist of the semi-
conductors: GaAs, Ge, and GaInP2. GaAs multijunction devices are the
most efficient solar cells to date, reaching a record high of 40.7% efficiency
under solar concentration and laboratory conditions. In production, GaAs
triple-junction cells reach efficiencies above 28.3%. They are also some of
the most expensive cells per unit area (up to US$40/cm2 ).
• Dye-sensitized solar cells are a relatively new class of low-cost solar cells.
They are based on a semiconductor formed between a photo-sensitized an-
ode and an electrolyte, a photoelectrochemical system. Typically a ruthe-
nium metalorganic dye (Ru-centered) used as a monolayer of light-absorbing
103
material. The dye-sensitized solar cell depends on a mesoporous layer of
nanoparticulate titanium dioxide to greatly amplify the surface area (200-
300 m2 /gram TiO2, as compared to approximately 10 m2 /gram of flat single
crystal).
• Organic solar cells and Polymer solar cells are built from thin films (typically
100 nm) of organic semiconductors such as polymers and small-molecule
compounds like polyphenylene vinylene, copper phthalocyanine (a blue or
green organic pigment) and carbon fullerenes. Energy conversion efficiencies
achieved to date using conductive polymers are low at 6% efficiency for the
best cells to date.
• Nanocrystalline solar cells: These structures make use of some of the same
thin-film light absorbing materials but are overlain as an extremely thin
absorber on a supporting matrix of conductive polymer or mesoporous metal
oxide having a very high surface area to increase internal reflections (and
hence increase the probability of light absorption).
104
Poly-crystalline silicon wafers are made by wire-sawing block-cast silicon ingots
into very thin (180 to 350 micrometer) slices or wafers. The wafers are usually
lightly p-type doped. To make a solar cell from the wafer, a surface diffusion
of n-type dopants is performed on the front side of the wafer. This forms a p-n
junction a few hundred nanometers below the surface.
Antireflection coatings, which increase the amount of light coupled into the so-
lar cell, are typically applied next. Over the past decade, silicon nitride has gradu-
ally replaced titanium dioxide as the antireflection coating of choice because of its
excellent surface passivation qualities (i.e., it prevents carrier recombination at the
surface of the solar cell). It is typically applied in a layer several hundred nanome-
ters thick using plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) (which is
process that REC Scancell AS in Narvik uses). Some solar cells have textured
front surfaces that, like antireflection coatings, serve to increase the amount of
light coupled into the cell. Such surfaces can usually only be formed on single-
crystal silicon, though in recent years methods of forming them on multicrystalline
silicon have been developed.
The wafer is then metallized, whereby a full area metal contact is made on the
back surface, and a grid-like metal contact made up of fine "fingers" and larger
"busbars" is screen-printed onto the front surface using a silver paste. The rear
contact is also formed by screen-printing a metal paste, typically aluminium. Usu-
ally this contact covers the entire rear side of the cell, though in some cell designs
it is printed in a grid pattern. The metal electrodes will then require some kind
of heat treatment or "sintering" to make Ohmic contact with the silicon. After
the metal contacts are made, the solar cells are interconnected in series (and/or
parallel) by flat wires or metal ribbons, and assembled into modules or "solar
panels". Solar panels have a sheet of tempered glass on the front, and a polymer
encapsulation on the back. Tempered glass cannot be used with amorphous silicon
cells because of the high temperatures during the deposition process.
References: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_cell#Light-absorbing_materials.
105
Figure 8.1: A ”nano-tube”, 1nm in diameter and may be 1000nm long. Carbon-atoms
in a ”periodic tube”.
106
defense, magnetic recording devices, computerization, environmental protections,
surface modification and medical/biological engineering etc.
Manufactured products are made from atoms (see [17]). The properties of
those products depend on how those atoms are arranged. If we rearrange the
atoms in coal we can make diamond. If we rearrange the atoms in sand (and add
a few other trace elements) we can make computer chips. If we rearrange the
atoms in dirt, water and air we can make potatoes.
It’s like trying to make things out of LEGO blocks with boxing gloves on
your hands. Yes, you can push the LEGO blocks into great heaps and pile them
up, but you can’t really snap them together the way you’d like. In the future,
nanotechnology will let us take off the boxing gloves. We’ll be able to snap together
the fundamental building blocks of nature easily, inexpensively and in almost any
arrangement that we desire. This will be essential if we for instance want to
continue the revolution in computer hardware.
The greatest problem of nanocrystalline materials have been to move the tech-
nology out of the laboratory and put into commercial applications by developing
means to produce quality materials in commercial volume at affordable cost. How-
ever, these difficulties have been overcome. Todays manufacturing methods have
been very crude at the molecular level. Casting, grinding, milling and even litho-
graphy move atoms in great thundering statistical herds.
107
trends are likely to continue for at least another ten years, but then lithography
starts to reach its fundamental limits.
Whatever we call it, nano-technology should let us:
• — Positional assembly.
— Self replication.
8.1.1. Strength
Carbon nanotubes are one of the strongest and stiffest materials known, in terms
of tensile strength and elastic modulus respectively. Multi-walled carbon nanotube
was tested in 2000, and was found to have a tensile strength of 63 GPa. (high-
carbon steel has a tensile strength ≈ 1.2 GPa). CNTs have very high elastic-
moduli, on the order of 1 TPa. Since CNTs have a low density for a solid (1.3-1.4
108
Figure 8.2: Picture from http://www.forskning.no.
g/cm3 ), its specific strength of up to 48462 kN·m/kg is the best of known materials,
( the specific strength of high-carbon steel is 154 kN·m/kg).
The tubes will undergo plastic deformation under excessive tensile strain,
which starts at strains of approximately 5%. CNTs are not so strong under com-
pression. Due to their hollow structure and high aspect ratio, they tend to undergo
buckling when placed under compressive, torsional or bending stress.
8.2. Nanocomposites
Materials with features on the scale of nanometers often have properties dramat-
ically different from their bulk-scale counterparts. For example, nanocrystalline
copper is five times harder than ordinary copper with its micrometer-sized crys-
talline structure. The development of such materials is currently a research area
of great interest.
Nature makes fabulous nanocomposites, and scientists are trying to emulate
such processes. The abalone shell, for example, has alternating layers of calcium
carbonate and a rubbery biopolymer; it is twice as hard and a thousand times
tougher than its components.
The study of nanocomposite materials requires a multidisciplinary approach,
involving novel chemical techniques and an understanding of physics, mathemat-
ics, material science and surface science. It is a field of broad scientific interest
with impressive technological promise.
109
Figure 8.3: (Left) This transmission electron micrograph of the cubic structure of
the new hybrid material shows pores of about 10 nanometers across. (Right) This
diagram shows molecular architecture of the flexible ceramic phase called a ”plumber’s
nightmare.” Wiesner Research Group
110
Figure 8.4: Flexible ceramics, from http://www.polytec.com/default.asp.
unlike pure ceramic will not shatter. In one form the hybrid material is an ion
conductor (an ion is an electrically charged atom), with great promise as highly
efficient battery electrolytes. There also is the possibility that the new material
could be used in fuel cells, he said.
Published March 21, 2002, http://www.news.cornell.edu/Chronicle/02/3.21.02/
Wiesner-ceramics.html
For example, Cotronics´ Flexible Ceramics, see Figure 8.4 are easy to use to
1650◦ C, highly efficient insulation products. They are available as:
Fiber blankets, Ceramic Papers, Moldable Sheets, Ceramic Boards, Cloths and
Sleevings, Tapes, Ropes and Fabrics. They have advantages as:
high purity, outstanding thermal insulation, low heat storage, lightweigh, high
resilienc, high mechanical and thermal shock resistance and are resistant to oxi-
dizing.
111
A great deal of know-how is needed even to produce the sheets of carbon fiber,
reveals Dr. Stefan Siegel, team leader at the Fraunhofer Institute for Ceramic
Technologies and Sintered Materials IKTS. Our starting material are boards of
resin-coated plant fibers, which are produced for us by our colleagues at the Fraun-
hofer Institute for Wood Research WKI. These sheets then undergo a process
called carbonization, in which the natural-fiber composite is heated in a nitrogen
flooded furnace to temperatures of over 1000◦ C. This process has to be carefully
controlled to ensure that the shrinkage of the material - i.e. its reduction in vol-
ume - proceeds homogeneously and without distortion. All that is left in the end
is carbon; practically all other compounds present in the original material have
decomposed and evaporated. The black sheets resulting from the carbonization
of the raw natural fiber can be used, for example, as structural elements or as
an insulating lining for furnaces. Alternatively, this intermediate product can be
shaped into components using standard industrial machining techniques such as
sawing, drilling or milling.
But let us return to the ceramics. At temperatures above 1410◦ C, silicon
liquefies, and is soaked up like a sponge by the sheets of carbon (at present up to
one square meter in size) or the pre-shaped components. The silicon undergoes a
fast-acting reaction with the carbon, forming a fiber-composite ceramic material.
This stage of the process, unlike carbonization, does not alter the shape or size
of the parts. The post-processing of hard ceramic materials like silicon carbide
is relatively difficult. The new wood ceramic, by contrast, can be shaped before
it is hardened, thus presenting manufacturers who use machine tools to produce
parts subject to high mechanical and thermal stress with a simple-to-use, low-cost
alternative. (published nov. 2002).
112
But not everything was as it seemed. Many scientists were unable to reproduce
Schön’s results. In April, a small group of physicists noticed that graphs in three
unrelated papers appeared identical down to what should have been random noise.
Bell Labs rapidly launched an independent investigation, which soon expanded to
include two dozen papers.
What they found, according to Malcolm Beasley, a professor of electrical engi-
neering at Stanford University, who chaired the panel, was that Schön substituted
whole figures from other papers, removed data points that disagreed with predic-
tions, and even used mathematical functions in place of real data points.
References:
Nano SMM:
http://mrsec.wisc.edu/Seed_shape_memory/seed_shape_memory_alloys.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_nanotube
Aerogel:
http://eande.lbl.gov/ECS/aerogels/aerogels.htm
http://www.ntnu.no/gemini/2002-05/16-19.htm
FGM:
http://kenwww.pi.titech.ac.jp/Current_Subjects#Topic-3
http://www.grc.nasa.gov/
http://WWW/RT2000/5000/5920arnold3.html
http://www.lucifer.com/~sean/Nano.html
http://www.zyvex.com/nano/
http://web.mit.edu/tdp/www/composite.html
CVD:
http://chiuserv.ac.nctu.edu.tw/~htchiu/cvd/home.html
http://www.ultramet.com/4.htm
nano:
http://www.aftenposten.no/nyheter/iriks/article.jhtml?articleID=199118
http://www.aftenposten.no/nyheter/iriks/article.jhtml?articleID=198172
http://www.aftenposten.no/nyheter/iriks/article.jhtml?articleID=198173
http://www.dr.dk/videnom/12nano/nano2.htm
http://www.dr.dk/orbitalen/artikler/aktnat/nanoroer.shtm
http://www.tekblad.no/show_article.asp?id=4112
http://www.pa.msu.edu/cmp/csc/nanotube.html
113
http://www.sciencesite.dtu.dk/nano/
http://www.sciam.com/nanotech/
http://www.forskning.no/Artikler/2003/juni/1055493430.67
http://www.forskning.no/Artikler/2003/september/1063028534.1
Nanocomposites:
http://www.mse.cornell.edu/materials_science_discovering/nanocomposites.html
http://www.nanocor.com/nclays/nanocomposites.htm
http://www.pnl.gov/nano/conferences/smart.html
http://www.ntnu.no/gemini/2002-05/16-19.htm
Flexible cramics:
http://www.news.cornell.edu/Chronicle/02/3.21.02/ Wiesner-ceramics.html
Solar Cell materials:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_cell#Light-absorbing_materials
Misconduct in nanotechnology:
http://www.smalltimes.com/document_display.cfm?document_id=4079
http://www.nature.com/nsu/020923/020923-9.html
http://www.nanoelectronicsplanet.com/briefs/
http://nanotechweb.org/articles/news/1/9
Questions
• What is the difference between a material and a structure?
• What is a smart material?
• What kind of smart materials are there, and how do they act?
• What is a FGM?
• What is the advantage of a functional gradient material compared with tradi-
tional ”solid” materials?
• What kind of products do you think could be made from a functional gradient
material?
• What kind of products is FGM used in today? Who make them? What kind of
materials are they made of?
•What kind of Solar cell materials are there?
• What is nano-technology?
• What future is there in nano-technology?
• What is a nanotube? What is the principle of fabrication of the nanotubes?
• What kind of commercial nano-tube-based products are available in the market,
and what can they be used as?
114
• What is a flexible ceramic?
115
Figure 9.1: Cellular structure.
116
its structure and the material of which the cell walls are made. Cellular solids
are often used for thermal insulation, packaging, filtering, structural applications
or for their buoyancy property among many other applications. Recently, there
has been an increased interest in the use of cellular solids that perform more
than just one function. These multi-functional materials would possess unique
combinations of thermophysical and mechanical properties. For example, a load
bearing cellular solid could also provide for additional things such as impact/blast
absorption, thermal management, conductance of electricity and/or shielding of
electromagnetic waves, electrical power storage, filtering or impeding of fluid flow,
retardation of chemical reactions and fire or in-growth of biological tissue. The
largest obstacle in creating these materials thus far has been the inability for
many manufacturers (using foaming or other methods) to gain control over the
distribution of material/pores at the cell level. In addition, the limited choice of
base material types has slowed the introduction of cellular solids as materials of
choice for multifunctional applications.
The foam industry grows because cellular materials offer unique advantages
over traditional materials and non-cellular polymers.
117
Figure 9.2: Example of aluminium foam.
118
9.2. Polymeric foam
Polymeric foams have important economic impact on nearly every aspect of life
today. High-density cellular plastics are used in furniture, transportation, and
building products. Low-density foams are used as shock mitigation, insulation,
and rigid packaging.
Foams can be manufactured from a variety of synthetic polymers includ-
ing polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polystyrene (PS), polyurethane (PU), polymethyl
methacrylamide (acrylic), polyetherimide (PEI) and styreneacrylonitrile (SAN).
Polyvinyl chloride PVC - Often used in the manufacture of racing boats,
as the linear construction foams are flexible, and can be heat moulded around
curves.
Closed-cell polyvinyl chloride (PVC) foams are one of the most commonly
used core materials for the construction of high performance sandwich structures.
Although strictly they are a chemical hybrid of PVC and polyurethane, they tend
to be referred to simply as ’PVC foams’.
PVC foams offer a balanced combination of static and dynamic properties and
good resistance to water absorption. They also have a large operating tempera-
ture range of typically -240◦ C to +80◦ C , and are resistant to many chemicals.
Although PVC foams are generally flammable, there are fire-retardant grades that
can be used in many fire-critical applications, such as train components. When
used as a core for sandwich construction with fiber reinforced polymer (FRP)
skins, its reasonable resistance to styrene means that it can be used safely with
polyester resins and it is therefore popular in many industries. It is normally
supplied in sheet form, either plain, or grid-scored to allow easy forming to shape.
