Introduction to Soil Mechanics

Civil 270 Part 2

Courtesy of Hong Kong Geological

Survey
http://teaching.ust.hk/~civl270/Index.htm
1
The Final Exam

Date: 12/12/02 (Thursday)

Time: 8:30 - 11:30
Venue: LG 4204

If you have any problems, please let me know asap.

2
Lecture Outline

Original Topics Modified Topics

1. Phase Relationship 1. Soil Formations
2. Physical Properties (Phase Relationship)
3. Clay Minerals 2. Physical Properties
4. Compaction 3. Soil Classification
4. Clay Minerals and Soil
Structure
5. Compaction

3
Suggested Textbooks

Das, B.M. (1998). Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, 4th

edition, PWS Publishing Company.

Holtz, R.D. and Kovacs, W.D. (1981). An Introduction to

Geotechnical Engineering, Prentice Hall.

(Both books have been reserved in the library for 24-hour use only)

http://teaching.ust.hk/~civl270/Class270/

4
Quiz 1

(1) Name (English and/or Example:

Chinese) (1) Wang, Yu-Hsing
(2) Gender Office: 3583
(3) Describe yourself by few Email: ceyhwang@ust.hk
words Phone: 23588757
(4) Hobbies (1) Male
(2) Curious, Introvert,
Generous
(3) Photograph, Play
basketball

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 I.
Soil Formations

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Outline of the First Topic

1. Soil Formations and Deposits

2. Residual Soils in Hong Kong
3. Phase Relations
4. Some Thoughts about the Specific Gravity
Measurements
5. Suggested Homework

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1. Soil Formations and Deposits

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1.1 Rock Cycles

Soils The final products

due to weathering are
soils

(Das, 1998)
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1.2 Bowen’s Reaction Series
• The reaction series are similar to the weathering stability series.

•More stable
•Higher weathering resistance

(Das, 1998)

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Question
What is the main mineral of the sand
particles in general?

Quart
z

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1.3 Weathering
1.3.1 Physical processes of weathering
• Unloading
– e.g. uplift, erosion, or change in fluid
pressure.
• Thermal expansion and contraction
• Alternate wetting and drying
• Crystal growth, including frost action
• Organic activity
– e.g. the growth of plant roots.
1.3.2 Chemical Process of weathering
• Hydrolysis
– is the reaction with water
– will not continue in the static water.
– involves solubility of silica and alumina
• Chelation
– Involves the complexing and
removal of metal ions .
• Cation exchange
– is important to the formation of
clay minerals
• Oxidation and reduction.
• Carbonation
– is the combination of carbonate ions
such as the reaction with CO2
1.3.3 Factors affect weathering
• Many factors can affect the
weathering process such as
climate, topography, features of
parent rocks, biological reactions,
and others.
• Climate determines the amount of
water and the temperature.
(Mitchell, 1993)

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1.4 Transportation of Weathering
Products
1.4.1 Residual soils- 1.4.2 Transported soils-
to remain at the original to be moved and deposited to
place other places.
• In Hong Kong areas, the top
• The particle sizes of transported
layer of rock is decomposed
into residual soils due to the soils are selected by the
warm climate and abundant transportation agents such as
rainfall . streams, wind, etc.
• Engineering properties of – Interstratification of silts and
residual soils are different with clays.
those of transported soils
• The transported soils can be
• The knowledge of "classical"
geotechnical engineering is
categorize based on the mode of
mostly based on behavior of transportation and deposition (six
transported soils. The types).
understanding of residual soils
is insufficient in general.

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1.4.2 Transported Soils (Cont.)

