This paper was prepared for presentation at IGCP 521-481 Conference

held in Gelendzhik in Russia between 8- 17th September 2007

Archaeological and Natural History

Observations in Azerbaijan on Sea Level Changes
(Possible Regional Cultural Connections and Scientific Challenges)

Ronnie Gallagher

1. Abstract show that early man in the region used large oared vessels that
Fluctuations in the Caspian Sea level have greatly influenced may have been used for long distance transportation between
coastal communities for millennia. This is due to a delicate the Caspian Sea, Black Sea and into the Mediterranean Sea.
balance between regional climate, temperature, rainfall in the Indeed similarities in rock art imagery found in pre-dynastic
catchments areas of the rivers feeding the basin, principally Egyptian carvings and on pottery suggest potential cultural
the Volga, and evaporation from the surface of the sea. With contact across the region.
evaporation estimated to be just less than a meter per year, sea
level will either rise or fall depending on climate and rainfall. In addition large animal-like rock carvings and excavations
Currently sea level is around minus 28 m relative to mean sea have been found in the landscape. This little known
level, (msl). phenomenon (called zoomorphism) testifies to an animistic
belief system and widespread tradition which appears to
In the present era, fluctuations are only in the order of a few provide cultural connections to Egypt and could be implicated
metres and while significant to those living near the sea, are in the carving of the Egyptian Sphinx. The mountain Besh
relatively minor compared to the more massive regressions Barmak is of particular interest in this respect as is a
and inundations associated with the Ice Ages. During ice ages significant ritual landscape worthy of international
the sea greatly shrinks due to a cooler drier climate and the archaeological study.
lack of rainfall feeding its northern rivers. At the end of an ice
age, melt water inundates the northern water-shed areas during 2. Introduction.
the meltdown period, to drain via river systems into the glacial
lake basins of the Black and Caspian Seas. Ice cap melting
Situated within the ‘cradle of civilization’ Azerbaijan and the
from the Himalayas also adds to the inflow. In the present
Caucasus are lands of myth, legend, mystery, intrigue and
interglacial period, Caspian Sea levels have fluctuated around
scientific conundrums. This paper begins to look at some of
the current level with a rise and fall of around 12 m.
these and through various observations and findings begins to
explore the prehistory of the region.
As a hobbyist archaeologist interested in the Neolithic and
Ancient regional connections are evident from place names,
Early Bronze Age in Azerbaijan, a number of settlements have
where for instance the largest mountains in the Caucasus
been found near to ancient elevated coastlines. Several sites
range, such as Lakamu, Kingu (Elbrus), Anshar (Kasbek) are
ranging up to +143 m relative to msl. are noted and include
amongst the names of gods in Babylonian creation legend. In
those at Gobustan, Qobu, Dubendi, and in the vicinity of the
Greek legend, historians tell that Prometheus was bound in
mountain Besh Barmak.
chains at the foot of Kasbek. Even today, the last mountain in
the Caucasus range, Besh Barmak is associated with the
These sites are of interest for they reflect the past height of the
prophet Enoch and continues to be a place of pilgrimage for
Caspian Sea and suggest dynamic and dramatic changes over
Shiite Muslims. Such mythical examples found only in
time. Combined with the effect of tectonic uplift and the influx
scholarly textbooks are little known, but do suggest the past
of meltwater from the end of the last Ice Age onward to when
regional importance of the Caucasus. Curiously other
global sea levels stabilized at the present level some 6000
research shows plausible connections with predynastic Egypt,
years ago, the Caspian sea level has fluctuated and impacted
and was considered plausible by no less a figure than the
human habitation. It is apparent that at elevations of around
father of Egyptology – Sir Flinders Petrie.
15 to 20 m msl. the Caspian Sea out-flowed via the Kuma-
Manych depression into the Sea of Azov and Black Sea.