There are two main types of PVC foam: crosslinked and uncrosslinked with
the uncrosslinked foams sometimes being referred to as ’linear’. The uncrosslinked
foams are tougher and more flexible, and are easier to heat-form around curves.
However, they have some lower mechanical properties than an equivalent density
of cross-linked PVC, and a lower resistance to elevated temperatures and styrene.
Their cross-linked counterparts are harder but more brittle and will produce a
stiffer panel, less susceptible to softening or creeping in hot climates. Typical
cross-linked PVC products include the Herex C-series of foams, Divinycell H and
HT grades and Polimex Klegecell and Termanto products.
A new generation of toughened PVC foams is now also becoming available
which trade some of the basic mechanical properties of the cross-linked PVC
foams for some of the improved toughness of the linear foams. Typical products
119
include Divincell HD grade.
Owing to the nature of the PVC/polyurethane chemistry in cross-linked PVC
foams, these materials need to be thoroughly sealed with a resin coating before
they can be safely used with low-temperature curing prepregs. Although special
heat stabilisation treatments are available for these foams, these treatments are
primarily designed to improve the dimensional stability of the foam, and reduce
the amount of gassing that is given off during elevated temperature processing.
Applications of PVC foam are in maringe, aerospace, transportation, military
and defence, and industry.
Polystyrene (PS)- Very light - around 40kg/m3 , inexpensive and easily shaped.
Although polystyrene foams are used extensively in sail and surf board man-
ufacture, where their light weight (40kg/m3), low cost and easy to sand charac-
teristics are of prime importance, they are rarely employed in high performance
component construction because of their low mechanical properties. They cannot
be used in conjunction with polyester resin systems because they will be dissolved
by the styrene present in the resin (ester-based matrices cannot be used as adhe-
sives). PS or EPS (extruded PS) is primary used as thermal insulation materials
but also in some load carrying structures. Extruded polystyrene insulation offers
a service temperature range of (-183◦ C to +74◦ C).
Polyurethane (PU) (PUR earlier)- Is very rigid and has and good mechanical
properties, but tends to deteriorate with age and become delaminated.
Polyurethane foams exhibit only moderate mechanical properties and have a
tendency for the foam surface at the resin/core interface to deteriorate with age,
leading to skin delamination. Their structural applications are therefore normally
limited to the production of formers to create frames or stringers for stiffening
components. However, polyurethane foams can be used in lightly loaded sandwich
panels, with these panels being widely used for thermal insulation. The foam also
has reasonable elevated service temperature properties (150◦ C), and good acoustic
absorption. The foam can readily be cut and machined to required shapes or
profiles.
Polymethyl methacrylamide (PMI)
For a given density, polymethyl methacrylamide (acrylic) foams such as Roha-
cell offer some of the highest overall strengths and stiffnesses of foam cores. Their
high dimensional stability also makes them unique in that they can readily be
used with conventional elevated temperature curing prepregs. However, they are
expensive, which means that their use tends to be limited to aerospace composite
120
parts such as helicopter rotor blades, and aircraft flaps. Acrylics has the high-
est specific strength and stiffness for a given density. High stability makes them
ideal for use with prepregs, but they do not fit curves well. Maximum service
temperature of PMI is 180◦ C.
Styrene acrylonitrile (SAN) co-polymer Foams
SAN foams behave in a similar way to toughened cross-linked PVC foams.
They have most of the static properties of cross-linked PVC cores, yet have much
higher elongations and toughness. They are therefore able to absorb impact levels
that would fracture both conventional and even the toughened PVC foams. How-
ever, unlike the toughened PVC’s, which use plasticisers to toughen the polymer,
the toughness properties of SAN are inherent in the polymer itself, and so do not
change appreciably with age.
SAN foams are replacing linear PVC foams in many applications since they
have much of the linear PVC’s toughness and elongation, yet have a higher tem-
perature performance and better static properties. However, they are still thermo-
formable, which helps in the manufacture of curved parts. Heat-stabilised grades
of SAN foams can also be more simply used with low-temperature curing prepregs,
since they do not have the interfering chemistry inherent in the PVC’s. Maximum
service temperature of PMI is 125◦ C.
Polyethylene (PET)- A crystalline polyethylene terephthalate (PET) foam
by applying high-expansion foam extrusion and thermoforming to PET resin.
The PET foam combines light weight and outstanding shock resistance with good
thermal insulation. Because it withstands temperatures up to 220◦ C, PET foam
is an excellent material for oven-proof food containers. And because of its superior
shock absorption and moldability, it makes an ideal packing material for multiple
products.
Other thermoplastics
As new techniques develop for the blowing of foams from thermoplastics, the
range of expanded materials of this type continues to increase. Typical is PEI
foam, an expanded polyetherimide/polyether sulphone, which combines outstand-
ing fire performance with high service temperature. PEI is expensive, but can be
used in temperatures from -194◦ C - +180◦ C, and can be used in structural, ther-
mal and fire protection applications, for instance in aircrafts and train interiors,
as it can meet some of the most stringent fire resistant specifications.
121
9.3. Refractory foams / Ceramic foam
Refractory materials are ceramics that have been designed to provide acceptable
mechanical or chemical properties while at high temperatures.
Refractory foams are a new class of open cell, low density materials which
Ultramet has developed to produce lightweight refractory structures for a variety
of aerospace and industrial applications including thermal insulation, lightweight,
precision mirrors, impact absorption, catalyst support, and metal and gas filtra-
tion. By pyrolyzing a polymer foam, a reticulated vitreous carbon (RVC) foam
is created which has substantial mechanical and thermal properties. By further
CVI (chemical vapor infiltration) processing, ceramic (e.g. silicon carbide [SiC])
and/or metal or mixed material foams can be fabricated.
These cellular materials can be simultaneously optimized for stiffness, strength,
thermal conductivity, active surface area, and gas permeability. They are ther-
mally stable, low in weight and density, chemically pure, resistant to thermal
stress and shock, and are relatively inexpensive.
June 2001: A team of scientists from Technion, Israel, has succeeded in manu-
facturing the worlds lightest ceramic foam material, implementing a unique mech-
anism its members have developed. The new material is a ceramic foam that
contains 94% to 96% air by volume, but can resist temperatures above 1700◦ C.
The material is made of aluminum oxide, a common high-temperature ceramic,
but gets its extraordinary insulating powers from the many tiny air bubbles within
the material. The foam is generated from special crystals that contain the metal
components and all the foaming ingredients. Upon heating, the crystals form a
solution. Within this solution a reaction takes place, forming polymer chains.
After the chains grow sufficiently, the solution suddenly separates into a pure
solvent and the polymer. At this point, the solvent begins to boil, forming trillions
of tiny bubbles that blow the polymer into a foam, stabilized by the polymer
chains. Subsequent heating to high temperatures leaves behind the ceramic, metal
oxide foam.
The material will be used for a wide variety of advanced applications such
as acoustic insulation, thermal insulation, adsorption of environmental pollutants
or as a platform for bio-technology applications. The estimated market for this
product is worth billions of dollars.
122
Figure 9.3: Human bone is a hierarchical structure.
123
Figure 9.4: The Eiffel tower is also a hierarchical structure.
9.5. Biomaterials
A biomaterial is any material, natural or man-made, that comprises whole or part
of a living structure or biomedical device which performs, augments, or replaces
a natural function.
References:
124
Cellular structures:
http://ansatte.hin.no/dl//homo.html
http://web.mit.edu/dmse/csg/Research.htm
http://silver.neep.wisc.edu/~lakes/
Metal foam:
http://www.metalfoam.net/
http://www.porvair.com/fuelcell/metalfoam.htm
http://www.porvair.com/fuelcell/
http://www.ultramet.com/foamtech.htm
http://www.cymat.com/
http://www.npl.co.uk/npl/cmmt/metal_foams/index.html
http://www.grantadesign.com/solutions/metalfoams.htm
Polymer foam:
http://www.vitec.org.uk/
http://www.foamandform.com/seminars/foam/
Ceramic foams:
http://www.emgroup.nl
http://www.solgel.com/articles/june01/news06_101.htm
Refractory foams:
http://www.ultramet.com/
http://voyager.cet.edu/iss/techcheck/techcheck3/wvproduct.html
General:
http://www.npl.co.uk/npl/cmmt/metal_foams/applications.html
Hierarchical structures
http://silver.neep.wisc.edu/~lakes/Hierarch.html
Negative Poissons ratio materials
http://silver.neep.wisc.edu/~lakes/sci87.html
Biomaterials:
http://www.engr.sjsu.edu/WofMatE/Biomaterials.htm
Questions
• What is the definition of ”cellular solids”?
• What types of foams are there, and what products are they used in?
125
• What is the advantages of foam materials compared to conventional solid ma-
terials?
• What are the applications of foam materials?
• What is a refractory material/structure?
• What is hierarchical structures?
• Find two examples of man-made hierarchical structures and two examples of
natural hierarchical structures.
• Does foam with negative Poissons ratio exist? How does such a material act?
• Does foam with Poissons ratio >1 exist?
126
Part II
Sandwich Constructions
Composite materials used today are often in the form of a sandwich construction,
see Figure 9.5.A sandwich panel is built up by two thin skins, also called the
Face sheet
Honeycomb core
(metal, composite
or paper)
Adhesive
Face sheet
facings, separated by a lightweight core. The core helps to increase the moment of
inertia such that the structure becomes efficient for resisting bending and buckling
loads. This is why sandwich panels are being used in applications where weight-
saving is critical, for instance in aircraft and in portable structures.
Sandwich designs are also used by nature itself for instance in a human skull
and in plants. While nature often uses the same material in the facings as in
the core and only vary the density, man-made sandwich panels usually consist of
different materials, or even structures, in the facings and in the core.A sandwich
construction is built up by different face- and core materials and forms, see Figure
9.6 and [36, p.18].
127
Figure 9.6: Sandwich materials and forms.
128
Figure 10.1: The sandwich effect.
Figure 10.2: Aluminium foam used as core material compared with aluminium plate.
129
10.1. Face materials
The face material in a sandwich panel can be made of almost any material that
can be formed into thin sheets. The properties we seek for in a face material are:
• high stiffness, which gives high flexural rigidity
• high tensile and compressive strength
• impact resistance
• surface finish
• environmental resistance (chemical, UV, heat etc.)
• wear resistance
The most usual type of material used as facings are listed in the Table with a
summary of face materials.
Material
Metals: Mild steel
Stainless steel
Aluminium Alloy
Titanium Alloy
Wood: Pine
Plywood
Unidirectional fibre composites Carbon/Epoxy , (10.1)
(vf = 0.6 − 0.7) Glass/Epoxy
Kevlar/Epoxy
Bi-directional fibre composites Kevlar/Polyester
(vf = 0.3 − 0.4) Glass weave/Polyester
Glass WR /Polyester
Random fibres Glass CSM
(vf = 0.15 − 0.25) SMC
where WR=(woven roving), CSM= chopped strand mat, SMC = sheet mould-
ing compound and vf is the volume fraction of fibers.
The most used group of face-materials is the fibre composites since they have
a similar or even higher strength properties than metals, and are much easier to
fabricate. Also, the possibility to tailor the face materials because the anisotropic
behavior of the fibres offer a very interesting addition. In this way fibres can be
placed in the direction where the loadcarrying is most important.
130
Figure 10.3: Core exposed to shear.
131
Figure 10.4: Honeycomb core.
• Foams
• Honeycombs
• Corrugated
• Wood
132
provide a greater bond area for the skins, increases the mechanical properties of
the core by stabilizing the cell walls and increases thermal and acoustic insulation
properties. The following materials are commonly used in honeycomb structures.
• Aluminium - Has been used since 1950, several alloys can be used, but in
comparison it is old and heavy.
• Glass fibre reinforced plastic - Has a high temperature resistance and good
insulating properties, but is denser than other materials.
• Nomex honeycomb which is made from Nomex paper - a form of paper based
on KevlarTM (Aramid fibre), rather than cellulose fibres. High strength and
toughness with a low density makes it the most widely used honeycomb
core. The initial paper honeycomb is usually dipped in a phenolic resin to
produce a honeycomb core with high strength and very good fire resistance.
It is widely used for lightweight interior panels for aircraft in conjunction
with phenolic resins in the skins. Nomex honeycomb is becoming increas-
ingly used in high-performance non aerospace components due to its high
mechanical properties, low density and good long-term stability.
Figure 10.5 shows the shear strength and compressive strength of some of the
core materials described, plotted against their densities. Figure 10.6 shows the
prices of some core materials.
133
Figure 10.5: Compressive strength and shear strength of some of the core materials
plotted against their densities.
134
Figure 10.7: Overexpanded honeycomb structure.
135
Figure 10.9: Corrugated core.
Balsa
The most commonly used wood core is end-grain balsa. Balsa wood cores first
appeared in the 1940’s in flying boat hulls, which were aluminium skinned and
balsa-cored to withstand the repeated impact of landing on water. This perfor-
mance led the marine industry to begin using end-grain balsa as a core material
in FRP construction. Apart from its high compressive properties, its advantages
include being a good thermal insulator offering good acoustic absorption. The
material will not deform when heated and acts as an insulating and ablative layer
in a fire, with the core charring slowly, allowing the non-exposed skin to remain
structurally sound. It also offers positive flotation and is easily worked with simple
tools and equipment.
Balsa core is available as contoured end-grain sheets 3 to 50mm thick on a
backing fabric, and rigid end-grain sheets up to 100mm thick. These sheets can
be provided ready resin-coated for vacuum-bagging, prepreg or pressure-based
manufacturing processes such as RTM. One of the disadvantages of balsa is its
136
high minimum density, with 100kg/m3 being a typical minimum. This problem
is exacerbated by the fact that balsa can absorb large quantities of resin during
lamination, although pre-sealing the foam can reduce this. Its use is therefore
normally restricted to projects where optimum weight saving is not required or in
locally highly stressed areas.
Balsa was the first material used as cores in load bearing sandwich structures
and is still often used as a core material.
Cedar
Another wood that is used sometimes as a core material is cedar. In marine
construction it is often the material used as the ’core’ in strip-plank construction,
with a composite skin on each side and the grain of the cedar running parallel to
the laminate faces. The cedar fibres run along the length of the boat giving fore
and aft stiffness while the fibres in the FRP skins are laid at ±45◦ giving torsional
rigidity, and protecting the wood.
10.3. Adhesives
Bonding of sandwich construction involve bonding of two very dissimilar con-
stituents, one solid and one softer cellular component, and the requirements con-
cerning bonding are therefore somewhat different than normal use. The adhesive
must be stronger than the tensile strength of the core. Some of the requirements
of the adhesives are:
Surface preparation
The core and the face material have to be prepared before bonding, which
involves mechanically or chemically cleaning and sometimes priming.
Solvents
Core materials are often very sensitive to certain solvents. For instance: Poly-
styrene foams are sensitive to styrene (polyester and vinylester contains styrene),
while epoxies and polyurethanes may be used. Similar combinations needs to be
investigated before bonding components.
