Radiometry

GOALS

understand units of radiometric measurement

convert between different radiometric units

choose appropriate light measurement equipment

walk safely through the minefield of LED descriptions

select the appropriate light source for a particular purpose

specify light in conventional, understandable terms

understand the basics of the radiometry of materials
 What is light?

Light is an electromagnetic wave just like:

X-rays (very short wavelength)

Ultraviolet (~100 to ~350 nm)
Visible (~350 to ~830 nm)
Infrared (~830 nm to 20+ microns)
Microwaves (cm wavelength)
Radio waves (meters to kilometers)
 Radiometry

Ultraviolet (~100 to ~350 nm)

Visible (~350 to ~ 830 nm)
Infrared (~830 nm to 20+ microns)
 Baseball quiz
In baseball, which of the following is correctly called an
“error”?

a. The manager leaves a pitcher in the game long after he

has become too tired. The pitcher allows 8 runs in a
single inning.
b. On a ground ball, the shortstop throws to first base in
time to get the batter, but the first baseman drops the ball.
The batter is safe.
c. With bases loaded and no outs, the batter hits an easy
ground ball to the pitcher. Instead of throwing home and
getting the lead runner, the pitcher throws to first base.
The batter is out, but the runner from third scores.
d. All of the above.
 Baseball quiz
In baseball, which of the following is correctly called an
“error”?

a. The manager leaves a pitcher in the game long after he

has become too tired. The pitcher allows 8 runs in a
single inning.
b. On a ground ball, the shortstop throws to first base in
time to get the batter, but the first baseman drops the ball.
The batter is safe.
c. With bases loaded and no outs, the batter hits an easy
ground ball to the pitcher. Instead of throwing home and
getting the lead runner, the pitcher throws to first base.
The batter is out, but the runner from third scores.
d. All of the above.
 Spectral
Radiometric Spectroradiometric Photopic
P P
o o
Power Power/wavelength Luminous Flux
w w
. interval .
Flux e e
. . .
r r
Watts Watts/nm Lumens
G 7
7
7
7
P P
e Irradiance
o
Spectral Irradiance
o
Illuminance
w w
o Flux/area
.
.
e
.
.
e
.
.
m Watts/m2
r
7
Watts/m2 nm
r
7
Lumens/m2 = Lux

e 7
P
7
P
o o
t (Radiant) Intensity
.
w
Spectral Intensity
.
w
(Luminous) Intensity
.
Flux/solid angle e e
r .
Watts/sr
r
.
Watts/sr nm
r
.
Lumens/sr = candela
7 7
i 7 7
P P
c Radiance o Spectral Radiance o Luminance
w w .
. .
Flux/area solid angle e e
. . Candela/m2 = nit
r r
Watts/m2 sr Watts/m2 sr nm Lumens/m2 sr = nit
7 7
7 7
GEOMETRY
 FLUX (Watts) φ

Flux is the total power emitted in all directions.

Irradiance (watts/m2) E

Irradiance is the flux per unit area striking a surface.

Irradiance (watts/m2) E

Irradiance says nothing about the angle of incidence.

Plane angle

radians
Solid angle

steradians
Solid angle

Ice cream cone ≅ 0.1sr

Egyptian pyramid ≅ 1sr

Intensity (watts/sr) I

Intensity is the flux per unit solid angle from a source.

Radiance (watts/m2•sr) L

Radiance is the flux per unit solid angle, per unit

projected area from an extended source.
SPECTRUM
SPECTRORADIOMETRIC FLUX
(Watts/nm)

φλ
(also Eλ, Iλ, Lλ)

Power (or irradiance, intensity, or radiance) per

wavelength interval.
Heated source “Black body”
100 W Blackbody
3000K temperature

0.08

0.06
Spectral flux (W/nm)

0.04

0.02

0
250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 2250 2500 2750 3000 3250 3500 3750 4000
Wavelength (nm)
 λ2

Total flux (watts) Φ = ∫ Φ ⋅ dλ λ

λ1

There are
16.3 watts in
the band
from 750nm
to 1000nm.
For sources that are limited to a
specific small wavelength band, the
total power in the source is generally
the appropriate quantity for total flux.