Scientifically the Caspian Sea is also important for it acts like
Evidence of this is seen by the presence of Caspian specific
a ‘climate change’ barometer. As an inland sea, it is sensitive
marine organisms in the Black Sea and may even be inferred
to the vagaries of climate shifts which have imprinted signals
from apparent long shore drift sand spits on the Northern shore
on its ancient coastlines over millennia. While sea level rise
of the Sea of Azov. Raised terraces in the Black Sea and Sea
today is important to those affected global warming, in inland
of Azov of around plus 6 to 8 m msl may also result from melt
seas such as the Caspian, the effect is magnified manifold by
water inundation, and sea level rise prior to discharge through
regressions and transgressions. An intriguing example is the
the Bosporus.
presence of the Caspian Seal which provides evidence of ice
age connections to the Arctic Ocean and the seal’s 400,000
Observations of rock carvings (petroglyphs) found at
year distant cousin - the Arctic Ringed Seal. The interplay of
Gobustan and Dubendi are of great interest for they apparently
tectonics, meltwater transgression and regressions and
2
isostatic flexure caused by a previous ice sheets, no doubt are
all implicated here and in the many puzzles associate with the
Caspian Sea. Perhaps the presence of the seal may even have
convinced Strabo, the Greek geographer, that the Caspian was
connected to the northern ocean.
At the end of the last Ice Age the Caspian Sea for a while was
connected to the Sea of Azov and Black Sea. Archaeological
evidence for this is hinted at by the presence of ‘cart ruts’.
These are enigmatic carvings of long parallel channels in
limestone several hundred meters long, found on the Apsheron
Peninsula. The Azeri ‘cart ruts’ are similar to the ubiquitous
cart ruts found around the Mediterranean coastline. (Picture 1).
Their function is generally associated with the transportation
of large boulders or megaliths, though other possibilities do
exist. In Malta where they have been extensively studied,
examples may be found entering the sea dropping down to a
depth of 10 m. This testifies to their construction at a time
coincident with Malta’s ‘Temple Period’, when sea level was
continuing to rise, thus dating them to six or seven thousand
years before present (BP). This technology lasted into the
early Bronze Age when it suddenly ceased. As the ruts are
clearly associated with a sea faring culture, this suggests that
contact with the Caspian Sea was possible and most likely
involved navigation via the Kuma-Manych waterway lcated to
the north of the Caucasus mountains. (Picture 2).
The explorer and archaeologist, the late Thor Heyerdhall, was
a firm advocate of ancient transportation and demonstrated
early man’s capabilities in this area. (Picture 3). He was
intrigued by Gobustan and the many large boat carvings
found there, which clearly suggest long distance travel. Trade
in valuable commodities such as obsidian knives from Turkey
and lapis lazulis, (which is mined in Afghanistan) are possible
examples of ancient commerce found in the Caucasus and
Mediterranean and would provide a motive to trade over large
distances.
The Kuma-Manych waterway was open during the Holocene
outflowing period and may only have ceased once the ice caps
and ice sheet meltwater dwindled and sea level stabilized at its
present level. Data from the Greenland ice core (Picture 4)
shows the beginning of the end of the Ice Age at around 15 k
yrs. The Younger Dryas reversal plunged the world back into
another cold epoch with eventual thawing restarting at around
12 k yrs. Ice sheets and caps then continued to melt until sea
level normalized at around 6000 yrs BP.
A problem however with waterways access via the Kuma-
Manych depression is that evidence from radiocarbon dating
of shellfish indicates the Caspian Sea only out-flowed to the
Black Sea around 13,000 to 15,000 years ago. This seems to
be incongruous and at odds with apparent archaeological
evidence and suggests, in part, that radiocarbon dating may be
inaccurate. This is a possibility due to an enhanced ‘reservoir
effect’ and the abundance of ancient carbon in the enclosed
Caspian Sea, where the water is rich in carbonate. Sources of
ancient carbon include the influx and outpouring of : CO2
dissolved in meltwater; bicarbonate associated with prolific
shell sands and limestone; formation water emissions and
hydrocarbons emanating from mud volcanoes which either
biodegrade to enter the food chain, or release CO2 directly into
the Caspian Sea. The net effect of this is to enhance the levels
of Carbon 12 and Carbon 13 relative to the atmospherically
derived Carbon 14, thus potentially making shell samples
appear older than they are. This possibility needs to be
studied, but if correct suggests that the waterway may have
been open through the Manych depression for few more
thousand years, much longer than archaeologist think
possible.
3. Observations on Elevated Archaeological Sites and
consideration of regional connections.
Wave cut terraces can be found in many locations in
Azerbaijan at different elevations and need to be explained.
Two good examples are to the north of Baku between the city
of Sumqayat and the mountain Besh Barmak and at the
Gobustan Archaeological heritage centre on the hill called
Beyukdash.
The first is an impressive long terrace elevated at between 70
– 120 m above mean sea level and can be observed stretching
for over 40 kilometers. Picture 5 shows a section of the terrace
near to the town of Gilazi. The terrace is a dominant feature
that suggests a high stand period which may coincide with the
protracted ice sheet meltwater drainage prior to the
evaporative drawdown of the Caspian Sea to its present level.