Curing vapors
When curing, some adhesives (as phenolics) give off vapor when curing, which
can give rise to several bonding problems.
Bonding pressure
137
When pressure is needed to prevent pores to appear, be careful so that the
core will not fail due to the compression.
Adhesive viscosity
The adhesive must have exactly the right combination of surface wetting and
flow. In the case of foam or balsa core, the viscosity should be low enough to
enable the adhesive to fill the surface cells properly and leave as little as possible
trapped air. But the viscosity must not be too low,the adhesive could be squeezed
out leaving too thin bonding line.
Bond thickness
If the bond is too thick, it adds extra unnecessary weight to the part. If it is
too thin, bonding will not be one properly.
Strength
The bond must be able to transfer the design loads, which means it must have
the desired tensile and shear strength, at the temperatures that might occur.
Thermal stresses
A frequent cause of debonding failures are thermal stresses. If for instance one
side is heated from sunlight it will deform due to thermal expansion. Most core
materials are very good insulators, and therefor it will be a very high thermal
gradient over the bond line. This lead to very high shear stresses in the bond
which may lead to debonding. In such environment, very ductile adhesives should
be chosen (high strain to failure).
Toughness
Toughened adhesives which resist cracks better (improved impact resistance)
are on the market. They are ordinary resins which have elastomer particles added.
Viscoelastic properties
Highly viscoelastic adhesives may be advantageous for example where there
are high thermal gradients.
Curing shrinkage
As much as 7% decrease in volume can an adhesive (as polyesters) shrink when
its curing. This leads to high interface (bond) shear stresses and may decrease
the strength of adhesive joints.
Curing exotherm
Most adhesives exhibit an exotherm (curing process gives off heat) curing.
This is seldom a problem in thin bondings spread over a large area.
138
Different types of adhesives are for instance:
• Epoxy resins
• Modified epoxies
• Phenolics
• Polyurethanes Urethane acrylates
• Polyester and vinylester resins
References:
Alulight products:
http://www.alulight.com/en/products/products.html
Composites:
http://www.users.globalnet.co.uk/~weeks/
Composite%20Materials.htm
http://www.netcomposites.com/education.asp
http://www.baltek.com/
Fibres
http:// www.netcomposites.com/education.asp?sequence=45
Foam cores:
http://www.netcomposites.com/education.asp
http://www.polymer-age.co.uk/techlink.htm
http://www.hexcelcomposites.com
Adhesives:
http://www.hexcelcomposites.com/products/honeycomb/
sand_design_tech/hsdt_p04.html
http://www.hexcelcomposites.com/products/
Questions
•Why are sandwich constructions used?
•What kind of face and core materials are used in sandwich constructions?
•What is the essential property of any core material
•Is End Grain Balsa used as core material in sandwich construction? If yes,
what kind of products, and what are the advantages of this product?
(http://www.baltek.com/)
•What requirements must be taken into consideration when it comes to bonding
sandwich-constructions with adhesives?
139
11. Design of sandwich constructions
When we use sandwich panels in different applications we have to know the me-
chanical properties of the face and core materials and the geometry of the panel.
Often we formulate the design of a sandwich panel as an optimization problem
where the goal is to minimize the weight of the panel that meet the constraints
on stiffness and strength desired. With respect to the core and skin thickness, or
the materials, or the density of the core, the optimization can be carried out.
140
Figure 11.2: A curved beam.
11.2. Preliminaries
Let us start with recalling the problem of a straight beam subjected to a constant
bending moment giving the beam a curvature 1/Rx . The length of the curve, lc at
the neutral axis (N.A.), that has radius Rx and angle α, see Figure 11.2, is found
by the formula
lc = Rx α.
The strain εx in a new curveline at a distance z from the N.A. (where εx = 0) can
be found as follows:
(new curve length)-(old curve length) (Rx + z) α − Rx α
εx = =
(old curve length) Rx α
Rx α + zα − Rx α z
= = .
Rx α Rx
The stress σ x in the beam is then given by
z
σ x = Eεx = E .
Rx
The applied bending moment dMx , with respect to the x-axis, caused by the force
dF acting on a small element, see Figure 11.3, of area dA = dydz at a point x is
141
Figure 11.3: A small element dA.
The total moment at the point x of the beam with height h and depth b is
X Z h/2 Z b/2 Z h/2 Z b/2
Mx = dMx = dMx = zσ x dydz
−h/2 −b/2 −h/2 −b/2
Z h/2 µ
Z b/2 ¶ Z h/2 Z b/2
z z2
= z E dydz = E dydz
−h/2 −b/2 Rx −h/2 −b/2 Rx
Z h/2 Z b/2 Z h/2 Z b/2
1 1
= Ez 2 dydz = Ez 2 dydz
Rx −h/2 −b/2 Rx −h/2 −b/2
Z h/2
1 1 1
= bEz 2 dz = (EI)eq = D,
Rx −h/2 Rx Rx
where Z h/2
(EI)eq = b Ez 2 dz (11.1)
−h/2
(often also denoted D) is called the equivalent flexural rigidity, also called the
bending stiffness. The general expression for the strain will then be
µ ¶ Ã !
z 1 Mx Mx
εx = = z= z= z. (11.2)
Rx Rx D (EI)eq
The strain will vary linearly with z over the cross-section. The basic equations
for the sandwich beam are now established, and this makes it possible to find the
cross-sectional properties and stresses in such a beam.
142
11.3. The Flexural Rigidity and Shear Rigidity
The theory for engineering stresses in beams is easily adapted to sandwich beams
if we modify it slightly.
Flexural rigidity
In an ordinary beam the flexural rigidity, denoted EI, where E is the modulus
of elasticity (Young’s modulus) and I is the second moment of area. The equivalent
flexural rigidity of a cross-section of a sandwich (see Allan 1969) is the sum of
flexural rigidities of the different parts in the sandwich and can be found from
(11.1) and is
bt3f btf d2 bt3
(EI)eq = Ef + Ef + Ec c = 2 (EI)f + (EI)o + (EI)c , (11.3)
6 2 12
where d (= tf + tc ) (see Figure 11.1) is the distance between the centroids of the
faces. The first term, 2 (EI)f , represents the flexural rigidity of the faces alone
when they are bending about their own neutral axes, and the third term, (EI)c ,
represents the flexural rigidity of the core. The first and the third term are small
compared to the second term, (EI)o , which corresponds to the stiffness of the
faces associated with bending about the centroid axis of the whole sandwich.
The faces in a sandwich are thin compared to the core (tf << tc ), hence the
first term in (11.3) is less than 1% of the second term if
µ ¶2
d d
3 > 100 or > 5.77 (11.4)
tf tf
because ⎛ ⎞
bt3
Ef 6f
⎝ ⎠ 100 < 1.
bt d2
Ef f2
The first term can therefor be neglected and (11.3) is the reduced to
btf d2 bt3c
(EI)eq = Ef + Ec = (EI)o + (EI)c .
2 12
If the core is weak, then Ec << Ef , the third term of (11.3) is less than 1% of
the second term if
6Ef tf d2
> 100, (11.5)
Ec t3c
143
because à 3
!
Ec bt12c
btf d2
100 < 1.
Ef 2
The third term and can therefore be neglected, and (11.3) is reduced to the ap-
proximated simple formula
Ef btf d2
(EI)eq = = (EI)o . (11.6)
2
Shear rigidity
The shear rigidity AG (shear stiffness) for a beam with a homogeneous cross-
section is given by
bhG
AG = ,
k
where h is the height, G is the shear modulus, and k is a shear factor, which for
rectangular homogenous cross-sections equals 1.2.
The equivalent shear rigidity (shear stiffness) for a sandwich beam when Ec <<
Ef and tf << tc is given as
bd2 Gc
(AG)eq = ,
tc
where Gc is the shear modulus of the core. We will come back to this later.
144
Figure 11.4: Stresses at different approximation levels in a sandwich.
Thus, the stress in the face σ f of the sandwich due to bending can be written as
Mx zEf tc tc
σf = for < |z| < + tf . (11.8)
(EI)eq 2 2
145
If Mx is positive then the maximum stress in the face appears when z = tc /2 + tf :
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
Mx zEf Mx t2c + tf Ef Ef Mx t2c + tf
σ f max = = = ³ ´
(EI)eq (EI)eq Ef btf d2
2
¡ tc ¢
2Mx 2 + tf Mx tc 2Mx
= 2
= +
btf d btf d2 bd2
while the minimum stress (in the same face) appears when z = tc /2:
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
Mx zEf Mx t2c Ef Ef Mx t2c M t
σ f min = = = ³ 2
´ = x 2c .
(EI)eq (EI)eq E bt
f f d btf d
2
Hence
Mx tc Mx tc 2Mx
2
≤ σf ≤ +
btf d btf d2 bd2
in that face. When tf << tc this shows that we can use the following approxima-
tive formula:
Mx tc Mx d Mx
σf ≈ ≈ = (11.9)
btf d2 btf d2 btf d
(in order to see this we just use that
2Mx
bd2 tf
Mx tc
=2 ≈ 0).
btf d2
tc
Mx tc Mx d Mx
σf ≈ − 2
≈ − 2
=− .)
btf d btf d btf d
146
Figure 11.6: A sandwich beam exposed to (in-plane) axial load F.
If Mx is positive then the maximum stress in the core appears when z = tc /2, i.e.
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
Mx zEc Mx t2c Ec Mx t2c Ec
σcmax = = = ³ ´
(EI)eq (EI)eq Ef btf d2
2
¡ tc ¢
2Mx 2 Ec Mx tc Ec
= 2
=
Ef btf d Ef btf d2
while the minimum stress in the core appears when z = 0,
Mx zEc Mx (0) Ec
σ cmin = = = 0.
(EI)eq (EI)eq
Hence
Mx tc Ec Mx tc Ec Mx Ec
0 ≤ σc ≤ 2
≤ 2
= .
Ef btf d Ef btf tc Ef btf tc
Thus when Ec << Ef we can use the following approximative formula:
Mx tc Ec Mx dEc Mx Ec
σc = ≤ = ≈ 0. (11.11)
Ef btf d2 Ef btf d2 Ef btf d
The direct stress will vary linearly within each material constituent, but there
will be a jump in the stress at the interface between the face and the core, see
Figure 11.4.
147
where Fx is the axial load (normal force) and εx0 is the strain at the neutral axis
(N.A.) if the two facings are of equal thickness (in order to see this, we note that
the strain εx0 will be the same in the core and faces so that
Fx = Ef εx0 2tf b + Ec εx0 tc b = εx0 b (2Ef tf + Ec tc )).
| {z }|{z} | {z }|{z}
σf Af σc Ac
148
Figure 11.7: A small element.
and X ∂τ zx ∂τ zy ∂σ z
Fz = + + = 0. (11.14)
∂x ∂y ∂z
It can also be verified that
τ xy = τ yx , τ xz = τ zx , τ yz = τ zy . (11.15)
Equations (11.12), (11.13), (11.14), and (11.15) are called the equilibrium equa-
tions.
We assume that the shear stress in (11.12) will not vary with y, and therefore
∂τ xy /∂y = 0 (in fact we assume τ xy = 0 in all points). Thus we get that
X ∂σ x ∂τ xz
Fxi = + =0
∂x ∂z
and the shear stress τ xz can therefore be found as follows:
∂σ x ∂τ xz
=− .
∂x ∂z
This gives
Z (d+tf )/2 Z (d+tf )/2
∂σ x ∂τ xz
dz = − dz = −(τ xz ((d + tf )/2) − τ xz (z)) = τ xz (z),
z ∂x z ∂z | {z }
=0
149
From equation (11.7) Ã !
Mx
σ = εE = z E
(EI)eq
and the fact that
dMx
= Tx
dx
where Tx is the shear force. We obtain that the shear stress τ xz (z)
³ ´
Z (d+tf )/2 d Mx zE Z (d+tf )/2
(EI)e q Ez dMx
τ xz (z) = dz = dz =
z dx z (EI)eq dx
Z (d+tf )/2 Z (d+tf )/2
zE Tx Tx
= Tx dz = zEdz = B(z),
z (EI)eq (EI)eq z (EI)eq
150
For tc /2 ≤ −z ≤ tc /2 + tf (in the upper face)
Z (d+tf )/2 Z −tc /2 Z tc /2 Z (d+tf )/2
B(z) = zEdz = zEf dz + zEc dz + zEf dz
z z −tc /2 tc /2
| {z }
=0
∙ ¸−tc /2 ∙ ¸(d+tf )/2
1 2 1
= Ef z + Ef z 2
2 z 2 tc /2
"µ ¶ # "µ ¶2 µ ¶2 #
2
1 tc 1 d + tf tc
= Ef − z 2 + Ef −
2 2 2 2 2
∙ 2 ¸ "µ ¶2 # õ ¶2 !
2
Ef tc Ef d + tf t Ef d + tf
= − z2 + − c = − z2
2 4 2 2 4 2 2
õ ¶2 ! µ ¶
Ef (tf + tc ) + tf 2 Ef 1 2 2 2
= −z = t + tf tc + tf − z .
2 2 2 4 c
(i.e. the same as for the upper face). Hence, the shear stress in the facings of the
sandwich is
µ ¶
Tx Ef 1 2 2 2
τf = t + tf tc + tf − z for tc /2 ≤ |z| ≤ tc /2 + tf . (11.17)
2 (EI)eq 4 c
Assume that Tx is positive (otherwise max is replaced by min and vice versa).
Then the maximum shear stress in the core appears when the expression
(t2c /4− z 2 ) in (11.16) is maximized, i.e. when z = 0 (the neutral axis N.A.),
and is found in the following way:
µ µ ¶¶ µ µ ¶¶
Tx Ef tf d Ec t2c 2 Tx Ef tf d Ec t2c
τ c max = + −z = + −0
(EI)eq 2 2 4 (EI)eq 2 2 4
151
µ ¶ µ ¶
Tx Ef tf d Ec t2c Tx Ef tf d Ec t2c
= + =³ ´ +
(EI)eq 2 8 Ef btf d2 2 8
2
µ ¶
Tx Ec t2c
= Ef tf d + . (11.18)
(Ef btf d2 ) 4
The minimum shear stress in the core appears when the expression (t2c /4 − z 2 )
in (11.16) is minimized, i.e. when |z| = tc /2 (the face/core interface), i.e.
µ µ ¶¶ µ µ ¶¶
Tx Ef tf d Ec t2c 2 Tx Ef tf d Ec t2c t2c
τ c min = + −z = + −
(EI)eq 2 2 4 (EI)eq 2 2 4 4
µ ¶ µ ¶
Tx Ef tf d Tx Ef tf d Tx
= =³ ´ = . (11.19)
(EI)eq 2 Ef btf d2 2 bd
2
³ 2 The maximum shear ´ stress in the face appears when the expression
tc 2 2
4
+ tc tf + tf − z in (11.17) is maximized, i.e. when z = tc /2 (the face/core
interface) such that
µ 2 ¶ Ã µ ¶2 !