(1) Glacial soils: formed by transportation and deposition of

glaciers.
(2) Alluvial soils: transported by running water and deposited
along streams.
(3) Lacustrine soils: formed by deposition in quiet lakes (e.g.
soils in Taipei basin).
(4) Marine soils: formed by deposition in the seas (Hong
Kong).
(5) Aeolian soils: transported and deposited by the wind (e.g.
soils in the loess plateau, China).
(6) Colluvial soils: formed by movement of soil from its
original place by gravity, such as during
landslide (Hong Kong). (from Das, 1998)
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2. Introduction to Residual Soils in
Hong Kong

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2.1 Geological Map of Hong Kong

Courtesy of Hong Kong Geological

Survey 16
2.1 Geological Map of Hong Kong (Cont.)
• At Yeun Long and Ma On Shan areas, the recent sediment
contains marble. Marble is a metamorphic rock altered from
the limestone.
• Calcium carbonate can dissolve in water through the
following reaction and form the so-called Karst topography.
CO2+H2O+CaCO3→Ca2+ +2HCO3-

• The underground hollows (caverns) are troublesome to the

foundation design.

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2.2 Decomposition Grades (Rock)
Common weathering processes
in Hong Kong (Irfan, 1996).
• The most important chemical
processes of weathering are
hydrolysis and solution.
• The two important physical
processes of weathering are the
alternate wetting and drying, and
the exfoliation (sheeting).

Saprolite: rock fabric is retained.

Residual soil: rock fabric is completely
destroyed.

(Guide, 1988)
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 2.2 Cont. Residual
VI soils

Completely
V decomposed
• Most of the residual
soils in Hong Kong are
in-situ decomposed Highly
from igneous rocks
IV decomposed
• The red or yellow color
is due to the presence of Moderately
III decomposed
iron oxides.

II Slightly
decomposed

I Fresh
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2.3 Residual Soils in Hong Kong
Soils formed from weathering Soils formed from
of granitic rocks weathering of volcanic rocks
•Dominant minerals • Dominant minerals
Kaolinite, quartz, halloysite, and Kaolinite, quartz, hollysite, and
occasional K-feldspar. occasional K-feldspar.
•Cementation •Cementation
The cementation is formed by the The cementation is formed by the
iron oxides. iron oxides.
•Weathering depth •Weathering depth
up to 60 m or more up to 20 m
•Corestone formation •Corestone formation
It’s very common It is not common except in coarse
ash tuff.
(Irfan, 1996 and 1999)

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2.4 Soils in Hong Kong

Three important types of soils in Hong Kong

1. Residual soils
2. Saprolites (soil-like, contain relict joint of parent
rocks)
3. Colluvial soils
The colluvial soils mainly originate from the landslide and they are usually
poorly consolidated. Slop
e

Colluvial
soils

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3. Phase Relations

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3.1 Three Phases in Soils
S : Solid Soil particle
W: Liquid Water (electrolytes)
A: Air Air

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3.2 Three Volumetric Ratios
(1) Void ratio e (given in decimal, 0.65)
Volume of voids (Vv )
e=
Volume of solids (Vs )

(2) Porosity n (given in percent 100%, 65%)

Vs e e Volume of voids (Vv )
n= = n=
Vs (1 + e) 1 + e Total volume of soil sample (Vt )

(3) Degree of Saturation S (given in percent 100%, 65%)

Total volume of voids contains water (Vw )
S= ×100%
Total volume of voids (Vv )

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3.2.1 Engineering Applications (e)
Typical values Engineering applications:
Simple cubic (SC), e = 0.91, Contract

Cubic-tetrahedral (CT), e = 0.65, Dilate

•Volume change tendency

•Strength
Link: the strength of
i
rock joint
(Lambe and Whitman, 1979)
Shear strength = σ n tan(φ + i)

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3.2.1 Engineering Implications (e)(Cont.)

SC
e = 0.91

CT
e = 0.65

The fluid (water) can flow more easily through the

soil with higher hydraulic conductivity
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3.2.1 Engineering Applications (e)(Cont.)
Filter
SC
e = 0.91

•Clogging The finer particle cannot pass

through the void
CT
e = 0.65

•Critical state soil mechanics

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3.2.2 Engineering Applications (S)
Completely dry soil S = 0 %
Completely saturated soil S = 100%
Unsaturated soil (partially saturated soil) 0% < S < 100%
Total volume of voids contains water (Vw )
S= ×100%
Total volume of voids (Vv )

Demonstration:
Effects of capillary forces

Engineering implications:
•Slope stability
•Underground excavation

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3.2.2 Engineering Applications (S) (Cont.)
• 80 % of landslides are due to
erosion and “loss in suction” in
Hong Kong.
• The slope stability is significantly
affected by the surface water.