Knowing when the terrace formed is important and an answer
may be possible through radiocarbon dating using terrestrial
and marine organic material.
Complicating the picture however when trying to determine
the relative height of the Caspian Sea is tectonic uplift of the
area, which is estimated to be at the remarkable rate of 1 cm
per year, i.e. 10m per 1000 years. (Pers comment. Professor
Yukal Yilmaz) If this rate is steady, it suggests that the terrace
may have risen some 70 to 100 m over the past 10,000 years.
Gobustan is a remarkable archaeological world heritage site
and consists of a series of wave cut limestone terraces up to
120 m msl. It has many slabs of rock which provide both
shelter as caves, and flat surfaces for over 6000 wonderful
carvings. (Picture 6). The carvings are remarkably detailed
and contain a wealth of information showing the environment,
the culture and how the ancient people lived. In a preliterate
society, the information provided by pictograms provide
important archaeological clues which demonstrating wider
cultural connections. Some carvings are described below.
3.1 Qobu.
Qobu is located to the south of Baku just inland from the
Lokbatan mud volcano. It is mentioned because of its
elevation at 143 m msl and its intriguing archaeology. The
site may have been first occupied during the Paleolithic era,
because of its higher elevation and the presence of a much
grander and seemingly older style of rock carvings. It is
fascinating because of the deliberate damage to what may be
described as ritual boulders. (Picture 7 and 8). Three large
boulders with bowl shaped carvings (bullauns) have been
deliberately split, rendering them useless. Pictures 9. This
3

could suggest cultural conflict and the establishment of a new The remains would also be useful in determining the rate of
regime by ancient intruders. The presence of a burial mound tectonic uplift.
(kurgan), a rock shelter, intricate water collecting cisterns and
a calendric like rock carving suggests was an important, if The raised terrace is further significant for by extrapolating its
very ancient site. elevation northwards to the entrance to the Kuma Manych lake
waterway, some 460 km distant, it hints that access may have
3.2 Dubendi. been feasible at this time. Much depends on the degree of
This site ranges from the current sea level at minus 28 m to tectonic uplift leading to the Kuma Manych entrance. It is
around zero m msl. It is of interest because of a flooded cave, noted that for navigation today an elevation of around 20 to
a destroyed man made mound and a number of large 30 m msl is required. The difference in elevation suggests that
rectangular megalithic limestone blocks. Structural damage is the waterway could have been open for several thousand
thought to be the result of sea level rise and flooding. The cave years.
which was inundated by the sea and filled with sediment (now
excavated) is of special interest for two reasons. The first Evidence that the waterway transportation may have been
because it may be the oldest example of transgression and open around 10,000 years ago is further hinted at by the
direct human displacement. Secondly, because it contains introduction into the Caspian Sea of the edible cockle
petroglyphs of human images with upraised arms and two Cerastoderma edule from the Mediterranean Sea. This edible
bulls, (possibly European Bison or auroch). Pictures 10, 11 bivalve could well have been transported as a food source by
and 12. Such imagery is not uncommon and is noted at early mariners and released to the Caspian Sea as an alien
Gobustan. Picture 13. Symbolically both bull and human are species where it effectively colonized the basin.
thought (by the author) to be connected and may represent
some form of identify or salute, so linking early man with a From the above observations it is clearly very important to
cult of a bull. This gesture provides an important clue and is determine the level of the Caspian Sea and how it varied with
explored further below. regressions, transgressions, tectonic uplifting and climatic
changes. These factors are very complex but important to
3.2 Besh Barmak unravel in order to understand their impacts on ancient
This small mountain is of interest for several reasons and is communities and biodiversity. Surprisingly a definitive answer
further commented on below. Picture 14 to this sea level change is not yet available. Table 1 provides
a list of relevant locations and features discussed in this article
At this stage it is noteworthy because of the tide lines found on relative to current Caspian Sea levels.
its sheltered southern flank located within a small valley.