2
Tx Ef tc Tx Ef tc tc
τ f max = + tc tf + t2f − z 2 = + tc tf + t2f − =
(EI)eq 2 4 (EI)eq 2 4 2
µ ¶
Tx Ef t2c t2 Tx Ef ¡ ¢ Tx Ef ¡ ¢
= + tc tf + t2f − c = tc tf + t2f = ³ 2
´ tc tf + t2f =
(EI)eq 2 4 4 2 (EI)eq E bt d
2 f 2f
Tx Ef Tx Tx
= (tc + tf ) = (tc + tf ) = (11.20)
Ef bd2 bd2 bd
(this also shows that τ c min = τ f max ).
³ 2 The minimum shear ´ stress in the face appears when the expression
tc 2 2
4
+ tc tf + tf − z in (11.17) is minimized, i.e. when |z| = tc /2 + tf
µ ¶ Ã µ ¶2 !
Tx Ef t2c Tx Ef t2c tc
τ f min = + tc tf + t2f − z 2 = + tc tf + t2f − + tf
(EI)eq 2 4 (EI)eq 2 4 2
152
µ µ ¶¶
Tx Ef t2c 2 2 1 2 Tx Ef
= + tc tf + tf − tf + tf tc + tc = (0) = 0.
(EI)eq 2 4 4 2 (EI)eq
The deviation between the maximum and minimum shear stress in the core
from (11.18) and (11.19) will be less than 1 percent, i.e.
τ c max − τ c min 1
< ,
τ c min 100
if
µ Ã !
³ ´¶ ³ ´
|Tx | Ec t2c |Tx | ¶ Ef tf d
Ef tf d + − µ
Ef btf d2
(Ef btf d2 ) 4 2
τ c max − τ c min 2 1
= ³ ´ < .
τ c min µ |Tx | ¶
Ef tf d 100
Ef btf d2 2
2
153
Tx
τc = (11.23)
bd
from (11.20).
154
11.6. Sandwich design: stiffness, strength and weight
The deflection, δ of a sandwich beam in general is the sum of the bending and
Figure 11.8: Deflection of a cantilever sandwich beam with an end point load..
shear components, see Figure 11.8 (subscripts ”b” and ”s” denotes bending and
shear, respectively),
P L3 PL
δ = δb + δs = +
B1 (EI)eq B2 (AG)eq
where B1 and B2 are constants which depend on the geometry of the loading and
the boundary conditions (type of support). Moreover, the maximum moment Mx
and the maximum shear (transverse) force Tx are given by
PL P
Mx = , Tx = ,
B3 B4
155
where B3 and B4 also are constants which depend on the geometry of the loading
and the boundary conditions. In Table 11.24 you can find the constans for several
loading conditions and boundary conditions.
Mode of loading,
B1 B2 B3 B4
(all beams are of length L)
3
δ b = B1P(EI)
L PL
δ s = B2 (AG) Mx = PBL3 Tx = BP4
eq eq
Cantilever,
end load, 3 1 1 1
P
Cantilever,
Uniformly distributed load, 8 2 2 1
q = P/L
Three-point bend,
central load, 48 4 4 2
P
Three-point bend,
384
Uniformly distributed load, 5
8 8 2
q = P/L
Ends built in,
Central load, 192 4 8 2
P
Ends built in,
Uniformly distributed load, 384 8 12 2
q = P/L
(11.24)
156
Figure 11.9: Cantilever beam with end point load.
P L3 P · L3 P · (500)3
δb = = ³ ´ = ³ 2
´ = 0.43P (mm/N)
3 (EI)eq E bt d2
3 f 2f 3 200000·1·1·(31)
2
157
The deflection due to shear in percentage of the total deflection is
δs 0.52
100 = (100) = 54.7% (mm/N).
δb + δs 0.95
158
and the shear contribution is
PL PL P 500
δs = = ¡ ¢³ ´ = ¡ ¢³ ´ = 0.0039P.
(AG)eq bh E 1·2 200000
k 2(1+ν) 1.2 2(1+0.3)
159
Figure 11.10: A simply supported three-point bended beam.
We know that
Ef btf d2 bd2 Gc
(EI)eq = and (AG)eq = ,
2 tc
and from Table 11.24 we find that
P PL
|Tx |max = and |Mx |max = . (11.25)
2 8
i) Strength design:
Calculate the face thickness, tf , for maximum allowable stress.
160
We have the formulae
¡PL¢ ¡ 10000·1000 ¢
Mx max tc Ef t c E f 50 · 20000
σf = = ³8 ´= ³8 ´ =
2 (EI)eq 2 f 2f
E bt d2
2
20000·(100)·tf ·50
2
2
¡ 10000·1000 ¢
50 · 20000 250.0
= ³8 ´ = ,
2
20000·(100)·tf ·502 tf
2
δ = δb + δs.
We find that
P L3 PL
δb = 384 and δ s =
5
(EI)eq 8 (AG)eq
such that
P L3 PL P L3 PL
δ = δb + δs = 384 + = ³ ´+ ³ ´=
(EI)eq 8 (AG)eq 384 Ef btf d2 2
5 5 2
8 bdtcGc
10000 · 10003 10000 · 1000 52.1
= ³ 2
´+ ³ 2
´= + 6.25.
384 20000·100·tf ·(50)
8 100·(50) ·40 tf
5 2 50
161
Thus, when allowed deformation δ = L/50
52.08333 3 52.083333
tf = = ¡ 1000 ¢ = 3.8 mm
(δ − 6.25) 50
− 6.25
then the first term of 11.3 is less than 1% of the second, and can therefor be
neglected, and since
then the third term of 11.3 is less than 1% of the second , and can therefor be
neglected such that we can use the reduced form of 11.3. The assumption
Ef btf d2
(EI)eq = D =
2
is valid!
162
12. Failure modes of sandwich panel
A sandwich panel must have the strength to carry the design loads without failing
in one of the possible failure modes. We have to design against and consider all
the failure modes to be sure of that the structure will not fail. Examples on failure
modes is shown in Figure 12.1. A sandwich construction will fail by the failure
Figure 12.1: Some failure modes; a)face yielding/fracture, b) core shear failure, c) and
d) face wrinkling, e) general buckling, f) face dimpling, and g) local indentation.
mode which occurs at the lowest load. The optimum design is when two or more
failure modes occur at the same load. The failure modes can be found on the basis
of when the mode occur. Some of the failure modes is described in the following
chapter.
The skin and core materials should be able to withstand the tensile, compres-
sive and shear stresses induced by the design load. Also the adhesive must be
capable of transferring the shear stresses between skin and core. The sandwich
panel should also have sufficient bending and shear stiffness to prevent excessive
deflection.
163
12.1. Failure loads and stresses
(I) Face Yielding/fracture:
Face yielding/fracture occurs when the normal stress in the face σ f equals or
exceeds the (yield) strength of the face material, σ yf , such that:
Mx PL
σf = = ≥ σ yf .
btf d B3 btf d
Hence, the wrinkling load is independent of the sandwich geometry, and is only a
function of the face and core properties. It is the core that has most influence on
the wrinkling load.
164
where τ ya is the yield shear stress in the adhesive. High thermal stresses, fatigue,
and aging are some of the reasons to debonding.
165
Figure 12.2: Different cases for Euler buckling.
(VIII) Fatigue:
Fatigue is said to cause more than 90% of all structural failures. For the face
material, a conservative way to use the fatigue limit under which the material
can undergo an infinite number of load cycles without exhibiting any damage by
taking the allowable face stress σ yf as the material fatigue stress at the given
number of load cycles and stress ratio. For the core material the reasoning is
similar; substitute the allowable shear stress τ yc with the fatigue limit. Be aware
that there is not always data for all materials available. Hopefully, more data will
be available in the future.
166
12.2. Failure-mode maps
Failure-mode maps can be used to design sandwich constructions in a way that
will improve the performance of the sandwich so that no single component is over-
designed. The designer can choose the anticipated failure mode, or making two
different failure modes equally likely occur. Also, this is an advantage for cases
where certain failure modes should be avoided.
The dominant failure mode mechanism for a given design, is the one giving
failure at the lowest load.
A transition in failure mechanism takes place when two or more mechanisms
have the same load. This information can be displayed as a diagram or map
(failure-mode map).The most important transitions we get from equating pairs
of the failure-mode equations are: face yielding - face wrinkling, face yield - core
shear and face wrinkling - core shear, as shown in Figure 12.4. Failure-mode maps
can be constructed from the failure-mode equations that comes out as a result of
the analysis of the different failure modes.
Some different failure modes with the corresponding failure loads for a rectan-
gular sandwich beam are shown in the table below.
Summary of failure modes and failure loads:
167
Face wrinkling (local buckling) occurs when
|Mx | PL p
σf = = = 0.5 3 Ef Ec Gc .
btf d B3 btf d
Ec = CE ρnc , Gc = CG ρnc , σ yc = Cσ ρm m
c and τ yc = Cτ ρc , (12.7)
Thus the transition between face yielding and face wrinkling is given by the equa-
tion s
³ σ ´3 1
yf
ρc = 2n , (12.8)
0.5 Ef CE CG
which is independent of tf /L and therefore will appear as a horizontal line in a
failure mode map in Figure 12.4, where the variable tf /L is along the horizontal
axis and ρc is along the vertical axis.
168
12.2.2. Transition equation between face yield and core shear
Core shear failure occurs when
Tx P
τ c max = = ≥ τ yc ,
bd B4 bd
where
P = τ yc B4 bd = (Cτ ρm
c ) B4 bd. (12.9)
by the use of (12.7).
Putting the two expressions in (12.9) and (12.10) equal to each other
µ ¶
m tf
(Cτ ρc ) B4 bd = σyf B3 b d,
L
we obtain that µ ¶
B3 tf
ρm
c = σ yf .
Cτ B4 L
Thus the transition equation between core shear failure and face yielding will be
given by
r µ ¶ m1
m B3 tf
ρc = σ yf . (12.11)
Cτ B4 L
169
Hence,
µ ¶ µ ¶ q
tf p tf
P = 0.5B3 3
bd Ef Ec Gc = 0.5B3 bd 3 Ef (CE ρnc ) (CG ρnc )
L L
µ ¶
tf p
= 0.5B3 bd 3 Ef CE CG ρ2n
c (12.12)
L
by the use of (12.7).
Core shear failure occurs when
Tx P
τ c max = = = τ yc .
bd B4 bd
Hence,
P = τ yc B4 bd = Cτ ρm
c B4 bd (12.13)
by (12.7).
Putting the two expressions in (12.12) and (12.13) equal to each other, we get
that µ ¶
1 tf p m
B3 bd 3 Ef CE CG ρ2n
c = Cτ ρc B4 bd.
2 L
i.e. p µ ¶
B3 3 Ef CE CG tf ¡ 2n ¢− 13 m− 2n
= ρmc ρc = ρc 3 .
2Cτ B4 L
Thus, the transition equation between face wrinkling and core shear failure will
be s p
µ ¶ 1
m− 2n
3
B3 3 Ef CE CG tf m− 2n3
ρc = . (12.14)
2Cτ B4 L
Summing up:
The Face yield - Face wrinkling transition equation is given by
s
³ σ ´3 1
yf
ρc = 2n
. (1) (12.15)
0.5 Ef CE CG
170
The Face wrinkling - Core shear transition equation is given by
s p
µ ¶ 1
2n
m− 3 B3 3 Ef CE CG tf m− 2n3
ρc = (3) (12.17)
2Cτ B4 L
The transitions of failure modes in (12.15), (12.16) and (12.17) are illustrated
in the failure mode map in Figure 12.4.
2 (0.015) (2) L
à p !3 µ ¶3
(4) 3 (70000) (1) (0.4) tf
=
2 (0.015) (2) L
µ ¶3
9 tf
= 8.296 4 · 10 .
L
171
Summing up we obtain that:
The Face yield - Face wrinkling transition equation is given by
y = log10 31.053
y = log10 20000 + x.
The Face wrinkling - Core shear transition equation is given by
¡ ¢
y = log10 8.296 4 × 109 + 3x.
The graphs of these expressions are illustrated in Figure 12.3, where we also have
indicated the failure mechanisms which are pairwise dominating on the respective
side of each graph (1,2 and 3 denote face yield, face wrinkling and core shear,
respectively). For each failure mechanism we now find the region for which
this mechanism is dominating all other mechanisms. This region must be the
intersection of the regions where the failure mechanism is pairwise dominating
the others. The resulting regions are shown in Figure 12.4.
172
Figure 12.3: The graphs of the three transisition equations.
Figure 12.4: Failure mode map for a sandwich beam in three-point bending, which has
faces made of aluminium and a core with properties that vary with the core density.
173
13. Design Procedures
Designing a sandwich element is very often an integrated process of sizing and
material selection in order to get some sort of optimum design with respect to
the objective you have chosen for instance weight, strength, or stiffness. Note
that all material systems have both advantages and disadvantages. Therefore it is
difficult to state some general terms about choosing materials. But, some material
related properties can still be considered despite the choice of material, such as
density of the core material. An optimum design of a sandwich construction is
very difficult to obtain because there are so many different constraints that the
problem becomes complex. But, considering the most important constraints and
using a simple optimization technique could be very useful in the design process.
An optimization on strength only does not ensure that the sandwich panel is
stiff enough. In most studies done in optimization they do not take into account
all possible failure modes as they should have.
core Ec and Gc vary with the relative density of the core ρc /ρs in the following
174
way µ ¶2 µ ¶2
ρc ρc
Ec = C1 Es , Gc = C2 Es (13.1)
ρs ρs
where ρc is the density of the core, ρs is the density of the solid material (cell
wall) in the core, Es is the Youngs modulus of the solid material (cell wall) in the
core, and C1 (≈ 1) and C2 (≈ 0.4) are proportionality constants. We will explain
the concept of relative density ρc /ρs in more detail later.
Recall that for most cases the flexural rigidity
Ef bt3f Ec bt3c Ef btf d2
(EI)eq = + +
6 12 2
is reduced to
Ef btf d2
(EI)eq = , (13.2)
2
and that the equivalent shear rigidity
bd2 Gc
(AG)eq =
tc
when d ≈ tc , is reduced to
(AG)eq = bdGc . (13.3)
Recall also that the deflection δ
P L3 PL
δ = δb + δs = + . (13.4)
B1 (EI)eq B2 (AG)eq
If we insert (13.2) and (13.3) in (13.4) we obtain that the compliance (the inverse
of the stiffness) of the beam
δ 2L3 L
= 2
+ . (13.5)
P B1 (Ef btf d ) B2 (bdGc )
In most sandwich design the key issue is to minimize the weight, W , (also
called the ”objective function” ) given by
175
for a given bending stiffness P/δ, where m is the mass, V is the volume, g is the
acceleration due to the gravity and ρf and ρc is the density of the face and core
material, respectively. The only free variables are d, tf and ρc . For simplicity we
assume that the core density ρc , is fixed. Then the optimization problem is quiet
easy. By using (13.5), we find that
2L3
tf = ³ ´ (13.7)
B1 Ef bd2 Pδ − L
B2 (bdGc )
176
which is a 4th order equation in d.