Φ = ∫ Φ ⋅ dλ λ
−∞
 Sometimes, for very spectrally narrow
sources such as lasers and other “line”
sources, it is common to speak of the power
“at” a particular wavelength.
 PHOTOMETRY
Human visual response
Includes:
Luminous flux (illuminance, intensity, luminance)
Color
Color temperature
Color rendering
Luminous efficacy
 Luminous Flux (lumens) is an engineering
representation of the visual response to optical
power.
Luminous efficiency, V
1.2

0.8
Luminous efficiency

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750
wavelength (nm)

Lumens = 683∫ Φ λ (λ ) ⋅ V (λ ) ⋅ dλ
 Conversion Factors

1 footcandle (lumen / ft2)

=
10.764 lux (lumen / m2)

1 footlambert (candela / πft2)

=
3.426 nit (candela / m2)
COLOR
Chromaticity is an engineering representation of the human
perception of color.

Standard colorimetric observer functions

2
z-bar

1.5

x-bar
y-bar
1

0.5
x-bar

0
350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750
w avelength (nm)
 X
X = ∫ Φ (λ) ⋅ x(λ) ⋅ dλ
λ
x=
X +Y + Z
Y = ∫ Φ (λ) ⋅ y(λ) ⋅ dλ
λ

Y
Z = ∫ Φ (λ) ⋅ z(λ) ⋅ dλ
λ
y=
X +Y + Z
 x,y chromaticity diagram
0.9

0.8

GREEN
0.7

0.6 YELLOW

0.5
ORANGE
y

WHITE
0.4

RED

0.3

0.2 BLUE

0.1 PURPLE

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8

x
x,y chromaticity diagram
 x,y chromaticity diagram
0.9

0.8

GREEN
0.7

0.6 YELLOW

0.5
ORANGE
y

WHITE
0.4

RED

0.3

0.2 BLUE

0.1 PURPLE

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8

x
 x,y chromaticity diagram
0.9

0.8

GREEN
0.7

0.6 YELLOW

0.5
ORANGE
y
0.4
RED
0.3

0.2 BLUE

0.1 PURPLE

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
x

Mixing light of any two points on this diagram produces light that
lies along the straight line between them.
 x,y chromaticity diagram
Black Body Spectra 0.9

0.8

6500K 3000K 1800K

GREEN
0.7

0.6 YELLOW

0.5
ORANGE

y
0.4

RED

0.3

0.2 BLUE

0.1 PURPLE

500 1000 1500 2000 2500 0

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8

Wavelength (nm) x
 x,y chromaticity diagram
1

0.8

GREEN

0.6 YELLOW
y

ORANGE

0.4 WHITE

RED
BLACK BOIES

0.2 BLUE

PURPLE

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
x
 COLOR TEMPERATURE

Any light source that has the same chromaticity

coordinates as a black body can be described as
having the color temperature of that black body.
The terms color temperature and black body
temperature are not synonymous. Color temperature
is derived from colorimetric calculations. There are
limitless different spectra that possess a particular
color temperature and have little or no resemblance to
the blackbody curve for that temperature.
CORRELATED COLOR TEMPERATURE

The correlated color temperature of a light source is

the color temperature of the point on the black body
locus that is closest to the chromaticity coordinates
of the light source.
 x,y chromaticity diagram
1

0.8

GREEN

0.6 YELLOW
y

ORANGE

0.4
RED

0.2 BLUE

PURPLE

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
x
 COLOR
Rendering
Color rendering & color rendering index

Color rendering describes how well a

particular light source displays
surface colors.