Picture 15 shows a series of tide lines elevated at around 130m Current Sea level Elevated Height above Approximate GPS
above msl. These lines are finely etched on the soft hillside Feature Mean Sea Level. Location
(msl), (m)
and have been largely protected from the wind, rain and
erosion of the prevailing northerly winds. Their fragile nature Human Figure carving with 800m N 400 54’ 19.7”
upraised arms E 49’ 11’ 51”
suggests they may have been produced at the end of the last Besh Barmak astronomical 462 m N 400 57’ 23.1”
ice age by meltwater and by the action of adverse weather stone E 49’ 12’ 52.4”
funneling storm waves into the narrow valley to etch the Snake Head 230 m N 400 56’ 29.1”
hillside. Close observation shows four tide lines, which can E 49’ 12’ 40.6”
even be seen in Google Earth. Interestingly the tidelines do not Qobu raised Beach ca 143 N 400 22’ 36.4”
E 490 14’ 8.3”
appear to be quite level as they show a slight tilt towards the Besh Barmak Tidelines 90 -130m N 400 56’ 2.04”
sea, so indicating tectonic activity. Unlike terraces which E 49’ 14’ 15.29”
must result from longer term weathering, the raised sea level is Gobustan upper terraces ca 120 m N 400 6’ 39.2”
unlikely to have persisted for long at this elevation, otherwise E 490 22’ 40.9”
more and deeper tidelines would be evident. Studying the tide Gilasi Terrace 70 – 120m N 400 55’ 4.5”
E 490 15’ 32.8”
lines is important because they provide evidence of a
Rangebar – Whale Zoomorph 110 m N 400 10’ 59.8”
maximum height reached during the Holocene meltwater E 490 06’ 56.9”
flooding. Their elevation is around 10 m in excess of other Besh Barmak graves 95 m + N 400 57’ 11.8”
apparent Holocene terraces found. E 490 14’ 54.4”
Caspian Sea at 40 m msl 40 m na
The wave cut terrace shown in Picture 5 continues northward Kuma Manych depression ca 20 – 30 m na
navigable height
and intersects with Besh Barmak at a most interesting Turtle rock 8m N 400 18’ 54.7”
elevation, at or above which there are a significant number of E 490 37’ 51.7”
rocky burial mounds. It is highly significant that no graves are Yeni Turcan cart ruts ca 0 m N 400 23’ 30”
found below the terrace level thus suggesting an elevated sea E 5008’ 41.2”
level at the time of burial. Picture 16. The hundred or so Dubendi mound and cave ca minus 24 m N 400 27’ 32.3”
E 500 15’ 24.6”
graves at this locations testify to the importance of Besh
Current Caspian Sea level minus 28 na
Barmak. Human remains within the graves ought to provide Sabayil Castle in Baku Bay ca minus 32 na
information of who the people were, when they were buried Sunken villages Byandovan ca minus 32 na
and by implication indicate when the sea level was elevated. Table (1). Site locations and elevations relative to mean sea level .
4
From the table it can be seen that relative sea levels have
been in excess of 100 m msl and that currently the Kuma
Manych waterway would be navigable at around 25 m msl.
In an attempt to portray a plausible scenario showing what
the Caspian Sea would look like at plus 40 m msl, the photo
montage was produced. Picture 17. This also includes the
Black Sea (which is shown based on terraces in the Sea of
Azov and the Black Sea) at an elevation of + 8 m msl. At this
level Caspian Sea would outflow to the Sea of Azov and
commingle with the River Don. The resulting combined
outflow may well have been responsible for the apparent long
shore spits observed in Picture 18.
Assuming that tectonic uplift was not dissimilar between
Azerbaijan and the Kuma-Manych waterway and with the
Caspian Sea was elevated long enough to create a raised
terrace of around 70 to 120 m msl, this suggests that the
waterway may well have been open for a considerable time.
Clearly this needs to be studied more. However, in support of
this possibility further evidence may be gleaned from the rock
art at Gobustan. .
3.3 Gobustan.
Gobustan is of special interest not only because it exhibits
excellent wave cut terraces but also because of the range,
abundance and wealth of information provided by its ancient
inhabitants and their intriguing petroglyphs.
It should be noted here that petroglyphs are regarded by
archaeologists as a sort of graffiti, and while interesting, they
are generally not thought to have significant scientific value.
This however may be a shortsighted view. In a preliterate
society, a picture is an excellent way to communicate cultural
thoughts and ideas. In the main, petroglyphs were carved by
practical peoples and accurately portray much about their
culture and environment. In this respect they contain valuable
details and in a way are not unlike the placard mounted on
Pioneer 10 spacecraft. Picture 19. The intent by NASA and
Carl Sagan presumably was for this spacecraft to be found by
aliens who would decipher the image to inform them about
mankind, and how and where we may be found. This
expectation is not unlike 21st century descendants attempting
to extract meaningful information from the stone carvings of
our distant preliterate ancestors.