If the core density also should be treated as a variable the design optimization
problem is more complex.
If the compliance δ/P from (13.5) is denoted C, and solving it with respect to
tf as a function of d we obtain from (13.7) that
2L3 2L3
tf = ³ ´= ³ ´
B1 Ef bd2 Pδ − L
B2 (bdGc )
B1 Ef bd2 C − L
B2 bdGc
which when substituting into the weight equation, we obtain that the total weight
W of the beam as a function of d (when d = tc )
à ∙ ¸−1 !
¡ ¢ 4ρf L2 Cd2 d
W [g] = 2ρf tf + ρc d L = − + ρc d L. (13.9)
B1 Ef b L B2 bGc
177
weight W [g]
2.625
2.5
2.375
2.25
2.125
20 25 30 35 40 45 50
d [mm]
The weight of the beam per unit thickness (eq. (13.9) times the length L) can
then be plotted versus thickness d as illustrated in Figure 13.2. The weight
⎛ ⎡ ³ 500 ´ ⎤−1 ⎞
2
−3 2
⎜ 4 (2.7 · 10 ) (500) ⎣ 10
100
d d ⎦ ⎟
W (d) [g] = ⎝ − + 0.1 · 10−3 d⎠ 500
48 (70000) 500 4 (40)
178
The solution of this equation turns out to be i.e. d = 28.617. Thus the minimum
total weight
W (28.617) =
µ ¶
8.0357 × 10−4
= + 0.0001 (28.61729) 500 =
0.001 (28.61729)2 − 0.00625 (28.61729)
= 2.058 6g.
Substituting back gives the face thickness
∙ 2 ¸−1
2L2 Cd d
tf = − =
B1 Ef b L B2 bGc
⎡ ³ 500 ´ 2
⎤−1
2 (500) 2 100
(28.617) 28.617 ⎦
= ⎣ 10 − =
48 (70000) 1 500 4 (40) 1
= 0.23249mm.
179
Part III
Cellular Solids
14. Some definitions of cellular solids
Cellular solids are described by the geometric structure of the cells, that is both
shape and size of the cells and the way the cells are distributed. Foams are three-
dimensional cellular solids and are more complex than the two-dimensional struc-
tures like honeycomb-structures. But, by studying the two-dimensional structures
we make a basis in understanding the more difficult and complex three-dimensional
structures of for instance foams.
One of the most important feature of a cellular solid is what we call the relative
density, defined by
ρ∗
ρ= (14.1)
ρo
where ρ∗ and ρo are the density of the cellular material and the outer (connected
solid) material (which is the material that the cell-walls are made up of), respec-
tively. When the relative density increases, the cell wall gets thicker. Relative
density of the outer material is the same as the volume fraction of the outer
material, po , defined by
(see Figure 14.1). In order to see this, we observe that the density of the foam
For the case when the inner material in Figure 14.1 and 14.2 is air, we have that
m∗ = mo .
180
Figure 14.1: Cellular solids.
181
Materials ρ
Special ultra-low-density foams 0,001
Polymeric foams (packaging and insulation) 0,05-0,20
Cork 0,14
Softwoods 0,15-0,40
Table 14.1: Relative density for some cellular solids.
µ ¶2 µ µ ¶¶2
(l − t)2 l−t t
po = 1 − pI = 1 − 2
=1− =1− 1− =
l l l
à µ ¶ µ ¶2 ! µ ¶ µ ¶2
t t t t
1− 1−2 + =2 − ,
l l l l
which is approximately 2 (t/l) for small values of t/l. For a closed-cell structure,
the relative density ρ∗ /ρo can be written as
µ ¶
ρ∗ t
= po = 2 .
ρo l
If the relative density ρ∗ /ρo (= po ) is is large, say po > 0.3, the structure will
look more like a solid material with isolated pores than a cellular structure (see
[5], p. 2). Gibson and Ashby refer to materials with relative density less than 0.3
as true cellular solids. Throughout we assume a low density, so that t << l (wall
thickness<<wall-length), see Figure 14.3 and that all the walls have the same
thickness. Simple beam theory is valid only when t/l < 1/4 (see [5], p. 110).
Some examples of the relative density of some cellular solids are given in Table
14.1.
182
l
h
t
x2
x3
x1
183
σ2
σ1
σ1
σ2
184
Figure 14.5: A regular hexagonal honeycomb.
that
t h
ρ∗ ( + 2)
l l
≈ . (14.3)
ρo 2 cos θ( hl + sin θ)
When the honeycomb is regular (h = l and θ = 30◦ ), see Figure 14.5, then (14.3)
is reduced to
t h µ1¶ t
ρ∗ ( + 2)
l l l2 l
(1 + 2) t 2
= h 1 = √ = √
ρo 2 cos θ( l + sin θ) l2 2 23 (1 + 12 ) l 3
which holds when strains are less than 20% or t/l is small.
185
σ2
σ1 σ1
x2 x2
x1 x1
σ2
186
τ τ
x2
x1
187
Figure 14.8: A honeycomb with out-of-plane loads (faces normal to X3 − direction).
υ ∗31 = υ ∗32 = υ o ,
and the Poisson’s ratio υ ∗13 and υ ∗23 are found from the reciprocal relations (see
[5], p. 498)
E∗ E∗
υ ∗13 = 1∗ υ o ≈ 0, υ ∗23 = 2∗ υ o ≈ 0.
E3 E3
The shear moduli are more complicated to find because of the non-uniform
deformation in the cell walls due to stress distribution in the honeycomb. The
plane honeycomb may not remain plane, and exact calculations may only be done
using numerical methods. But, we can obtain upper and lower bounds for the two
shear moduli, with the help of the method in [23], by calculating the strain energy
188
associated first with the strain distribution and next by the stress distribution
(see [5], p. 149). If the two coincide, the solution is exact, but if not the true
solution lies somewhere in between the upper and lower bound. We will only give
the results here, for more information see [5], p. 150. The upper and lower bounds
for G∗13 , respectively: µ ¶
G∗13 cos θ t
≤ ,
Go h/l + sin θ l
µ ¶
G∗13 cos θ t
≥
Go h/l + sin θ l
which are identically, and therefor we have an exact solution. For the regular
hexagon we obtain that µ ¶
G∗13 t
= 0.577 . (14.9)
Go l
The upper and lower bounds for G∗23 , respectively:
µ ¶
G∗23 1 h/l + 2 sin2 θ t
≤ ,
Go 2 (h/l + sin θ) cos θ l
µ ¶
G∗23 h/l + sin θ t
≥
Go (1 + 2h/l) cos θ l
which are not identically. They will not coincide for a general, anisotropic honey-
comb but for a regular hexagon they are reduced to
µ ¶
G∗23 t
= 0.577 . (14.10)
Go l
We see that (14.9) and (14.10) are identical, which confirms that regular hexagons
are isotropic in the x 1 −x 2 plane.
The out-of plane shear moduli vary linearly with the relative density (t/l) and
are therefore larger that the in-plane moduli by the factor (t/l)2 .
Now we have all the parameters describing the orthrotropic structure, and we
can put them into the matrix 18.5 in order to find the compliance matrix (the
inverse of the stiffness matrix).
Questions
• What is relative density?
189
• Show that relative density is the same as volume fraction. Assume air inside
the cell.
• Show that if the hexagonal honeycomb has a low relative density, ρ∗ /ρo , (t/l is
small) then
t h
ρ∗ ( + 2)
l l
≈ .
ρs 2 cos θ( hl + sin θ)
• If the relative density of a square honeycomb is 0.8, what is the wall-thickness
of the honeycomb?
• If the volume fraction of a hexagonal honeycomb is 0.8, what is the wall-thickness
of the honeycomb?
• When is simple beam theory valid, according to Ashby & Gibson?
• What is the difference between in-plane and out-of-plane properties of a honey-
comb structure?
• If a hexagonal honeycomb is regular (wall thicknesses are equal), are the in-plane
properties isotropic?
• What does isotropic mean?
• If the honeycomb is irregular and anisotropic, how many moduli for a complete
description of the in-plane properties is needed?
• What is the definition of Poisson’s ratio?
190
Part IV
Mechanics and Effective
Properties of Composite
Structures and Honeycombs
15. On effective Properties of Composite Structures
Strongly non-homogeneous structures have fascinated people for a very long time.
Archaeological observations in Finland show that fibre- reinforced ceramics were
made about 4000 years ago, and that people already at this time had ideas and
theories for intelligent combinations of materials and structures. Analysis of
the macroscopic properties of composites was initiated by the physicists Raleigh,
Maxwell and Einstein. Around 1970 one managed to formulate the physical prob-
lems of material structures and composites in such a way that this field became
interesting from a purely mathematical point of view. This formulation initiated a
new mathematical discipline called homogenization theory. Independently of this
development scientists within the field of micro-mechanics have developed their
own theory concerning the mechanics of composites and structures.
By using these theories we can determine locale and global (effective) proper-
ties of inhomogeneous structures which are too complex to be treated by conven-
tional computational methods. The theories make it possible to design material
structures with optimal properties with respect to weight, strength, stiffness, heat
conductivity, electric conductivity, magnetic permeability, viscosity etc.
Almost all literature on this field assumes relatively high knowledge in math-
ematics. However, in this paper we give a short introduction to the theory which
require physical intuition rather than deep theoretical understanding. We hope
this treatment makes it easier to understand some basic aspects of the theory for
a broader audience, especially people with background in engineering.
191
temperature, i.e.
⎡ ∂u ⎤
∙ ¸T λ ∂x1
∂u ∂u ∂u
v = −λ grad u (= − λ ,λ ,λ ∂u ⎦
= − ⎣ λ ∂x ),
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x2 ∂u
2
λ ∂x2
(which is constant). This matrix is found as follows. Imagine that the composite
is subjected to a homogeneous temperature-field, that is a temperature-field such
that the average value hgrad ui of grad u is constant. Letting hvi be the average
value of v = −A grad u we can obtain A∗ from the relation
hvi = A∗ hgrad ui .
192
The average is taken over some representative domain Y of the composite. In
general this volume should be much larger than the typical length-scale of the
material (e.g. fiber-diameter), but in the case of periodic materials we can as
well let Y be the cell of periodicity. Roughly speaking the effective conductivity
matrix A∗ is the matrix of a corresponding homogeneous material with the same
”effective” thermal properties as the actual composite. In particular, the ”the
thermal energy” in Y of the actual composite is equal to ”the thermal energy” in
the corresponding homogeneous material, i.e.
Z
1 1
(grad u · A grad u) dv = hgrad ui · A∗ hgrad ui |Y |. (16.1)
Y 2 2
| {z } | {z }
thermal energy in the composite thermal energy in corresponding
homogenized material.
For example, if we want to find λ∗11 we impose the thermal field such that hgrad ui =
[1, 0, 0]T then measure the energy W inside Y and obtain λ∗11 from (16.1):
W
λ∗11 = 2 .
|Y |
193
If the material is a thin plate, we consider the plane-stress problem. In this case
the plane stress bulk modulus is expressed as
µ ¶
E 1
K= .
2 1−ν
The shear modulus G is independent of the dimension and also independent of
whether we are dealing with the plane-strain -or plane stress problem.
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ∗ ∗ ∗
⎤⎡ ⎤
hσ 11 i C1111 C1122 C1133 0 0 0 he11 i
⎢ hσ 22 i ⎥ ⎢ ∗ ∗ ∗
C2211 C2222 C2233 0 0 0 ⎥⎢ he22 i ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎢ hσ 33 i ⎥ ⎢ ∗ ∗ ∗
C3311 C3322 C3333 0 0 0 ⎥⎢ he33 i ⎥
⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥, (18.1)
⎢ hσ 12 i ⎥ ⎢ 0 0 0 ∗
C1212 0 0 ⎥⎢ hγ 12 i ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎣ hσ 23 i ⎦ ⎣ 0 0 0 0 ∗
C2323 0 ⎦⎣ hγ 23 i ⎦
∗
hσ 13 i 0 0 0 0 0 C1313 hγ 13 i
| {z } | {z }| {z }
hσi C∗ hei
i.e.
σ = Ce, hσi = C ∗ hei . (18.2)
194
Here we assume equilibrium of stresses in each direction:
∂σ 11 ∂σ 12 ∂σ 13
+ + = 0,
∂y1 ∂y2 ∂y3
∂σ 21 ∂σ 22 ∂σ 23
+ + = 0,
∂y1 ∂y2 ∂y3
∂σ 31 ∂σ 32 ∂σ 33
+ + = 0.
∂y1 ∂y2 ∂y3
where σij = σ ji (obtained by applying Gauss theorem as for the heat problem)
These equations follows if we assume that the net force is 0. The symbol h·i
denotes the average taken over some representative domain Y of the composite.
In general this volume should be much larger than the typical length-scale of the
material (e.g. fiber-diameter), but in the case of periodic materials we can as well
let Y be the cell of periodicity. Roughly speaking the effective stiffness matrix C ∗
is the matrix of a corresponding homogeneous material with the same ”effective”
properties as the actual composite. In particular, the actual strain energy stored in
Y is equal to the strain energy stored in the corresponding homogeneous material,
i.e. Z
1 1
(e · Ce) dv = hei · C ∗ hei |Y | . (18.3)
2 |2 {z }
|Y {z }
strain energy in the composite strain energy in corresponding
homogenized material.
∗
Example 18.1. If we want to find C1111 we stretch the periodic structure in such
a way that average strain hei = [1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0]T , then measure (or compute) the
average stress hσi = [hσ 11 i , hσ 22 i , hσ 33 i , hσ 12 i , hσ 23 i , hσ 13 i]T and finally compute
∗ ∗
the coefficient C1111 from (18.1) which gives us that C1111 = hσ 11 i . Equivalently,
we can ask the FE-program to compute the strain energy W (the left side of
∗
(18.3)) and then compute C1111 from (18.3), i.e. we obtain
Z
1 1 1 ∗
(e · Ce) dv = [1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0]T · C ∗ [1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0]T |Y | = C1111 |Y | ,
Y 2 2 2
| {z }
strain energy in the composite
thus
∗ 2(strain energy)
C1111 = .
|Y |
195
The stiffness matrix is symmetric and the elements may be expressed as follows
(see e.g. [32]):
where
1 − ν ∗12 ν ∗21 − ν ∗23 ν ∗32 − ν ∗31 ν ∗13 − 2ν ∗21 ν ∗32 ν ∗13
∆= .
E1∗ E2∗ E3∗
Here, ’Ei∗ ’ are the effective Young’s moduli, ’G∗ij ’ are the effective shear moduli
and ’ν ∗ij ’ are the effective Poisson’s ratios. The inverse of the effective stiffness
matrix (the compliance matrix) which (certainly) also is symmetric is given by
⎡ ⎤
1 ν ∗12 ν ∗13
∗ − ∗ − ∗ 0 0 0
⎢ E1ν ∗21 1 E2 E3
ν ∗23 ⎥
⎢ − ∗ − 0 0 0 ⎥
⎢ E∗1 E2 ∗ ∗ E3 ∗
⎥
⎢ ν 31 ν ⎥
⎢ − E ∗ − E32∗ E1∗ 0 0 0 ⎥
⎢ 1 2 3 ⎥. (18.5)
⎢ 0 0 0 1
0 0 ⎥
⎢ G ∗
12 ⎥
⎢ 0 0 0 0 1
0 ⎥
⎣ ∗
G23 ⎦
1
0 0 0 0 0 G∗ 13
196
Figure 19.1: The structure of square honeybombs with locally isotropic material prop-
erties.
