Urban Composting

and
Compost Use

Leslie Cooperband
University of Wisconsin
Department of Soil Science
 General Definition of
Composting

Transformation of raw organic

materials into biologically-stable,
humus-rich substances suitable for
growing plants.
 The Composting Process
Water Heat

CO2
Organic
Matter
Minerals Organic
Compost matter,
Water Pile minerals,
water,
Micro- microbes
organisms

Raw Materials Finished compost

O2
 Three most important factors for
making good compost are:
1) chemical makeup of raw ingredients or
feedstocks
2) physical size and shape of feedstocks
and porosity of the pile
3) population of organisms involved in
composting process
Composting is a BIOLOGICAL
process:

Take the microbes’ point of

view when setting up
conditions for efficient
composting
 Microbes break down organic
compounds to:

• Obtain energy to carry on life

processes
• Acquire nutrients (N, P, K) to sustain
populations
 Compost “Happens”
• Aerobically (with oxygen) or anaerobically
when organic materials are mixed and
piled together
• Aerobic composting is most efficient and
least offensive form of decomposition
• Heat generated is by-product of microbial
break down of organic matter
 Temperature Changes in an
Aerobic Compost Pile

A=mesophilic
160
B=thermophilic
Temperature

140 C=mesophilic
120 D-maturation
oF

100
90 Active Phase Curing Phase
70
50
A B C D
Time
Microbial Food Quality
 Carbon compounds
• carbohydrates
• cellulose
• hemicellulose
• chitin
• lignin
• fats, oils
Ease with which compounds are
broken down:

carbohydrates > hemicellulose >

fats/oils > cellulose = chitin >
lignin
Fruit, vegetable wastes easily
degraded because contain mostly
sugars and starches

Leaves, stems, nut shells, bark, tree

trunks more difficult because contain
cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin
 Nitrogen
• Amino Acids
• Proteins
• Sources include:
– green plant tissue (grass clippings, green
leaves & stems, fruits, vegetables)
– animal wastes (meat, feathers, hair, hides,
blood, intestinal matter, urine, fecal matter).
 Index of Feedstock quality:
Carbon:Nitrogen (C:N) Ratio
• Supply of total carbon relative to total
nitrogen
• If amount of C relative to N is too high,
slows composting process
• If C:N ratio is too low, more likely to lose
N as ammonia gas (bad odor)
 Rules of thumb:
Green materials have lower C:N ratios
than woody materials or dead leaves.

Animal wastes more N rich than plant

wastes.

Combine high C:N materials with low

C:N materials in ratios of 2-3:1
 Feedstock C:N Ratios
Materials High in Carbon C:N Ratio
Fall leaves 30-80
Straw 40-100
Wood chips or sawdust 100-500
Bark 100-130
Mixed paper 150-200
Newspaper or cardboard 560
Materials High in Nitrogen C:N Ratio
Vegetable wastes 15-20
Coffee grounds 20
Grass clippings 15-25
Manure 5-25
Environmental Conditions
Affecting Composting
 Oxygen content
• Since most efficient composting is aerobic, need
O2.
• Atmospheric O2 concentration: 21%.
• O2 levels in compost air shouldn’t go < ~5% for
aerobic composting; 10% optimal.
• As pile heats up, more O2 will be consumed.
• Can estimate O2 status of pile with your nose.
 Rapidly degrading substrates:
produce foul odors
• Include grass clippings, food processing
wastes.
• Usually have low C:N ratios, high
available C compounds, high moisture,
small particle size.
• Consume O2 faster than it can be
replenished.
• Need to blend with dry, high C
feedstocks immediately
 Moisture content
• Optimal range 45-60% by weight.
• Low moisture impedes composting
process because
– microbes need water
– Dry pile will become cool, slows down
composting
 Moisture cont’d
• Moisture content > 60% means pore
spaces filled with water rather than air.
• Insufficient O2 anaerobic conditions,
hot pile cools down.
• Dry, high-carbon feedstocks often used as
bulking (drying) agents with wet
feedstocks.
• Perform “squeeze test” to estimate
moisture content.
 Temperature
• Higher temperatures result in faster
breakdown of organic materials.
• Excessively high temperatures (> 170 oF)
can inhibit microbial activity.
• Moisture moderates wide swings in
temperature.
• Estimate compost pile temperature using
your hand or a long-stem thermometer.
 Particle size
• Particle size regulates microbial access to
food.
• Smaller particles have more surface area
than large particles; easy access.
• HOWEVER, v. fine particles produce small
pores; restricted air flow could lead to
anaerobic conditions.
• Wood chips create porosity, but carbon isn’t
available to microbes.
 Adapted from T. Richard

Porosity effects on aeration

Loosely packed, Loosely packed,

well structured uniform particle size

Tightly packed, Tightly packed, mixed

uniform particle size particle sizes
 Pile Size/Shape
• Pile size will affect O2 content and
temperature.
– Small piles maintain higher internal O2
concentrations than large piles.
– BUT, if piles too small, won’t retain heat.
– Large piles retain higher temperatures than
small piles.
– BUT, if piles to high, won’t aerate properly.
 Air Flow and Pile Size