A few examples are considered which demonstrate that the
ancient artwork is more than just casual pictures, and that they
provide interesting information that seems to demonstrate
cultural connections with the Mediterranean region.
The first example looks at the petroglyphs of boats and the
imagery of the people with upraised arms. As can be seen
from Picture 3 and the hunter scene shown in Picture 20,
prehistoric boats are large, contain many oarsmen (each line
represents an oarsman) and were clearly meant for long
distance travel. While the style of boat petroglyphs at
Gobustan vary there is a remarkable similarity between for
example the ones shown in Picture 3 and an Egyptian
counterpart in Picture 21. Both vessels look alike and even
have a curious distinctive twin streamer attachment coming
out of the upper part of the stern.
The upraised arms are also significant for they can be
found in predynastic Egypt. Picture 21 and 22 show examples
of the motif in similar styled vessels from the Wadi Barramiya
and Wadi Hammamat. Imagery of the upraised arms gesture
is also found on predynastic pottery from Badaria in Egypt.
Picture 23. While the evidence is circumstantial, it is not
unreasonable to consider that a connection exists between the
Azerbaijani and Egyptian carvings of people with upraised
arms and large multi oared boats.
The importance of bulls to both cultures is also relevant.
Since the time when mankind evolved from hunter gathering
to a lifestyle of pastoralism and agriculture the importance of
cattle, even today in certain cultures and for religious reasons,
continues unabated. It is not therefore surprising that the bull
as a symbol of strength, and perhaps identity, may be found in
the Neolithic and predynastic eras. Consider for example the
imagery of King Menes who united upper and lower Egypt
and whose symbol was a bull, (Picture 24); or the ancient
tradition of worshiping an Apis Bull, which in early dynasties
were also mummified; or in the Levant where bull skull were
mounted on walls and or buried in graves within dwellings.
(Mithen). It is evident that bulls, and the worship of bulls,
played major role in the traditions of these ancient peoples.
The possible connection between images of people and bulls is
intriguing and is further discussed below in the context of the
phenomenon of ‘zoomorphism’.
A second interesting image concerns the hooked sticks that
can be seen at Gobustan, where six female figures are
observed wielding these implements. Picture 25. While it is
not known what the sticks may be used for, (suggestions
include a shepherds crook, a scythe like cutting device or
perhaps a weapon), there is the possibility that in prehistoric
times they were used in the same manner as those found on
predynastic Egyptian pottery. Picture 26. Here a similar
shaped implement is being carried by hunters, (perhaps
warriors) and in hieroglyphs as a ceremonial staff.
A third carving of relevance is the stick like projections
seen at the waist of the central hunter figure in picture 20.
Again, these appear to be very similar to predynastic Egyptian
pottery images where they represent a throwing stick, and used
for hunting small game. Picture 27 Examples of these Stone
Age boomerang hunting devices can be viewed in the British
Museum. Picture 28.
Assuming that there are likely connections to ancient
Egypt, another intriguing possibility emerges from the
Gobustan hunting scene image. This relates to the wavy lines
seen in picture 20. Closer inspection shows that the chevron
like lines extend from above the warrior’s head down to his
waist. These have been interpreted by Azeri archaeologists as
rainfall. Picture 29. However, if we accept the association
with water and consider the similarity to the Egyptian
hieroglyph for a lake or the sea then an interesting possibility
presents itself.
5
Firstly, note that there are two components to the
chevrons: a long section behind the body of the warrior down
to his waist and an offshoot to the top left. Now compare this
to the situation of a swollen Caspian Sea with an outlet via the
Manych depression. Picture 30. The geography of both are
alike. This suggests the possibility that the Gobustan image
depicts a map of the Caspian Sea and further hints that
navigation may indeed have been possible in prehistoric times
to the Sea of Azov. Given that that these early mariners
appeared to be traveling great distances then the use of maps
would obviously be a necessity. If this interpretation is correct
then the Gobustan ‘map’ predates the earliest Phoenician maps
by several thousand years.
So far connections have been made to elevated sea levels,
maritime connections and archaeological evidence for regional
cultural similarities. With the exception of the ‘map’ the
cultural imagery shown perhaps may be discounted and
considered common aspects of a widespread Stone Age
culture. However, other findings have shown that the
connections go much deeper and that links between the
Caucasus region and Egypt may be quite profound. Here we
may consider some fascinating observations made by a
Professor Reginald Fessenden, a renowned scientist and
amateur archaeologist who some 80 years ago suggested that
the Caucasus were as a possible homeland of ancient
Egyptians.