Figure 19.2: The 4 moduli measure resistence against the indicated average strains.
Here, K ∗ is the effective transverse (also called ”in-plane”) bulk modulus, G∗T ,
G∗T,45 are the effective transverse shear moduli and G∗L is the longitudinal (also
called ”out-of plane”) shear modulus, see Figure 19.2. In this case the compliance
matrix reduces to
197
⎡ ν∗ ν∗
⎤
1
ET∗
− ET∗ − EL∗ 0 0 0
⎢ ν∗
T
ν∗
L
⎥
⎢ − ET∗ 1
− EL∗ 0 0 0 ⎥
⎢ T ET∗ L ⎥
⎢ ν∗ ν∗ 1 ⎥
⎢ − EL∗ − EL∗ EL∗ 0 0 0 ⎥
⎢ L L ⎥. (19.2)
⎢ 0 0 0 1
0 0 ⎥
⎢ G∗T,45 ⎥
⎢ 0 0 0 0 1
0 ⎥
⎣ G∗L ⎦
1
0 0 0 0 0 G∗L
4 1 1 4 (ν ∗L )2
= ∗ + ∗+ . (19.4)
ET∗ GT K EL∗
l∗ = ν ∗L 2K ∗ , n∗ = EL∗ + 4 (ν ∗L )2 K ∗ (19.5)
Moreover, it has been proved by Hill [11] that
4(ν o − ν I )2 1 1 1
EL∗ = po Eo + pI EI + ³ ´2 (po + pI − ∗ ), (19.6)
1 Ko KI K
Ko
− K1I
νo − νI 1 1 1
ν ∗L = po ν o + pI ν I − 1 1 (po + pI − ∗ ). (19.7)
Ko
− KI Ko KI K
These two formulae were proved in [11] for the case of transverse isotropy. How-
ever, by following the proof in [11] it is easy to check that the same facts hold in
our case.
198
Figure 19.3: Hexagonal honeycomb. Exampel of structure satisfying the property of
transverse isotropy (i.e G∗T = G∗T,45 ).
l∗ and n∗ are the found by inserting the values of EL∗ (19.6) and ν ∗L (19.7) into
(19.5). If we also want to know ET∗ and ν ∗T we can evaluate these values by first
evaluating ET∗ from (19.4) and finally ν ∗T from (19.3).
It is possible to show that G∗L can be found exactly as the effective conductivity
in the similar 2-dimensional problem by letting Go and GI play the same role as
the local conductivity for that problem.
1. Find KI , Ko , GI , Go .
K ∗ = 0.658455,
G∗T = 0.273775,
G∗T,45 = 0.259418,
G∗L = 0.274426.
3. Find also ν ∗L , EL∗ , ET∗ and ν ∗T . and find the effective compliance matrix.
199
20. Numerical methods for periodic structures
In order to use conventional software to solve displacement field numerically for
periodic structures, e.g. by the finite element method, it is often necessary to
”translate” the information of the average strain hei into equivalent boundary
conditions for the on the cell of periodicity
200
Figure 20.1: The Y -cell in the symmetric case.
ckl clk
+ = hγ kl i . (20.2)
yl yk
Hence
ckk = yk hekk i .
Observe that ckl and clk are not uniquely determined by this relation when k 6= l.
Thus in this case these constants can be chosen independently (as long as (20.2)
is satisfied). E.g. we can choose
hγ kl i
ckl = clk = 1 . (20.3)
yl
+ y1k
and drop all the other boundary conditions. The latter is equivalent with setting
a Neumann condition, ∂ui /∂xl = 0, i 6= l on the same faces. It is easy to
see physically that these simplified boundary conditions hold by considering the
deformation of the whole periodic structure, since it is obvious that the solution
(which indeed represents the deformed body) must inherit the same symmetry
as the material itself (see Figure 20.2). Moreover, in the case when all average
normal strains hekk i = 0, we can in (20.1) use the Dirichlet condition
hγ il i
ui (xl− ) = 0, ui (xl+ ) = cil (= 1 ), i 6= l (20.5)
yl
+ y1i
201
Figure 20.2: Deformation of the periodic structure in the symmetric case.
and drop all the other boundary conditions. The latter is equivalent with setting
a Neumann condition, ∂ui /∂xi = 0, i 6= l for l = 1, 2, 3 on the same faces.
The boundary conditions for the conductivity case can be simplified in the
same way.
e0 = Te,
202
Figure 20.3: The two coordinate systems.
where
⎡ ⎤
n211 n212 n213 n11 n12 n12 n13 n11 n13
⎢ 2
n21 2
n22 2
n23 n21 n22 n22 n23 n21 n23 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ 2
n31 2
n32 2
n33 n31 n32 n32 n33 n31 n33 ⎥
T=⎢
⎢
⎥.
⎥
⎢ 2n11 n21 2n12 n22 2n13 n23 n11 n22 + n21 n12 n12 n23 + n22 n13 n11 n23 + n21 n13 ⎥
⎣ 2n21 n31 2n22 n32 2n23 n33 n21 n32 + n31 n22 n22 n33 + n32 n23 n21 n33 + n31 n23 ⎦
2n11 n31 2n12 n32 2n13 n33 n11 n32 + n31 n12 n12 n33 + n32 n13 n11 n33 + n31 n13
The stress-strain relation in the new coordinate system can therefore be written
as:
σ0 = C 0 e0 ,
203
where
C = TT C 0 T.
Concerning these facts we refer to e.g. [3, p. 212].
In the plane strain case we put all strains related to the x3 -variable equal to
0. If we also assume that the new coordinate system is obtained from the stan-
dard one by a rotation in the x1 -x2 -plane then we obtain the following simplified
relations:
⎡ ⎤
C1111 C1122 C1112
C = ⎣ C2211 C2222 C2212 ⎦ ,
C1211 C1222 C1212
⎡ ⎤
n211 n212 n11 n12
T = ⎣ n221 n222 n21 n22 ⎦,
2n11 n21 2n12 n22 n11 n22 + n21 n12
⎡ ⎤
n211 n212 2n11 n12
T−T = ⎣ n221 n222 2n21 n22 ⎦.
n11 n21 n12 n22 n11 n22 + n21 n12
As an example, let us consider the square symmetric case, i.e. when the stiffness
i.e. C ∗0 is the same as C ∗ except that the shear moduli G∗T,45 and G∗T have changed
place. This explains the use of the index ”45” and shows that we can calculate
G∗T,45 exactly as we calculate G∗T except by rotating the coordinate system 45◦ .
204
Exercise 20.1. Verify (20.6) by calculating C ∗ = TT C ∗0 T
TT C ∗0 T =C ∗0 . (20.7)
for any orthonormal coordinate system [n11 , n12 ] = [cos φ, sin φ] , [n21 , n22 ] =
[− sin φ, cos φ] This is done by simplifying each of the elements of the matrix.
For example we find that
¡ T ∗0 ¢
T C T 11 = n411 K ∗ + n411 G∗ + 2n211 n221 K ∗ + 2n211 n221 G∗ + n421 k + n421 G∗
Verify that (20.7) holds for this element. (Note that (20.7) explains why compos-
ites with this type of effective stiffness matrixes are called transversely isotropic).
Solution:
¡ T ∗0 ¢ ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢2
T C T 11 = (K ∗ + G∗ ) n411 + 2n211 n221 + n421 = (K ∗ + G∗ ) n211 + n221 =
¡ ¢2
= (K ∗ + G∗ ) cos2 φ + sin2 φ = (K ∗ + G∗ ) 12 = (K ∗ + G∗ ) .
205
Figure 20.4: Sandwich plate with three alternative cores.
In order to compute the effective in-plane moduli K ∗ and G∗T we solve the cell
problem for hei = [1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, ]T and hei = [1, −1, 0, 0, 0, 0, ]T and compute the
corresponding values K ∗ = hσ11 i /2 and G∗T = hσ11 i /2, respectively. Alternatively
we can compute the strain energy W and compute K ∗ and G∗T from the identity
1
W = hei · C ∗ hei |Y | (21.2)
2
206
(discussed in (18.3)). For the computation it is enough to solve the two-dimensional
cell problem using plane strain. This is due to the fact that the solution of the
three dimensional cell problem in both cases will be independent of the x3 -variable
and we do not use any information of the strain or stresses in x3 -direction for the
computation of K ∗ and G∗T . Because of the symmetries it suffices to solve the prob-
lem on 1/4 of the Y -cell, e.g. on the square Y = [0, 1]2 . Since |Y | = 1, we obtain
from (21.2) that K ∗ = W/2 and G∗T = W/2. We can use uniform boundary con-
ditions on each face of this square (see Section 20), i.e. for hei = [1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, ]T
the boundary conditions are :
u1 (0, x2 ) = u2 (x1 , 0) = 0,
u1 (1, x2 ) = u2 (x1 , 1) = 1
u1 (0, x2 ) = u2 (x1 , 0) = 0,
u1 (1, x2 ) = 1
u2 (x1 , 1) = −1
(this follows from (20.4)). Due to symmetries the module G∗T,45 can be found
exactly as G∗T except that we must rotate the coordinate system 45◦ (see the last
part of Section 20.1).
Alternatively we can compute G∗T,45 more directly by solving the cell problem
for hei = [0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0]T and computing the corresponding value G∗T,45 = hσ12 i · 1,
or equivalently, compute the strain energy W and find G∗T,45 from the identity
(21.2) (with |Y | = 1), which gives G∗T,45 = 2W . In this case we use the following
boundary conditions on each face of the square ( according to (20.5))
u2 (0, x2 ) = u1 (x1 , 0) = 0,
1
u2 (1, x2 ) = u1 (x1 , 1) = .
2
The module G∗L can be found by using hei = [0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1]T and computing
the corresponding value G∗L = hσ 13 i . The problem with doing this is that it often
requires a full 3D FE-computation regardless of the fact that the solution of the
cell problem is independent of the x3 -variable. Therefore it is often easier to
solve the corresponding 2D heat-conductivity problem (see Subsection 19.1) with
207
boundary conditions
u(0, x2 ) = 0
u(1, x2 ) = 1
using Go and GI as ”thermal conductivities” and computing G∗L from the thermal
energy W (16.1), which gives
G∗L = 2W.
Once we have computed the 4 moduli K ∗ , G∗T , G∗T,45 , and G∗L we can easily
obtain all the other moduli (see Subsection 19.1).
K ∗ = 0.658455,
G∗T = 0.273775,
G∗T,45 = 0.259418,
G∗L = 0.274426.
ν ∗L = 0.3,
EL∗ = 0.75,
ET∗ = 0.70779659,
ν ∗T = 0.29266111,
and by (19.5)
l∗ = 0. 39507,
n∗ = 0.98704.
208
⎡ ⎤
0.932226 0.384677 0.39507 0 0 0
⎢ 0.384677 0.932226 0.39507 0 0 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ 0.395072 0.395072 0.98704 0 0 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥.
⎢ 0 0 0 0.259418 0 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0 0 0 0 0.274426 0 ⎦
0 0 0 0 0 0.274426
and the effective compliance matrix (19.2) takes the form
⎡ ⎤
1.41284 −0.413482 −0.4 0 0 0
⎢ −0.413482 1.41284 −0.4 0 0 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ −0.4 −0.4 1.33333 0 0 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ 0 0 0 3.8548 0 0 ⎥.
⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0 0 0 0 3.64397 0 ⎦
0 0 0 0 0 3.64397
In this example we used the same Poisson’s ratios in both phases. Let us consider
the case when ν I = 0.4, ν o = 0, EI = 0.5, Eo = 1 or equivalently KI = 0. 89285714,
Ko = 0.5, GI = 0.17857143, Go = 0.5. In this case we obtain the following effective
moduli:
K ∗ = 0.66335 ν ∗L = 0.22386372
G∗T = 0.3038805 EL∗ = 0.79338859
.
G∗T,45 = 0.269322 ET∗ = 0.79193337
G∗L = 0.307502 ν ∗T = 0.3030342
Remark 1. In the first example (where the Poisson’s ratios are the same in both
phases) ν ∗L and EL∗ equals the arithmetic mean of the corresponding phase prop-
erties (usually referred to as ”the law of mixtures”). From the last example we
observe that this may not be true when the Poisson’s ratios of the phases are
different.
Exercise 21.1. Verify the above values for K ∗ , G∗T , G∗T,45 , and G∗L by performing
a FE-calculation according to the above method. Use e.g. the Finite Element
Method programme ANSYS. For the calculation of K ∗ , G∗T , G∗T,45 use Structural
problem, element type PLANE 82, element size 0.015, plane strain. For the
calculation of G∗L use thermal problem, element type PLANE 77, element size
0.015.
209
Part V
Fabrication processes
In this part we will study some of the fabrication processes concerning the mate-
rials and structures studied in Part I. In particular we consider the processes of
fabricating polymers, plastics and composites. Moreover, we study some of the
advanced manufacturing techniques of layer manufacturing technology (LMT).
From [4], we have the rough definition of what a material processing is: ”all
that is done to convert stuff into things”. Figure 21.1 gives an picture of the
different general materials processing types (independent of the material types).
Casting
In casting, no fillers or no pressure is required. The liquid polymer is poured
into a container having the shape of the desired part. It is an inexpensive process,
dimensional precision is quite high, but quality problems can occur due to inade-
quate mixing, air entrapment, gas evolution, and shrinkage.
Typical products: sheets, plates, rods and tubes as well as small objects such
as jewelry.
210
Figure 21.1: Materials processes.
211
Figure 22.1: Pressure die casting.
Blow molding
In blow molding, thermoplastics are converted into bottles or other hollow-
shape containers. The melted polymer is put into a mold, then compressed air
is used to spread the polymer into the mold, see Figure 22.2.It is used to make
many containers such as plastic soda containers and milk jugs.
Cold molding
In cold molding, raw thermosetting is pressed to shape while it is cold. Cured
in a separate oven. It is a low cost process, but neither surface finish nor dimension
precision is good.
Injection molding
212
Figure 22.2: Blow molding.
Injection molding is the most widely used process for high-volume production
of thermoplastics parts. The resulting form is usually a finished product, no need
for other work before assembly or use. If the process is applied to thermosettings,
the process must be modified to provide the temperature and pressure required
for curing (which is additional time in a heated mold).
Similar to extrusion, the polymer is heated to the liquid state, but it is prepared
in metered amounts, and the melt is forced into a mold to create the part, see
Figure 22.3. This is not a continuos process. Many toys are made by injection
molding.
Transfer molding
Transfer molding combines elements from compression and injection molding.