Color rendering index is an numerical

representation of color rendering.
SOURCE, Φλ(λ
λ)
STIMULUS, Φλ(λ
λ)·R(λ
λ)

REFLECTANCE
λ)
FACTOR, R(λ
SOURCE, STIMULUS, SOURCE, STIMULUS,
Φ1λ(λ
λ) Φ1λ(λ
λ)·R(λ
λ) Φ2λ(λ
λ) Φ2λ(λ
λ)·R(λ
λ)

REFLECTANCE REFLECTANCE
λ)
FACTOR, R(λ λ)
FACTOR, R(λ
 COLOR RENDERING INDEX

Compares the light source with a “reference

illuminant”, which is a blackbody or sunlight
source that has the same correlated color
temperature as the source.
Computes the average chromaticity difference
on 8 reference surfaces between the actual
source and the reference illuminant.
Produces a number that is difficult to interpret.
LUMINOUS
EFFICACY
 LUMINOUS EFFICACY

Measures the effectiveness of a light

source in producing luminous flux
from physical power.
Usually, the physical power that we
care about is the power from the
“wall plug”.
 MAKING
RADIOMETRIC
MEASUREMENTS
GEOMETRY
 FLUX

INTEGRATING
SPHERE
DETECTOR
Irradiance

Calibrated
detector with
diffuser

Calibrated
bare
detector
 Intensity
Irradiance detector

I=E x d2
Radiance
Spot meter

Detector
Aperture defines defines
solid angle projected
area
SPECTRUM
 SPECTRORADIOMETRY

The spectral character of a source is measured

with a device called a spectroradiometer, which
can be outfitted with input optics to measure
spectral flux, spectral irradiance, or spectral
radiance.
 Total Flux
1. For narrowband sources, the responsivity of the detector is nearly
constant over the band of the source, so a radiometer can be calibrated to
read watts directly.

2. Also, some detectors, especially thermal detectors, have a responsivity that

doesn’t vary with wavelength. These detectors read directly in watts, even for
broadband sources.

3. It’s possible to design a filter that, in combination with a detector, provides

a flat response over a specified spectral range. Such a filter-detector
combination, can be calibrated to read directly in watts for radiation in that
band.

4. Alternately, the total flux can be calculated numerically from

spectroradiometric measurements.
 Luminous Flux

1. Radiometers that measure luminous flux (called photometers) are

usually equipped with a glass or plastic filter in front of the detector. The
combination of the filter and the detector provides a spectral response that
approximates the shape of the luminous efficiency curve.

2. Alternately, the luminous flux can be calculated numerically from

spectroradiometric measurements.
 COLOR

1. The color of a light source can be measured with a colorimeter,

which consists of 3 (or 4) detectors that are filtered that approximate
the spectral response of the standard colorimetric observer
functions.

2. Alternately, the chromaticity can be calculated numerically

from spectroradiometric measurements.
 COLOR TEMPERATURE

The color temperature of a light source can be

calculated numerically from the chromaticity.

For sources that have the spectral shape of a black

body (such as tungsten lamps), the color
temperature can be measured with a calibrated pair
of detectors (red/blue).
 Color Rendering Index

Color rendering index is calculated from

the spectral power distribution of a
source.
LEDs
Single number
descriptors for
LEDs
 GEOMETRY

Viewing angle

The angular distance between 50%

points on an intensity plot
Viewing angle
Typical LED spectra
LEDs

BLUE GREEN RED

spectrum (1/nm)

300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800
w avelength (nm)
 SPECTRA

Peak wavelength
The wavelength of the maximum
spectral density

Centroid wavelength
The mean wavelength
 SPECTRA

Center wavelength
The wavelength halfway between the
half peak points

Full width, half max (FWHM)

The distance between the half peak
points

All derived from a wavelength plot

 COLOR

Dominant wavelength and

Purity

Dominant wavelength and purity

are a colorimetric quantities,
derived from an x,y chromaticity
plot.
 x,y chromaticity diagram

0.9

0.8

0.7
Purity is the
relative distance
0.6
of the LED from
the white point to
0.5
the spectrum
dominant
wavelength locus.
y

0.4
LED

0.3 white point

0.2

0.1

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8

x
 BLUE LED Spectrum with Characteristic Wavelengths

dominantcentroid
peak

1.0

0.5

0.0
430 450 470 490 510 530
wavelength - nm
 RED LED Spectrum with Characteristic Wavelengths

dominant peak centroid

1.0

0.5

0.0
600 620 640 660 680 700
wavelength - nm
Radiometry of LEDs
An LED is just a light source