4 Professor Reginald Fessenden’s Observations on the
Origins of the Book of the Dead.
Professor Reginald Fessenden, a renowned scientist and
engineer is famous for being the first to broadcast the human
voice by radio across the Atlantic. He also had a deep
fascination for archaeology and mythology, and firmly
believed that myths and legends contained valuable
knowledge handed down from preliterate ancestors. In
studying the Egyptian mythology and details contained in the
3000 to 4000 year old ‘Book of the Dead’, he came to
understand that the people, the place names and geographical
routes and location mentioned have direct counterparts in the
Caucasus. Fessenden recognized that place names act as
linguistic fossils which persist and are passed down through
generations, often to the present day. So rather than being a
mythological landscape in which is described the route a
deceased pharaoh must take on his journey to the afterlife
Fessenden proposed that the Book of the Dead provided
guidance for the pharaoh on his journey back to the Caucasus
– and the land of his forefathers.
Fessenden communicated his observations and theory to the
‘father of Egyptology’, - Professor Sir Flinders Petrie. Petrie
in turn investigated the matter and in doing so compared the
3000 to 4000 year Egyptian text to the oldest known record of
Caucasian place names, given by Ptolemy, and concluded:
‘It appears, then, that the cultural connections of the
earliest Egyptians, as well as the physical descriptions in
their mythology, point to the Caucasus region. When,
further, we find there the names of the principal places of
the mythology in their relative positions, it gives strong
grounds for regarding that region as the homeland of the
earliest civilization of the Egyptian’s
A few examples of similar place names are given below.
Book of the Dead Ptolemy
Bakhau Baku
Fenkhu Phanagoria
Iaru Iora (river)
Maoati Maiotis
Reu Rha (river)
Tamanu Taman
Unfortunately because of the Russian Revolution and the
inaccessibility of the Caucasus region to archaeologists,
Flinders Petrie suggested that future scientists should explore
these ideas when it is feasible to do so. This has yet to be
done and remains an open invitation. For reference a
transcript of Flinders Petrie’s paper is given in Appendix 1.
Fessenden’s observations offer corroboration at least of
cultural connection to the Caucasus, and at most of evidence
of migration from the Caucasus into Egypt. He further
recognized two routes from Egypt to the Caucasus in ‘The
Book of the Two Ways’, one via modern day Syria and
Armenia, the other via the Black Sea and Kuban river. From
the latter it may be tentatively suggested that an even earlier
waterway route may have been feasible via Kuma-Manych.
In addition to the above, another source of information
suggesting cultural connections comes from a little known
archaeological phenomenon called ‘zoomorphism’.
5.Zoomorphism examples and the possible relevance to
widespread regional cultural connections.
Zoomorphism refers to large, mostly natural, topographical
formations that have animal like qualities, some of which have
had eyes and mouths carved to enhance the animal like effect.
These huge formations most likely reflect animistic beliefs
held by ancient people.
In exploring the Azeri countryside a number of these animal
like hills have been observed. Indeed, friends have indicated
that others may be found elsewhere in Azerbaijan.
Interestingly in each case studied the zoomorphs have been
found in the vicinity of settlements which feature burial
mounds, stone circles, rock shelters and petroglyphs. Such
proximity to settlements indicates cultural importance, and
most likely reflects a form of ritual worship by primitive
societies.
Support for ‘zoomorphism’ as a phenomenon comes from the
Russian archaeologist Dr Leonid Marsadolv who studied one
in Kazakhstan at Mount Ocharovatelnaia in the Altai
mountains. Marsadolov’s large fish like rock outcrop is
embellished by rock carvings and even demonstrates archeo
astronomical importance of the site. (Picture 31). From a
6
viewing platform the sun may be seen setting into the mouth at
the Spring Solstice. (Marsadolv)
It is appropriate to elaborate on this phenomenon here because
of perceived connections to Egypt which will become clear
below. Examples of zoomorphs in Azerbaijan (using
nicknames to describe them) include:
• Turtle Rock, located near Putta Mountain at
Gisildash, just south of Baku. Picture 32.
• Turtle Rock Head. Picture 33.
• Whale rock, Picture 34.
• Whale rock head from rear, Picture 35.
• Camel Rock, Picture 36.
• Bosdag, Picture 37.
• Besh Barmak, Picture 38.