Preformed raw thermosetting material is placed into a cavity, where it is heated
until molten which is forced into the channels in the die. Thin sections can
be made, with excellent detail, and good tolerance and finish. Inserts can be
incorporated into the product.
Products: switchgear and wiring devices, household appliances that require
heat resistance, structural parts that require hardness and rigidity under load.
213
Figure 22.3: Injection molding.
Insert molding
Insert molding is an injection molding process whereby plastic is injected into
a cavity and around an insert piece placed into the same cavity just prior to
molding. The result is a single piece with the insert encapsulated by the plastic.
The insert can be made of metal or another plastic.
Like injection molding in general, insert molding can be accomplished with
a wide variety of materials, including polyethylene, polystyrene, polypropylene,
214
Figure 22.4: Reaction injection molding.
Thermoforming
In thermoforming, thermoplastic sheet material is heated to a working tem-
perature and then formed into a finished shape by heat, pressure, or vacuum, see
Figure 22.5. There are two main steps in the process: heating and forming.
Products: range from panels for contoured skylights, large items such as bath-
tubs, to pages of text for the blind.
The size of Thermo Pressure Formed parts is limited by the size of the thermo-
forming machines now in use and the size of plastic sheet stock which is available.
215
Figure 22.5: An example of thermoforming.
Commercially available sheet stock is attainable in sizes of 120 inches wide and
as long as required in thicknesses of up to .500 inches. Larger, thicker sheet stock
is available in special cases.
To date, the largest commercially available Thermo Pressure Formed parts are
in the size range of 48 inches long by 24 inches wide and 18 inches deep. However,
the size capabilities of the process increase almost daily.
Rotational molding
Rotational molding produce hollow, seamless products of a wide variety of
sizes and shapes, including storage tanks, bins, and refuse containers, doll parts,
footballs, helmets, and even boat hulls. Gravity is used inside a rotational mold
to achieve a hollow form, see Figure 22.6. The polymer is heated and due to the
rotation, distributed in the form of a uniform thickness all over the mold
The process is principally for thermoplastics (thermosets and elastomers are
more and more common).
Extrusion
By extrusion, long plastic products with uniform cross section are produced.
Thermoplastic pellets or powder are the raw material. The polymer is heated to
the liquid state and forced through a die under pressure resulting in an endless
product of constant cross section, see Figure 22.7. Extrusion is a cheap and rapid
method.
Products: tubes, pipes, window frames, sheet and even coated wires and cables.
60% of polymers are prepared in this way.
216
Figure 22.6: Rotational molding.
Film Blowing
Film blowing uses the same method as extrusion: the material coming out of
the die is blown into a film. An example is plastic wrap.
Foam molding
In foam molding, plastic foam is fabricated. Foaming agent is mixed with
the plastic resin and releases gas or volatilizes when the combination is heated
during molding. The materials expand to 2-50 times their original size. The
process produce open-cell foams and closed-cell foams. Open cell-foams have
interconnected pores that permit the permeability of gas or liquid. Closed-cell
foams have the property of being gas- or liquid-tight. Both thermoplastics and
thermosettings can be foamed.
Polyurethane is one of the most versatile polymers in use today. It’s chemistry
is based on the reaction of an isocyanate with a polyhydroxy compound (polyol).
Therefore, a polyurethane foam-in-place system is a combination of the above
two components which have been preformulated so they need to only be mixed
and dispensed to make polyurethane foam, see Figure 22.8. North Carolina Foam
Industries (NCFI) was awarded a Mission Success Medal on July 29, 1998 by
Lockheed Martin Michoud Space Systems for production and delivery of a light-
weight spray-applied foam insulation system that Lockheed Martin applies on the
surface of the new super lightweight external fuel tank.
217
Figure 22.7: Extrusion.
Products: Rigid foams are useful for structural applications, packaging, ship-
ping containers, interiors of thin-skinned metal components, and flexible foams
are primarily used for cushioning.
218
Figure 22.9: Glovedipping, picture from: http://www.accautomation.com/prodsysc.htm.
References:
Fabrication Processes:
http://islnotes.cps.msu.edu/trp/toc.html
http://www/designinsite.dk
Fabrication of plastics:
http://www.mse.cornell.edu/courses/engri111/polymer4.htm
Foam molding:
http://www.ncfi.com/foam-in-place.htm
Videos:
http://www.gwplastics.com/capabilities/amto.html
3D Body scanner, see http://www.tc2.com/RD/RDBody.htm
Design
http://www.machinedesign.com/
Application of plastics:
http://www.stug.com.au/Applications/Common.html
Questions
• What kind of main groups, subgroups and processes of fabrication processes are
there?
• How does the fabrication of a thermoplastic polymer differ from the processing
of a thermosetting polymer?
219
• What are some of the ways that plastic sheets, plates and tubes can be fabri-
cated?
• What types of polymers are most commonly blow molded?
• What type of products are produced by rotational molding?
• How do we produce long plastic products with uniform cross-section?
• How are foamed plastics produced?
• What is the difference between open-cell foams and close-cell foams?
220
23. Fabrication of Fiber-Reinforced Composites (FRC)
Taking composite materials as a whole, there are many different material options
to choose from in the areas of resins, fibres and cores, all with their own unique
set of properties such as strength, stiffness, toughness, heat resistance, cost, pro-
duction rate etc. However, the end properties of a composite part produced from
these different materials is not only a function of the individual properties of the
resin matrix and fibre (and in sandwich structures, the core as well), but is also a
function of the way in which the materials themselves are designed into the part
and also the way in which they are processed. In this section we compare a few
of the commonly used composite production methods.
221
Figure 23.1: Woven mat.
treatment in air between 200 and 300◦ C transforms the polymer into a nonmeltable
precursor fiber. This precursor fiber is then heated in a nitrogen environment. As
the temperature is raised, volatile products are given off until the carbon fiber is
composed of at least 92% carbon. The temperature used to treat the fibers varies
between 1000◦ C and 2500◦ C depending on the desired properties of the carbon
fiber.
Aramid: A high strength, high stiffness fiber derived from polyamide. Kevlar ° R
and Nomex °
R
are examples of aramids.
Fiberglass: Filaments made by drawing molten glass, commonly used to reinforce
composite materials.
Woven mats: For applications where more than one fibre orientation is required,
a fabric combining 0◦ and 90◦ fibre orientations is useful.
Woven fabrics, see Figure 23.1, are produced by the interlacing of warp (0◦ ) fi-
bres and weft (90◦ ) fibres in a regular pattern or weave style. The fabric’s integrity
is maintained by the mechanical interlocking of the fibres. Drape (the ability of
a fabric to conform to a complex surface), surface smoothness and stability of a
fabric are controlled primarily by the weave style.
Filament winding: This is the automated process of wrapping resin impreg-
nated filaments, see Figure 23.2, (rovings or tows) in a geometric pattern over a
rotating male mandrel. The component is then cured under high pressure and
temperature.
Rovings: Rovings consist of one or more glass strands made up of varying num-
bers of continuous glass fibers of a specific filament diameter. These fibers are
coated with a sizing designed to protect the fiber during processing and to couple
with the customer’s resin to optimize laminate performance.
222
Figure 23.2: Filament winding rovings.
Rovings, the most common form of glass, can be chopped, woven or processed
to create secondary fiber forms for composite manufacturing, such as mats, woven
fabrics, braids, knitted fabrics and hybrid fabrics. Rovings are supplied by weight,
with a specified filament diameter. The term yield is commonly used to indicate
the number of yards in each pound of glass fiber rovings.
Mats: Mats are nonwoven fabrics that provide isotropic or equal strength in
all directions. They come in two distinct forms: chopped and continuous strand.
Chopped mats contain randomly distributed fibers cut to lengths typically ranging
from 1.5 to 2.5 inches and held together with a chemical binder. Inherently weaker
than continuous-strand mats, chopped-strand mats provide low-cost polymer re-
inforcement primarily in hand layup, continuous laminating and some closed-
molding applications.
Chopped Strand Mat: The chopped strand mats, see Figure 23.3, are made
from cut fibers laid in a random pattern and bonded with a powdered, highly
soluble resin binder.
Continuous Filament Mat: In a different production step, strands formed
below the bushings are treated with a binder and formed into a swirl pattern to
make continuous filament mat.
223
Figure 23.3: Chop strand mat.
are mostly glass fiber mats or glass filament cloths processed to form molded parts
or semi-finished products by hot-press molding
Preforming is an intermediate molding process whereby the reinforcement is
assembled in the shape of the part to be molded. This helps to ensure uniform
properties in a composite product and speed the molding cycle.
Glass fiber-reinforced thermoplastic compounds are typically in the form of
pellets consisting of resin with fibers in it. They can have several different forms,
i.e. sheets and billets/bulk form, also called bulk molding compounds (BMC) and
sheet molding compound (SMC).
The pre-mixed material has the consistency of molding clay and is injected
into a mold cavity or placed on the bottom of two mold halves for compression
molding.
Centrifugal Casting
This process makes cylindrical, hollow shapes such as tanks, pipes and poles.
Chopped strand mat is placed into a hollow, cylindrical mold, or continuous roving
is chopped and directed onto the inside walls of the mold. Resin is applied to the
inside of the rotating mold.
224
Cold press molding is a semi-open molding process. Reinforcements, usually
continuous filament mats (CFM), are placed into the tool and a highly filled
polyester resin is poured onto them. The press is closed and the part is cured.
The process requires lower pressures, 15 - 100 lb/in2, and temperatures averaging
55◦ C. Cycle times are in the range of 10 - 20 minutes. Other glass fiber fabrics,
mats, veils and preforms are also used. Parts usually have a fair-to-poor surface,
so uses are under-hood auto and truck components like fan shrouds, brackets and
battery supports.
Continuous Lamination
This is a process for making composite in sheet form such as composite glaz-
ing, corrugated or flat construction panels, and electrical insulating materials.
Reinforcement is combined with resin and sandwiched between two plastic carrier
films. The sheet takes shape under forming rollers, and the resin is cured to form
the composite.
Filament Winding
This process makes high strength, hollow and generally cylindrical products
such as pipe, storage tanks, pressure vessels and rocket motor cases. The fiber
is impregnated in a resin bath and pulled by the force of a rotating mandrel
which gives the part its shape, see Figure 23.4.Veils are used for inner and/or
outer surfaces to create a resin-rich surface for better corrosion resistance and
aesthetics.
Hand Lay-Up
This process is suited for making large, high strength parts at low to medium
volumes. A combination of reinforcements in roll form is laid into an open mold
and impregnated with resin. When the resin cures, the surface of the mold is
replicated on the side of the composite facing the mold.Resins are impregnated by
hand, see Figure 23.5, into fibres which are in the form of woven, knitted, stitched
or bonded fabrics. This is usually accomplished by rollers or brushes, with an
225
Figure 23.4: Filament winding.
increasing use of nip-roller type impregnators for forcing resin into the fabrics by
means of rotating rollers and a bath of resin. Laminates are left to cure under
standard atmospheric conditions.
Infusion molding
In infusion molding processes a single-sided mold which is covered with rein-
forcements and sealed with a flexible vacuum bag or film is used. A vacuum is
drawn on the space between the mold and the seal containing the reinforcements,
and a thermoset resin is allowed to infiltrate the reinforcements. The resin flows
through the reinforcements and cures to form the finished composite. Large parts
can be produced; such as boat hulls and windmill blades.
226
Figure 23.6: Pultrusion.
Injection Molding
A thermoplastic or thermoset molding compound made of glass fibers and
resin is fed by a screw or plunger into a mold cavity. The mold halves are held
under pressure until the resin cures. Short glass fibers are commonly used as
reinforcements.
Pultrusion
This is a continuous process for making a lineal profile with a constant cross
section (such as rod stock, beams, channels and tubing) of fibre reinforced profiles.
After the reinforcement is impregnated with resin, the material is pulled through
a heated die that gives the part its cross sectional shape, see Figure 23.6.The resin
cures to create the composite profile.
227
Figure 23.7: Reaction injection molding.
RIM uses liquid raw materials unlike other methods (including injection and
compression) where plastic raw materials are in solid forms must first be melted,
then molded.
Spray-Up
This is similar to and often combined with hand lay-up. With spray-up, glass
fiber roving is fed into a chopper ”gun” that chops the roving into fibers of pre-
determined length. The fibers are directed to a resin stream. The combination
228
Figure 23.9: 3D woven sandwich fabric.
material is directed to the mold cavity when the composite part takes shapes.
229
1) 2)
glue
honeycomb material
3) 4)
• Corrugation Process
Sheets of the material are passed through corrugating rolls, to give them shape,
are then cut to length. The sheets are then bonded together to make a complete
honeycomb. This process only works for denser materials, which will retain their
shape after corrugation.
• Expansion Process
Sheets of the material are covered in thin strips of adhesive, and are stacked
to form a block, see Figure 23.10. The block is sliced to the right thickness, and
then pulled into an expanded form. This method is used for less dense materials.
Both of these methods produce a honeycomb in which the original material
runs in one direction. This is known as the web direction. The finished composite
material will be twice as stiff in the web direction as it is in the other.
Manufacturing of foams
230
A new, inexpensive method for manufacturing cellular solids of highly repeat-
able and uniform open cell geometry has been developed. Pore sizes as small
as a few microns can be achieved. Materials choices include metals, ceramics,
glasses, polymers, semiconductors and composites. A significant advantage to
this method is that the distribution of material at the cell level is readily con-
trolled. This creates the possibility for optimally designed cellular structures with
exceptional thermophysical and mechanical properties. Multi-functional materi-
als are envisioned. These could include load bearing structures which also provide
for additional things such as impact/blast absorption, thermal management, con-
ductance of electricity and/or shielding of electromagnetic waves, electrical power
storage, filtering or impeding of fluid flow, retardation of chemical reactions and
fire or in-growth of biological tissue.
Thermoplastic foams are the result of deliberately adding at least one gas-
generating substance such as a chemical blowing agent, a soluble gas, or volatile
liquid under pressure to the polymer melt, then altering the environment to cause
the gas-generating substance to yield discrete bubbles. Foams offer unique process-
ing challenges, ranging from the technical aspects of controlling bubble nucleation
and growth to issues dealing with environmental concerns from diffusing blowing
agent gases.
Refractory foams can be fabricated from any material or materials combination
(either homogeneously combined or layered) which can be deposited by CVD
(chemical vapor deposition). Among the materials that can be deposited are the
refractory metals (e.g. niobium, tantalum, tungsten, rhenium) and their ceramic
compounds (e.g. the oxides, nitrides, carbides, borides, and silicides). Deposited
material densities of up to 50% of theoretical values can be readily achieved.
These materials can be furnished in various sizes and configurations, and are easy
to machine. Face sheets of either the same of different material can be applied to
enhance the flexural and tensile properties.