BUT
Why are LEDs different?
Sharp gradients

•Spatial gradients

•Spectral gradients

Relatively weak
LED Measurements
Why are LEDs different?
Sharp gradients

•Spatial gradients

•Spectral gradients

Relatively weak
Why are LEDs different?
Sharp gradients

•Spatial gradients

•Spectral gradients

Relatively weak
GEOMETRY
 Intensity
Signal LEDs – viewing the LED directly
Traffic signals
Tail lights
Lighted signs

Direct illumination – flashlight

Control IREDs – TV remote control

 Intensity
source location Irradiance detector
is known detector is in
1/r2 region

irradiance is
uniform
across face
d
of detector
detector is in the

I=E x d2 correct direction

from the source
AXES

optical
peak
mechanical
 Problems

It is difficult to measure true intensity.

It is difficult for two labs to get the same
measurement on the same LED.
 Solution

CIE publication 127 (1997) defines a

new term, “Averaged LED Intensity”

CIE 127 completely defines two

measurement geometries, Condition A
and Condition B
Averaged LED intensity according
to CIE conditions A or B
Circular aperture of
area, A=100 mm2 detector
LED

mechanical axis

31.6 cm – Condition A (0.001 sr)

10 cm – Condition B (0.01 sr)
 FLUX

Backlighting
Room illumination
LED development
 Correct Desired

Most LEDs have significant “back” flux.

 CIE and flux

CIE has not yet published a

recommendation for flux measurement
that addresses these concerns.
A recommendation is probably one to
two years away.
Why are LEDs different?
Sharp gradients

•Spatial gradients

•Spectral gradients

Relatively weak
Why are LEDs different?
Sharp gradients

•Spatial gradients

•Spectral gradients

Relatively weak
SPECTRUM
Typical LED spectra
LEDs

BLUE GREEN RED

spectrum (1/nm)

300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800
w avelength (nm)
 White light LED

White light LED

Blue + YAG phosphor

50

40
spectrum (1/nm)

30

20

10

0
350 450 550 650 750 850
wavelength (nm)
“Conventional” sources
Sunlight and tungsten lamp
CIE illuminants D65 and A

TUNGSTE
N
spectrum (1/nm)

LAMP

SUNLIGHT

300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800
w avelength (nm)
“Conventional” sources

Fluorescent lamp
38WT8/750

spectrum (1/nm)

300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800
w avelemgth (nm)

Data courtesy of Osram Sylvania, Inc.

“Conventional” sources
High pressure sodium lamp
400 Watt

spectrum (1/nm)

350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800
w avelength (nm)

Data courtesy of Osram Sylvania, Inc.

“Conventional” sources
Metal halide lamp
100 Watt

spectrum (1/nm)

350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800
w avelength (nm)

Data courtesy of Osram Sylvania, Inc.

Typical LED spectra
LEDs

BLUE GREEN RED

spectrum (1/nm)

300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800
w avelength (nm)
 LED and photopic filter

1.2

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
300 400 500 600 700 800

Photopic efficiency Achieved photopic filter Blue LED

Spectrograph bandpass model

∆λ BP
bandpass
in FWHM

λ center
0
-20 -10 0 10 20
wavelength - nm
“Conventional” sources

Fluorescent lamp
38WT8/750

spectrum (1/nm)

300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800
w avelemgth (nm)

Data courtesy of Osram Sylvania, Inc.

Effect of Spectrometer Bandpass on
measured LED Dominant Wavelength

LED FWHM = 20 nm
step = 1nm, 2nm, 5nm
1 step = 10nm

bandpass
1nm
0
5nm

-1 10nm

20nm

-2
400 500 600 700
wavelength - nm
RADIOMETRIC
PROPERTIES
OF
MATERIALS
 A B
C
Transmittance = B/A
Reflectance = C/A
Absorptance = (A-B-C)/A
Bidirectional reflection
distribution function

BRDF = L/E
Lambertian

I ∝ cosθ
 Reflectance Factor
A A

B C

PRD

100% reflectance
Lambertian

R=B/C R=BRDF x π
COLOR OF
MATERIALS
SOURCE, Φλ(λ)
STIMULUS, Φλ(λ)·R(λ)