(Au, 2001)
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3.3 Density and Unit Weight
• Mass is a measure of a body's Mass
inertia, or its "quantity of Density, ρ =
Volume
matter". Mass is not changed
Weight Mass ⋅ g
at different places. Unit weight, γ = =
Volume Volume
• Weight is force, the force of
gravity acting on a body. The g : acceleration due to gravity
value is different at various γ = ρ ⋅ g = ρ ⋅ 9.8 m 2
places (Newton's second law F sec
= ma) (Giancoli, 1998) Water, γ = 9.8 kN 3
m
• The unit weight is frequently
used than the density is (e.g. in ρ s ρs ⋅ g γ s
Gs = = =
calculating the overburden ρw ρw ⋅ g γ w
pressure).

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 3.4 Weight Relationships
(3) Density of soil
a. Dry density
(1)Water Content w (100%)
Mass of soil solids(M s )
Mass of water ( M w ) ρd =
w= ⋅100% Total volume of soil sample (Vt )
Mass of soil solids ( M s )
b. Total, Wet, or Moist density (0%<S<100%,
Unsaturated)

For some organic soils w>100%, up to

500 % Mass of soil sample(M s + M w )
ρ=
For quick clays, w>100% Total volume
c. Saturated of soil sample
density (S=100%, Va =0)(Vt )

(2)Density of water (slightly varied Mass of soil solids + water(M s + M w )

ρ =
d.satSubmerged
with temperatures) Totaldensity
volume (Buoyant
of soildensity)
sample (Vt )

ρw = 1g / cm3 = 1000 kg / m3 = 1Mg / m3

ρ' = ρsat − ρ w

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3.4 Weight Relationships (Cont.)

Submerged unit weight: γ ' = γ sat − γ w

Consider the buoyant force Ws − Vs ⋅ γ w Ws − (Vt − Vw ) ⋅ γ w

= (S = 100%)
acting on the soil solids: Vt Vt
Ws − Vt ⋅ γ w + Ww
=
Vt
Ws + Ww − Vt ⋅ γ w
=
Vt
Archimede’s principle: = γ sat − γ w
The buoyant force on a body immersed
in a fluid is equal to the weight of the
fluid displaced by that object.

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3.4.1 Engineering Applications (w)
• For fine-grained soils, water plays
a critical role to their engineering
properties (discussed in the next
topic).
• For example,
The quick clay usually has a water
content w greater than 100 % and a
card house structure. It will behave
like a viscous fluid after it is fully
disturbed.
Clay
particle

Water

(Mitchell, 1993)

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3.5 Other Relationships

(1) Specific gravity Proof:

ρs γ s S ⋅ e = w ⋅ Gs
Gs = =
ρw γ w S ⋅e =
Vw Vv Vw
⋅ =
Vv Vs Vs
Ms
(2) M w ρs M w Vs Vw
ρw ⋅ S ⋅ e = w ⋅ ρs w ⋅ Gs = ⋅ = ⋅ =
M s ρw M s M w Vs
S ⋅ e = w ⋅ Gs Vw

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3.6 Typical Values of Specific Gravity

(Lambe and Whitman, 1979)

(Goodman, 1989) 35
3.7 Solution of Phase Problems

Remember the following simple rules (Holtz and Kovacs, 1981):

1. Remember the basic definitions of w, e, ρ s, S,

etc.
2. Draw a phase diagram.
3. Assume either Vs=1 or Vt=1, if not given.
4. Often use ρ wSe=wρ s, Se = wGs

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Example

37
4. Some Thoughts about the Specific
Gravity (Gs) Measurement

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4.1 Standards

Standards
• ASTM D854-92 Standard Test Method for Specific
Gravity of Soils

• ASTM C127-88 (Reapproved 1993) Test Methods for

Specific Gravity and Absorption of Coarse Aggregate.