References:
Fabrication fiber-reinforced composites:
http://www.owenscorning.com/owens/composites/about/fabrication.asp
http://www.advancedcomposites.com/
http://www.giplastek.com/rim/
http://www.polymerprocessing.com/operations/rim/
http://www.raypubs.com/ctyp/ypoverview.html
Composite applications:
231
http://www.owenscorning.com/composites/applications/index.asp
About composites:
http://www.mdacomposites.org/materials.htm
http://www.netcomposites.com/
http://islnotes.cps.msu.edu/trp/toc.html
http://me.lsu.edu/~composit/
Manufacturing of foams:
http://www.uvapf.org/technology/viewInvention.cfm?inventionID=205
Fiber and Powder manufacturing
http://powdermetinc.com/
http://www.reade.com/home_index.html
http://www.wrigley-fibres.com/
http://www.claremontflock.com/
Design for Manufacturability
http://www.galorath.com/tools_manuf.shtm
http://www.npd-solutions.com/dfm.html
Design and analyse of composite materals:
Polymer Matrix Composites, http://mil-17.udel.edu/PMC/index.html
3D-woven sandwich:
http://www.mtm.kuleuven.ac.be/Research/C2/poly/PhD_hj.htm
http://www.muratec.net/braider/
Questions
• What is Prepreg?
• What is Preform?
• What is Compound?
• How is fiber manufactured?
• What are woven mats?
• How is carbon fiber manufactured?
• What different processes of making fiber-reinforced composites are there?
• How can honeycomb-cores be made?
232
Figure 24.1: Layer Manufacturing Technology.
The latter has resulted in their wide use as a way to reduce time to market
in manufacturing. Today’s systems are heavily used by engineers to better un-
derstand and communicate their product designs as well as to make rapid tooling
233
to manufacture those products. Surgeons, architects, artists and individuals from
many other disciplines also routinely use the technology.
The names of specific processes themselves are also often used as synonyms
for the entire field of LMT. Each of these technologies has its singular strengths
and weaknesses.
LMT is an acronym for a group of processes capable of producing prototypes
of a complex geometry in various materials (wax, plastic, metal, etc.). The dom-
inating types of LMT processes, that will be studied in more detail, are:
• Ballistic particle manufacturing (inkjet)- BPM
• Fused deposition modelling - FDM
• Laminated object manufacturing - LOM
• Selective laser sintering - SLS
• Stereo lithography - SLA
• Solid ground curing - SGC (cubital)
• Three dimensional printing (3DP)
• Laser Engineered Net Shaping (LENS)
• Inkjets
• Powder metallurgy (PM)
Price is generally proportional to the time consumption on the machine. This
means that price increases with finer layer thickness, increased volume, as well as
increased part height.
The materials used in rapid prototyping are still pretty limited and dependent
on the method chosen. However, the range and properties available are grow-
ing quickly. Numerous plastics, ceramics, metals ranging from stainless steel to
titanium, and wood-like paper are available. At any rate, numerous secondary
processes are available to convert patterns made in a rapid prototyping process to
final materials or tools.
The ever increasing range of materials and processes in the group of additive
material processes make the processes possible to use in also fabrication of finished
products and not only prototypes. In for instance the SLS process, metallic powder
is the basis and the finished product has very good properties. Therefore, in
addition to prototypes, RP techniques can also be used to make tooling (referred
to as rapid tooling) and even production-quality parts (rapid manufacturing).
For small production runs and complicated objects, rapid prototyping is often the
best manufacturing process available. Of course, ”rapid” is a relative term. Most
prototypes require from three to seventy-two hours to build, depending on the
234
Figure 24.2: Ballistic particle manufacturing.
size and complexity of the object. This may seem slow, but it is much faster than
the weeks or months required to make a prototype by traditional means such as
machining. These dramatic time savings allow manufacturers to bring products
to market faster and more cheaply.
235
Figure 24.3: Fused deposition modelling.
as oil, gasoline and even acids. Multiple materials, coupled with one of the largest
build chambers in its class, make Titan a smart solution for building, large, strong
and durable parts. Parts up to 355 x 406 x 406 mm can be built.
236
Figure 24.4: Laminated object manufacturing.
Selective Laser Sintering is a thermal process and starts with a thin, evenly-
distributed layer of powder. A laser is then used to sinter (fuse) only the powder
that is inside a cross-section of the part. The energy added by the laser heats the
powder into a glass-like state and individual particles coalesce into a solid. Once
the laser has scanned the entire cross-section, another layer of powder is laid on
top and the whole process is repeated.
The hardened layer is lowered, a new layer of powder is spread, and the process
is repeated. Maximum dimensions are about 500 * 500 * 500 mm.
The SLS technology is known for its ability to process a variety of prototyping
materials including thermoplastics, investment casting wax, and a powdered metal
material for the production of prototype injection molds.
237
Figure 24.5: Selective laser sintering.
238
Figure 24.6: Laser Engineered Net Shaping.
Typical applications are prototypes of injected moulded plastic parts and mod-
elling of human bones and skulls. Maximum dimensions are about 500 * 500 *
600 mm.
239
Figure 24.7: Stereo lithography.
The wax is hardened by a cold metal plate, and subsequently, the layer is milled
to the correct height. The milling station also allows for layers to be removed,
i.e. an undo operation is possible. The new layer of polymer is applied when the
workspace moves from the milling station back to the exposure chamber.
The process is well suited for large and heavy parts. No separate part support
is required during processing. Compared with SLA, it is more expensive and not
as accurate. Machines from Cubital use SGC principle.
240
Figure 24.8: Solid ground curing.
Once a layer is completed, the fabrication piston moves down by the thickness
of a layer, and the process is repeated until the entire object is formed within
the powder bed. After completion, the object is elevated and the extra powder
brushed away leaving a ”green” object. No external supports are required during
fabrication since the powder bed supports overhangs.
Three dimensional printing offers the advantages of speedy fabrication and low
materials cost. In fact, it’s probably the fastest of all RP methods. Recently color
output has also become available. Parts can be made of any material (ceramic,
metals, polymers and composites).
24.9. PowderProcessing/PowderMetallurgy
Powder metallurgy is the process where both casting, forming and consolidation
are involved. Fine powdered materials are blended, pressed into a desired shape,
and then heated in a controlled atmosphere to bond the contacting surfaces of the
particles and establish the desired properties. Some of the advantages with the
process is that the material waste is very little, unusual materials or mixtures can
be used and the porosity or permeability can be tailored. There are many different
methods to manufacture products with powder metallurgy processes and in the
future even more methods will be introduced to the marked. Almost any metal,
metal alloy, or nonmetal such as ceramic, polymer or wax or graphite lubricant can
241
Figure 24.9: Three dimensional printing.
242
24.10. Vapor Deposition CVD/PVD
Deposition is a process of depositing a thin layer of film onto the surface of the
wafer.
Vapor deposition processes usually take place within a vacuum chamber. There
are two categories of vapor deposition processes: physical vapor deposition (PVD)
and chemical vapor deposition (CVD). In PVD processes, the workpiece is sub-
jected to plasma bombardment. In CVD processes, thermal energy heats the gases
in the coating chamber and drives the deposition reaction.
Physical vapor deposition does not use a chemical to deposit a film on the
wafer but uses physical means. To do this a gas inside a vacuum is excited with
a source , like RF (Radio frequency) energy. The molecules of the gas become so
energetic that if they were to collide with some materials they might cause atoms
of that material to break free. PVD uses this as a way to deposit layers of material
onto a wafer. A ”target” is placed above the wafer and when the molecules of gas
strike the target and cause the atoms to break free then a layer of atoms will fall
onto the wafer.
243
If the need is for a quick concept model and physical properties are of secondary
importance, three dimensional printing (3DP) may be most economical.
If the requirement is for extreme accuracy and very high resolution, such as
in making jewelry or small parts, a good choice is often an inkjet system such as
the ModelMaker Series from Solidscape, Inc. (formerly Sanders Prototypes).
Direct fabrication of metal objects as tools or prototypes will require selective
laser sintering (SLS), or one of the methods based on laser fusing such as laser
engineered net shaping (LENS).
In order to get the best finish of a product; rotate the geometry such that the
laser "draws" the 2D geometry that is most critical, and not let that surface be
step-wise.
Of course, such rules of thumb risk offending every system manufacturer be-
cause there is tremendous overlap in capabilities and specifications. The majority
of applications can probably be accomplished satisfactorily by several of the tech-
nologies.
References about additive technologies:
SLS- technology in action:
http://www.dtm-corp.com/
http://home.att.net/~castleisland/
http://lff.me.utexas.edu/sls.html
LMT Processes:
http://home.att.net/~castleisland/
http://designinsite.dk
http://www.efunda.com/processes/metal_processing/powder_metallurgy.cfm
http://www.efunda.com/processes/processes_home/process.cfm
http://www.efunda.com/home.cfm
http://www.precitech.ca/pmproc.htm
http://www.cs.hut.fi/~ado/rp/rp.html
http://home.att.net/~castleisland/rp_int1.htm
http://www-2.cs.cmu.edu/~rapidproto/manufacturing/mfgresources.html
http://home.att.net/~castleisland/rp_int1.htm
http://www-2.cs.cmu.edu/~rapidproto/manufacturing/mfgresources.html
http://www-2.cs.cmu.edu/~rapidproto/manufacturing/mfguniversity.html
http://emsh.calarts.edu/~mathart/R_Proto_ref.html
http://home.att.net/~castleisland/com_lks.htm
http://www.stratasys.com/ (also streaming video on FDM process)
244
Figure 24.10: Rapid Prototyping Technologies.
245
http://www.acceltechinc.com/nojava/sls.html
http://www.prototype3d.com/
http://www.3dsystems.com/
http://web.mit.edu/tdp/www/whatis3dp.html
http://www.myb2o.com/myb2ous/RapidPrototyping/Tools/Process/10265.htm
http://www.mit.edu/~tdp/ (pictures)= next link
http://web.mit.edu/afs/athena/org/t/tdp/www/
http://www.sandia.gov/media/lens.htm
http://www.tms.org/pubs/journals/JOM/9907/Hofmeister
/Hofmeister-9907.html (LENS)
CVD/PVD
http://www.corrosion-doctors.org/MetalCoatings/Physical.htm
http://entcweb.tamu.edu/zoghi/semiprog/deposit.htm
http://www.darpa.mil/dso/trans/fds_2.htm
Questions
• What are the different processes of LMT?
• What are the advantages and disadvantages of LMT-processes compared to
traditional processes?
• How does SLA work?
• Explain the powder metallurgy process
246
25. Design Considerations
The goals of reducing a large manufacturing cost and improving product quality
has lead to certain processes and procedures that have come to be known as design
for manufacturability or design for manufacture (DFM). The closely related is also
the area of design for assembly (DFA).
247
However, the application of DFM must consider the overall design economics.
It must balance the effort and cost associated with development and refinement of
the design to the cost and quality leverage that can be achieved. In other words,
greater effort to optimize a products design can be justified with higher value or
higher volume products.
Design effectiveness is improved and integration facilitated when:
• Design alternatives are evaluated and design tools are used to develop a
more mature and producible design before release for production.
248
There has been developed a number of rules for design. Briefly mentioned, the
list looks like this:
• Space holes in parts so they can be made in one operation without tooling
weakness. There is a limit in how close holes may be spaced due to strength in
the thin section between holes.
• Notes on engineering drawings must be specific and clear.
• Dimensions should be made from specific surfaces or points on the parts.
• Dimensions should all be from a single datum line.
• The design should aim for minimum weight consistent with strength and
stiffness requirements (this means minimized material cost and reduction in labor
and tooling costs).
• Adjust the design to the manufacture process chosen (wall thickness, fillets,
radii, dies etc.)
• Rotation of geometry
249
critical; poor adhesion can cause delamination under multiple stress, strain, im-
pact and load conditions. Ply layup designers must consider adhesion, strength,
weight, stiffness, operating temperature and toughness requirements, as well as
variables such as electromagnetic transparency and radiation resistance. Addi-
tionally, composite component design must encompass surface finish, fatigue life,
overall part configuration, and scrap or rework potential, to name just a few of
the many applicable factors.
The intended fabrication method will also affect design. For instance, manu-
facturers of filament-wound or tape-layed structures use different reinforcement
forms and build-up patterns than those warranted for hand laid up laminate
panels or vacuum-bag-cured prepreg parts. RTM accommodates 3-D preforms
more easily than do some other manufacturing techniques. The varying benefits
and limitations of these fabrication techniques provide considerable flexibility to
achieve part performance and economies.
250
Context also gives color specific leaning, we know that red means stop, and green
means go.
White: White is associated with peace and purity such as in the white clouds
and sparkling snowflakes. Two of the most popular peace symbols are the white
dove and the truce flag.
Red - Vitality, Courage, Self Confidence: When red is featured in a
dream the tint or shade carries different meanings. A light tint of red - suggests
the glory of success, hot reds - signify the stress of family quarrels, crimson hues
- foretell of happy news from a friend and red hair on a beautiful woman suggests
that you will receive unexpected good news.
Yellow - Wisdom, Clarity, Self-esteem: Studies show that yellow is most
often associated with words like cheerful, jovial and sunny, somewhat associated
with exciting and stimulating and almost never associated with words like respon-
dent, dejected, melancholy or unhappy. In short, a wonderful color for lifting the
spirits and letting the sun shine in.
Orange - Happiness, Confidence, Resourcefulness: The meaning of or-
ange is inexorably linked to the sensations of radiant energy, heat and the glowing
presence of the setting sun. The link between red and yellow, orange takes its
traits from both. It is less passionate and intense than red, incorporating the
sunny disposition of yellow. To the human eye, orange is seen as the hottest of
all colors, both in temperature and appearance.
Blue - Knowledge, Health, Decisiveness: The Russian artist Kadinsky
captured the expansive essence of blue when he wrote that blue is ”the infinite
penetration into the absolute essence - where there is, and can be, no end.” People
who are strongly attracted to blue tend to be devoted and deliberate in their
actions and since blue is everywhere, they feel a unity with the world.
Purple - Beauty, Creativity, Inspiration: The purple family is the most
enigmatic of all colors. Purple is a combination of the excitement of red and the
tranquillity of blue, the marriage of two diametrically opposed emotions.
Green - Balance, Love, Self control: Green is the most refreshing, restful
color to the eye. The word ”green” comes from the same root as ”grow,” so green
symbolizes that which grows: rebirth, regeneration, the renewal of life. Indian
mystics see green as the marriage of balance and harmony, the ray that bridges
cause and effect.
251
References:
Design guidelines:
http://www.devicelink.com/mddi/archive/96/04/008.html
http://www.arrem.com/designguide/dgdesvsmat.htm
http://www.tstar.com/pdf/quadrant-DF.pdf
http://www.npd-solutions.com/dfmguidelines.html
http://www.geplastics.com/webted/webted.html
Colors:
http://crumpledpapers.com/color.html
http://www.wevehadit.com/Publications/Color/page3.html
http://www.srsd.org/~arainone/color.html
Questions
• What is DFM?
• What is DFF
• What do we have to take into consideration when designing for fabrication?
• What kind of design-considerations would you take into consideration in general?
• How can colors affect our understanding of a product?
• If you would like a product to make you feel good, (happy), what color would
you choose on your product?
252
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