REFLECTANCE
FACTOR, R(λ)
 Standard colorimetric observer functions
2
z-bar

1.5

x-bar
y-bar
1

0.5
x-bar

0
350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750
w avelength (nm)
X = K ∫ Φ ( λ ) ⋅ R ( λ ) ⋅ x ( λ ) ⋅ dλ
λ
Y
y=
Y = K ∫ Φ (λ ) ⋅ R (λ ) ⋅ y (λ ) ⋅ dλ
λ
X +Y + Z

Z = K ∫ Φ ( λ ) ⋅ R ( λ ) ⋅ z ( λ ) ⋅ dλ
λ X
x=
X +Y + Z
100
K=
∫ Φ (λ) ⋅ y(λ) ⋅ dλ
λ
 X
X = ∫ Φ (λ) ⋅ x(λ) ⋅ dλ
λ
x=
X +Y + Z
Y = ∫ Φ (λ) ⋅ y(λ) ⋅ dλ
λ

Y
Z = ∫ Φ (λ) ⋅ z(λ) ⋅ dλ
λ
y=
X +Y + Z
 X = K ∫ Φ ( λ ) ⋅ R ( λ ) ⋅ x ( λ ) ⋅ dλ
λ
Y
y=
Y = K ∫ Φ (λ ) ⋅ R (λ ) ⋅ y (λ ) ⋅ dλ
λ
X +Y + Z

Z = K ∫ Φ ( λ ) ⋅ R ( λ ) ⋅ z ( λ ) ⋅ dλ
λ X
x=
X +Y + Z
100
K=
∫ Φ (λ) ⋅ y(λ) ⋅ dλ
λ

x and y contain the chromaticity information.

Y contains the “brightness” information.
A particular material will have different
chromaticity, depending on the spectrum of
the source.

It is possible for two different materials to have

the same chromaticity and the same perceived
color under a particular source spectrum. Such
pairs of materials are called “metamers”. They
will generally have different chromaticity and
perceived colors under another source
spectrum.
 Other coordinate systems

u’, v’, Y - approximately uniform two dimensional

color space

L*, u*,v* and L*, a*, b* - approximately uniform

three dimensional color spaces.
TYPICAL VALUES
 Irradiance and Illuminance

Direct sunlight 1,000 w/m2

Direct sunlight 100,000 lux (lumen/m2)
Shade 10,000 lux
Overcast day 1,000 lux
Office space 300 - 600 lux
Full moon 0.2 lux
 LUMINOUS INTENSITY

Automobile headlight 5000 – 10,000 cd

Household flashlight 100 – 1,000 cd
LED 1 mcd – 5 cd
 RADIANCE and LUMINANCE

Sun 2 x 107 w/(m2 sr)

Sun 2 x 109 nit (cd/m2)
Frosted light bulb 100,000 nit
Fluorescent lamp 5,000 nit
Computer screen 100 nit
Ensure that your radiometer actually measures
the quantity that you intend to measure.

Ensure that the quantity that you intend to

measure is the quantity that you really
need to measure.
 REFERENCES
De Cusatis, C. (ed.), Handbook of Applied Photometry,
AIP Press: Woodbury, NY, 1997
McCluney, W.R., Introduction to Radiometry and
Photometry, Artech House: Boston and London, 1994
Smith, W.J., Modern Optical Engineering, 3rd ed., SPIE
Press, McGraw-Hill: New York, 2000
Wolfe, W.L., Introduction to Radiometry, SPIE Press:
Bellingham, WA, 1998
Wyszecki, G. & Stiles, W.S., Color Science, 2nd ed.,
John Wiley and Sons: New York, 1982 , Wiley Classics
Library Edition published 2000
 DOCUMENTS

CIE Publication 13.3 (1995) Method of Measuring

and Specifying Color Rendering of Sources
CIE Publication 15.2 (1986) Colorimetry, 2nd Edition
www.cie.co.at/cie/index.html

CORM Directory of Reference Documents on

Photometry – 2001 www.CORM.org