• BS 1377: Part 2:1990

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4.2 Alternatives

(m 2 − m1 )
Gs =
( m 4 − m1 ) − ( m3 − m 2 ) Weight of liquid
ρL displaced by the soil
solid.
ρ L (m 2 − m1 )
=
(m 4 − m1 ) − ( m3 − m 2 )

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4.2 Alternatives (Cont.)
• If the particle density is likely to be changed owing to
dehydration at 100ºC, a lower drying temperature (e.g. 80
ºC) and longer drying time should be adopted. Note that
the modification must be recorded. However, for some
clay minerals the dehydration is almost inevitable. For
example, halloysite will lose its interlayer water at 50 ºC
or at relative humidity RH ≤ 50 % )(Irfan, 1996).

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 4.3 Your Test Results
Gs for some minerals Question?
Quartz, 2.65 What is the Gs of CDG and CDT?
Kaolinite, 2.65 What are your test results?
K-feldspar, 2.54-2.57
Halloysite, 2.55 Hints:
Primary minerals:
Quartz, Kaolinite, K-feldspar,
Halloysite

Note:
The specific gravity of solids of light-
The Gs of soils is
colored sand, which is mostly made of
quartz, maybe estimated to be about 2.65; typically estimated as
for clayed and silty soils, it may vary from 2.65 if not given.
2.6 to 2.9 (from Das, 1998).
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4.4 Average Specific Gravity Values
For example,
For soil particles larger than 2mm, the weight is W1 and the volume is V1.
For soil particles smaller than 2mm, the weight is W2 and the volume is V2.
( W1 + W2 ) 1
G s −avg =
( V1 + V2 )
=
(V1 + V2 ) G s1 + G s 2
( W1 + W2 ) 2
1
G s −avg =
W1 V1 W2 V2
+
( W1 + W2 ) W1 ( W1 + W2 ) W2
1
G s −avg =
1 1 P is the weight fraction
P1 + P2
G s1 G s2

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5. Suggested Homework

1.Please try to find the 2. Please go over example 2-

standard and read it. 2 to 2-6 in your notes.

ASTM:
Call number TA401, A653 1997
(reference area)

Remember where you can There will be some similar

find useful references!! questions in the final exam.

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6. References
Main References:
Das, B.M. (1998). Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, 4th edition, PWS Publishing
Company. (Chapter 2)
Holtz, R.D. and Kovacs, W.D. (1981). An Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering,
Prentice Hall. (Chapter 2)
Others:
Geological Landscapes of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Geological Survey.
Giancoli, D.C. (1998). Physics, 5th edition, Prentice Hall.
Goodman, R.E. (1989). Introduction to Rock Mechanics, 2nd edition, John Wiley & Sons.
Guide to Rock and Soil Description (1988). Geotechnical Engineering Office, Civil
Engineering Department, Hong Kong.
Head, K. H. (1992). Manual of Soil Laboratory Testing, Volume 1: Soil Classification and
Compaction Test, 2nd edition, John Wiley and Sons.
Ifran, T. Y. (1996). Mineralogy, Fabric Properties and Classification of Weathered Granites
in Hong Kong, Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology, vol. 29, pp. 5-35.
Irfan, T.Y. (1999). Characterization of Weathered Volcanic Rocks in Hong Kong, Quarterly
Journal of Engineering Geology, vol. 32, pp. 317-348.
Lambe, T.W. and Whitman, R.V. (1979). Soil Mechanics, SI Version, John Wiley & Sons.
Mitchell, J.K. (1993). Fundamentals of Soil Behavior, 2nd edition, John Wiley & Sons.

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Shear Strength of Rock Joints

Low normal force

Dilate

High normal force

Shear off

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