No O2 Adequate O2
Feed the microbes and let
them do the work for you!
Examples of composting
technologies
Simplest technologies are composting bins
or backyard piles
Passively aerated static piles using PVC pipes
Using PVC pipes inserted diagonally into
compost piles promotes convective air flow
Making and turning compost windrows
with a tractor-pulled windrow turner
Vermicomposting
 Vermicomposting or Worm
Composting
• Using worms that are natural “eaters” of
organic material (red wigglers most
common)
• Requires high moisture, moderate
temperatures (40-80 oF)
• Best to feed worms pre-ground food
waste including vegetable scraps,
coffee grounds, egg shells
How to Maintain Compost Worms
• Construct a shallow bin (either plastic or
wood—wood “breathes” better)
• Recommended sizing: 1 ft2 per lb. of food
waste/week
• 1 lb. worms for food waste from household of
3 people (1 ft. X 2 ft. X 2 ft. size bin)
• Add bedding for worms-shredded paper,
leaves, peat moss
• Add food waste every few days or 1X/week
• Add new bedding if compost gets too wet
 How to Harvest Worm Compost
• Segregate old material to one side of bin; add
new bedding and food scraps; worms will
migrate to new food source.
• Dump compost out of bin and put light on
compost pile; worms will move away from
light; collect them at bottom of pile.
• Remove contents of bin; place new bedding +
food waste in bottom and cover with burlap;
put finished compost on top of burlap; worms
will migrate into new material below burlap.
Compost Use in Urban Soils
Characteristics of Urban Soils
• Highly disturbed
• Common to plant in subsoil
• Topsoil imported from somewhere else
• Subject to compaction, erosion
• Subject to over fertilization
• Subject to flooding/poor aeration
Disturbed, degraded soils no
longer perform important
“ecosystem functions”
•Infiltration
•Water retention
•Absorption of nutrients
•Degradation of pesticides, pollutants
•Stabilizing soil temperatures
 SOILS ARE HIGHLY

Soil Management

Soil Function

Healthy plants, ecosystem

Use of organic amendments
builds soil organic matter and
improves soil functions.
Approximate Amount of Organic Amendment
Needed to Raise SOM by 2%

Soil type Cubic Tons* Tons

Yards* (T/acre)
Clay Loam 9.5 4.0 35
Loam 11.0 4.5 39
Sandy Loam 12.5 5.0 44
Sand 15.0 6.0 52

*Amount needed for 5000 ft.2 area and 6" depth.

Assuming amendment is 60% organic matter with
bulk density of 800 lb./cubic yard and 30% moisture
content. (Source: Darrah, 1994)
Comparing mineral fertilizers and composts
Material Advantages Disadvantages

Mineral 1. Convenient 1. Easily leached

Fertilizers 2. Transport and handling 2. Continuous use may
costs are lower lead to breakdown of soil
3. Quick crop response structure
3. Supply major nutrients
only

Composts 1. Improve soil structure 1. Dilute nutrient source

2. Controls erosion 2. High transport costs
3. Supplies wide range of 3. May be difficult to apply
nutrients evenly
4. Hygienic disposal of 4. High C:N ratios may rob
pathogenic waste soil N
Landscape uses of Composts

• Turf grass establishment

• Bed preparation
• Backfill for trees
• Mulch
 Compost Use for Ornamental
Shrubs and Trees
• Use stable compost if planting immediately.
• Check soluble salts of compost if planting
salt-sensitive plants (dogwoods, some
conifers).
• Young seedlings, liners, bare root plants
more susceptible to salts, ammonia and other
phytotoxic compounds, so have compost
analyzed for these if concerned.
 Compost Use in Planting Bed
Establishment
• Application rates recommended: 1-2”
layer or 3-6 cu yds. /1000 ft2
• Incorporate to depth of 6-8”
• Test compost amended soil for pH and
soluble salts (sol. salts shouldn’t exceed
1.25 ds/m for salt sensitive crops like
geranium)
 Turf Establishment
• Use mature compost, low soluble salts, 1”
particle size or finer.
• Apply 1-2” (3-6 yd3 per 1000 ft2) evenly with
spreader and incorporate to depth of 5-7” (20-
30% inclusion rate).
• Nutrient-rich compost (e.g., biosolids or
manure-based) may eliminate need for
fertilizers.
• If applying to degraded soil, use 3-4” layer of
compost.
 Compost Use as Backfill Mix
• Helps promote rapid root growth
• Juvenile plants may benefit more from
compost-amended backfill than mature plants
• May reduce soil-borne disease incidence
• N-rich composts preferred
• Inclusion rate of 25-35% blended with native
soil
 Compost Use for Rehabilitating
Degraded Soils

• Inclusion rates as low as 4-17% have

been beneficial in rejuvenating marginal
soils, especially with fertilizers
• In high pH soils (>7.0), if composts have
high ammonia levels, delay seeding or
planting by at least 2 weeks
 Compost Use for Erosion Control

• Compost applied as a surface mulch

• Does not have to be biologically stable if
won’t seed right away
• Apply even rate of 3-4” layer (400-550
cu yd./acre)
• Can blow compost onto soil surface if
applying to steep area
 Mulch Vs. Compost
Mulch
• Soil surface cover of
raw or partially
decomposed bark, wood
• Controls weeds
• Moderates soil
temperatures
• Reduces erosion
• Retains soil moisture by
retarding evaporation
• Particle size 1/2” to 2”
• Should not be
incorporated into the soil
Compost
• Product of controlled
biological
decomposition.
• Humus-like substance,
stable biologically
• Can be incorporated or
surface applied
• Particle size 1/2” or less
• Can be used as a
mulch but mulch
cannot be used as
compost.
 Summary
• Compost use can improve topsoil quality
and improve urban plant growth
• Compost can increase soil water
infiltration and retention; reduces erosion
and runoff
• Test composts BEFORE use if concerned
• Application rates, timing depend on
compost type, maturity and plant species