Zoomorphism is evidently an important cultural phenomenon
that deserves to be a focus of archaeological study. Accepting
its reality, the example that most hints at a possible connection
between the Caspian and Mediterranean Sea is the animal like
mountain - Besh Barmak. Commented on above, this
remarkable site is much more than the rocky crag that pilgrims
visit today as a place of worship. It is the last mountain in the
Caucasus mountain range before the Caspian Sea and is a site
steeped in prehistorical importance.
Recognising that it might be a large zoomorph, I looked at it
closely using Google Earth satellite imagery and found other
fascinating features, such as ancient village ruins and
trackways, which I suspect were made by horses. To my
surprise, I also detected what looked like a large winding tail-
like shape, correctly positioned at the rear of the hill. Picture
39. Thinking that it might be a ‘dragon ditch’, - (not discussed
here but is yet another unexplained phenomenon consisting of
5m wide ditches that run overland for no apparent reason for
several kilometers), I visited the feature when on vacation in
summer 2007 to see what it was. On viewing it, it became
apparent that the ‘tail’ looked rather more like a massive snake
which from head to tail measured 1000 m long. Picture 40.
Discounting ideas that it might be a roadway, a quarry access
or a military feature, I suspect it was carved or excavated as a
huge decorative feature, which would most likely have a
religious or ceremonial function. In keeping with a tradition
of zoomorphism and ritual significance, this is not an
unreasonable idea. But why a snake? This needs to be
investigated more, but here we may note that snakes have
played a major role in ancient myth and legend, so it is not
unrealistic to infer that there was a religious meaning
associated with the huge carving. I am now inclined to think
that it is not a serpentine-like tail, but rather a two headed
snake. Snake symbolism in prehistory and legend are
discussed by Mason in the reference section.
An interesting aspect of the ‘snake’ is that it cannot be viewed
from the track below. To best see it, it is necessary to climb
the opposite hillside where a good view is obtained from a
particular rocky outcrop. However, even more astonishing is
yet another large carving that overlooks both the ‘snake’ and
Besh Barmak. Some 4 km away, a human like image can be
seen carved into the hillside close to the skyline. (Picture 41).
Closer inspection of the image shows that the undergrowth
and topsoil has been excavated from the steep hillside to
reveal a head, torso and arms. (Picture 42)
Archaeologists and geomorphologists need to study this
image to confirm it is not a natural feature. Like most of the
zoomorphs found, dating them should be possible by studying
the organic remains below the excavation debris.
The size of the image is around 200 m from hand to hand and
similarly 200 m in height. It can easily been seen for many
kilometers away including the craggy top of Besh Barmak, the
main coastal highway and from the Caspian Sea. It can even
be seen using Google Earth. In a manner not unlike the early
Bronze Age English hillside carvings the Cerne Abbas Giant
and White Horse of Uffington, this image is clearly of ritual
importance and was evidently created to be seen from a
distance.
What is particularly intriguing about the figure is that the arms
are raised upwards in a manner similar to the rock carvings
shown at Gobustan, Dubendi and in pre-dynastic Egypt.
While this does not constitute proof of cultural connections, it
strongly suggests that they are all closely linked. If so, it is
then reasonable to suggest, given the sheer scale of the
carving that Besh Barmak was indeed an important cultural
center and a possible homeland for the people who
traditionally used the upraised arms gesture.
As maritime travel was a preferred mode of transportation in
ancient times, it is therefore not unreasonable to suggest that
ancient people used their large vessels to ply between the
Caspian Sea to what was then predynastic Egypt. In doing so
they most likely exported their culture and traditions.
If this may be accepted as a possibility, then following this
line of reasoning an intriguing possibility emerges to connect
the zoomorphic Besh Barmak and the Egyptian Sphinx. So far
Egyptologists cannot explain the origin of the Sphinx but if we
were then to accept the reality of zoomorphism as a significant
part of prehistoric culture, then it is becomes not unreasonable
to associate the Sphinx with the ancient carving tradition.
Furthermore given the apparent importance of Besh Barmak it
is also plausible that this zoomorph might even be the original
model for the Sphinx. As a theory, these possibilities become
more curious when other similarities are considered. For
instance:
• both figures are animal like;
• the age of the Sphinx is considered by some scientists to
be older than the pyramids and so may be contemporary
with Azeri zoomorphs;
• the ancient Greek name for the Sphinx (Harmakis)
linguistically is very close to Besh Barmak – or Mount
Barmak.
