Carbon footprint of electricity generation

Stephanie Baldwin
POST
www.parliament.uk/post
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 Policy context
ƒ 2006 ‘Energy Review’
ƒ Climate change & energy security

ƒ UK primary energy mix ƒ UK electricity mix

40% 39% 34%

gas gas coal

17%
33% coal
8% 1% 7% 19%
oil nuclear
2% nuclear oil hydro, imports
renewables & hydro & renewables
& waste

ƒ Future policy – maintain diversity of energy mix

 Background
ƒ No electricity generation technology is ‘carbon free’
ƒ All electricity generation technologies have a carbon footprint
ƒ 8 different electricity generation technologies analysed

ƒ In the context of fossil fuelled electricity generation…

ƒ where they are now? – current carbon footprint
ƒ where are they going? – future carbon footprint
ƒ how do they compare with other technologies?
 CO2
CO2
CO2

Definitions
ƒ What is a carbon footprint? CO2

CO2

The total amount of CO2 and other greenhouse gases CO2

emitted over the full life cycle of a product or process,

from extraction of raw materials through to decommissioning

ƒ Expressed as gCO2eq/kwh – account for different GWP of other GHG’s

ƒ Carbon footprints are calculated using Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)

ƒ 1. Boundary definition
ƒ 2. LCI – Life Cycle Inventory – the most objective result of LCA
ƒ 3. LCIA – Life Cycle Impact Assessment
ƒ 4. Interpretation & improvement

ƒ LCA cannot replace the decision making process itself

Full life cycle carbon dioxide (CO2) and other greenhouse gases (e.g. CH4)
emitted by electricity generation technologies
CO2

extraction
CO2
CO2
transport

processing CO2

decommissioning recycling

CO2
CO2

construction
maintenance
operation
(direct CO2 emissions) CO2
Carbon footprints of electricity generation technologies
(UK & European data 2004-2006)

1200
1075 (UK, AFBC plant)
1000
823 (UK, IGCC plant)
800
650
600
Swedish plant
440 411 UK plant low-NO
X
400
237
200
25 58 35 50 25 10 3 5 4.5 5 3.5
0
Coal Gas Biomass PV Marine Hydro Wind Nuclear
Oil
Ranges in each electricity generation technology are due to:

ƒ Differences between individual plants – some older and/or less efficient

ƒ Different technologies – e.g. run-of-river vs. reservoir storage

ƒ Different LCA input (boundary definition) parameters

ƒ Different studies – some studies older, so had older data (2000 was cutoff date)
Carbon footprints of electricity generation technologies
(global data, 2004-2006)

1200
1070 (West European UCTE average)
1000

800 766 (Australian plant – USCSC plant)

662 US plant
600

398 German plant

400
237
200
110 80
25 35 50 25 34 3 29 4 3
0
Coal Gas Biomass PV Marine Hydro Wind Nuclear
 Carbon footprints variations

ƒ Ranges are larger in the global data for 2 main reasons:

ƒ Older vintage technologies – less efficient
ƒ Use of LCA not as established – LCA identifies less efficient processes

UK & European data Global data

1200 1200

1000 1000

800 800

600 600

400 400

200 200

0 0
Coal Gas Biomass PV Marine Hydro Wind Nuclear Coal Gas Biomass PV Marine Hydro Wind Nuclear
Carbon footprint of electricity generation technologies
(UK & Europe)

1200

1000

800

600

400

200

0
Coal Gas Biomass PV Marine Hydro Wind Nuclear
Carbon footprint of low carbon electricity generation technologies
(UK & Europe)
237 straw
200 direct combustion

180
160
140
120 woodchip gasification

southern Europe
100

reservoir storage

Sweden, Ringhals
80 UK range for UK

UK, Torness
58 wave converters
60

run-of-river

offshore
50

onshore
40 35
25 25
20 10
3 5.25 4.64 5.05 3.48
0
Biomass PV Marine Hydro Wind Nuclear
 Biomass
Carbon footprint range:
Highest: 237 gCO2eq/kWh (direct combustion of straw)
Lowest: 25 gCO2eq/kWh (gasification of wood chip)
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Biomass PV Marine Hydro Wind Nuclear
Issues:
ƒ Biomass is ‘carbon neutral’ → CO2 absorbed (growth) = CO2 released (burning)
ƒ Transport contributes the largest amount of life cycle CO2, also fertilizers, harvesting
ƒ Large range of carbon footprints → related to differences in energy and density
ƒ Co-firing biomass + fossil fuels can reduce the carbon footprint of fossil fuelled power
 Photovoltaics
Carbon footprint range:
Highest: 58 gCO2eq/kWh (UK)
Lowest: 35 gCO2eq/kWh (southern Europe)
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Biomass PV Marine Hydro Wind Nuclear
Issues:
ƒ PV cells predominantly made of high grade silicon
ƒ Silicon extraction and purification is most energy intensive phase (60% of CO2)
ƒ Future reductions in silicon use (e.g. thin film) will lower carbon footprint
ƒ Carbon footprint lower in southern Europe because greater operating hours
 Marine
(wave & tidal)
Carbon footprint range:
Highest: 50 gCO2eq/kWh (range for UK wave converters)
Lowest: 25 gCO2eq/kWh
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Biomass PV Marine Hydro Wind Nuclear
Issues:
ƒ Two main types of devices: wave energy converters & tidal stream/barrage devices
ƒ Marine electricity generation still an emerging technology – most still prototypes
ƒ No commercial marine powered electricity generation in the UK yet
ƒ Marine carbon footprint currently equivalent to PV, but may reduce to level of wind
 Hydro
Carbon footprint range:
Highest: 10 gCO2eq/kWh (non-alpine reservoir storage)
Lowest: 3 gCO2eq/kWh (non-alpine run-of-river)
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Biomass PV Marine Hydro Wind Nuclear
Issues:
ƒ Two main schemes: reservoir storage (large scale), run-of-river (small scale)
ƒ Storage schemes have higher carbon footprint since a dam is constructed
ƒ Run-of-river schemes have the smallest carbon footprint of all technologies
ƒ Hydro has small CO2 emissions, but some methane (CH4) is also emitted
 Wind
Carbon footprint range:
Highest: 5.25 gCO2eq/kWh (UK offshore)
Lowest: 4.64 gCO2eq/kWh (UK onshore)
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Biomass PV Marine Hydro Wind Nuclear
Issues:
ƒ Wind has one of the lowest carbon footprints
ƒ 98% of emissions arise during manufacturing & construction (steel, concrete)
ƒ Remaining emissions arise during maintenance phase of life cycle
ƒ Footprint of offshore turbine is greater due to larger foundations
 Nuclear
Carbon footprint range:
Highest: 5.05 gCO2eq/kWh (UK, Torness plant)
Lowest: 3.48 gCO2eq/kWh (Sweden, Ringhals plant)
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Biomass PV Marine Hydro Wind Nuclear
Issues:
ƒ Nuclear also has a very small carbon footprint
ƒ Most CO2 emitted during uranium mining (40% of life cycle CO2)
ƒ Global uranium reserves – lower grades may cause footprint to rise in future
ƒ 3 studies: AEA (  to 6.8g), Öko (  to 30-60g), Storm van Leeuwin (  60 to 120g)
 Future carbon footprint reductions
(or increases!)
current footprint
800
future footprint
700
Future carbon reductions are possible
600
for all these technologies if the construction
500 phase (e.g. steel, concrete production)
is fuelled by ‘low carbon’ electricity
400 gas
with
300 CCS
coal
with future reductions in raw materials
200 e.g. less silicon in thin film PV
CCS
100

0
Coal Gas Biomass PV Marine Hydro Wind Nuclear
-100
Increasing future
-200
biomass nuclear footprint due to
with lower grade uranium
CCS
 Future carbon footprint issues
Coal: ▪ co-firing with biomass
▪ CCS – not yet demonstrated for electricity generation

Gas: ▪ co-firing with biomass (where biomass is gasified)

▪ CCS – not yet demonstrated

Biomass: ▪ CCS – unlikely since most biomass plants <50MW

PV & Marine: ▪ Reduction in raw materials

Nuclear: ▪ Footprint may rise if lower grade ores are used,

but will only rise to level of other ‘low carbon’ technologies,
not as large as current fossil fuelled electricity generation

All: ▪ Can reduce future carbon footprint if high

CO2 life cycle phases are fuelled by low
carbon energy sources
 Conclusions

ƒ All electricity generation technologies emit CO2 at some point during their life cycle
ƒ None of these technologies are entirely ‘carbon free’
ƒ Fossil fuelled electricity generation has the largest carbon footprint (>1,000gCO2eq/kWh)
ƒ ‘Low carbon’ technologies have low carbon footprints (<100gCO2eq/kWh)

ƒ Future carbon footprints can be reduced for all electricitiy generation technologies if
the high CO2 emission phases are fuelled by low carbon energy sources

Thank You!
Stephanie Baldwin
www.parliament.uk/post