• Besh Barmak means five fingers. If the focus is on
‘Barmak’ or finger, we may note that this word has
connotations of being a leader or a pointer which is what
7
in essence both structures do; both point to the East and
the rising sun.
The archaeological importance of Besh Barmak should not be
underestimated. Indeed, having made a number of
observations there, I invited Dr Idris Aliyev, the Head of
Archaeology at the Azerbaijan Academy of Science to visit
the mountain and its surroundings. (Picture 43) In addition to
viewing intact kurgans (burial mounds), other grave sites,
stone circles, ancient dwellings and village ruins, we viewed
what I suspect to be an archaeo astronomical site consisting of
an intricately carved multi-channeled stone. (Picture 44). The
carved stone is in the same style (albeit more complex) as
other ancient carvings found at other Neolithic sites. The
astronomical qualities of these ancient carvings which consist
of cup marked rocks and associated channel pointers, are
evident from their orientations to the North, and the sunrise
events of the summer solstice, spring equinox and winter
solstice. (Gallagher).
In a manner not unlike a treasure trail, it is of interest that the
Besh Barmak astronomical stone was actually discovered
following a clue provided by Professor Fessenden. He
suggested that :
‘West of Mt. Bakhar are some curious rocks which
possibly may be a primitive Stonehenge. There are
reasons for believing that Bakhar may have been the site
of the primitive observatory of the Babylonians, which
fixed their zenith’. (Fessenden)
In view of the apparent significant archaeological findings
associated with Besh Barmak, I suspect it is plausible that
Besh Barmak is Fessenden’s Mt Bakhar. Furthermore, other
interesting information comes from Sir Flinders Petrie who
noted that the word “Bakhay” written ‘Book of the Dead’
refers to Baku. Here, ‘Bakhay’ has been interpreted to mean
“the mountain of Bakhou of the rising Sun”. As Baku city
does not have a mountain as such, it makes more sense for the
‘Bakhay’ to refer to Besh Barmak, which is located some 60
km to the north of modern Baku. If correct, Professor Petrie’s
statement of a mountain facing the east and sunrise provides a
credible link between ancient Azerbaijan and Egypt and
underlines the potential prehistorical importance of Besh
Barmak.
Connections between Besh Barmak and the Sphinx may seem
rather bizarre and unbelievable. However the findings are
factual and do have to be somehow explained. Zoomorphism
is evidently an important culture aspect of ancient people
living in the Caspian Sea region and beyond to Western
Siberia. Given the richness of archaeological remains
associated with Besh Barmak, the connections to astronomy
and the huge carvings associated with this mountain and
possible maritime and mythological connections to Egypt, it is
evident that regionally the area was important in the early
Neolithic period.
6. Discussion and Conclusions.
The above account brings together a number of diverse
observations, many of which will be new to archaeology, and
attempts to understand many findings and puzzles. What
started as an interest in ancient peoples, their handiwork and
settlements close to ancient coastlines as a record of times past
has developed into a attempt to try understand the sequence of
events in the Caspian Sea region following the last Ice Age.
While some progress may have been made in interpretation or
‘seeing a bigger picture’, the situation has become even more
intriguing and puzzling.
It is apparent that from the end of the Ice Age to the early
Bronze Age were momentous times that saw the development
of agriculture, the spread of culture, the evolution of
civilizations and religions. This happened against a backdrop
of a climate change, tectonic uplifting and a fluctuating
Caspian Sea level which for an undetermined period
connected with the Sea of Azov and the Black and
Mediterranean Seas. To ancient navigators this waterway
provided a navigable route to Western Asia must surely have
had a huge impact in their environment and lifestyle.
From the evidence of rock carvings and the technology of
the ancient vessels long distance transportation was a definite
possibility. Taking into account elevated sea levels due to
meltwater, and by subtracting tectonic uplift of the elevated
landscape and by considering the similarities in Neolithic
Azeri and predynastic Egyptian rock art, a picture emerges of
potential regional connections via the Kuma-Manych
waterways. This suggests regional connectivity at a later date
than is currently understood by the radiocarbon dating of
shellfish and indicates that there may be an error in dating. An
explanation for this may lie in an overabundance of fossil
Carbon 12 and 13 in the Caspian Sea due to an enhanced
‘reservoir effect’ thus diluting the atmospheric derived
radioactive Carbon 14 which is used to determine age.
Zoomorphism is an ancient tradition that so far has
escaped archeological scrutiny. Its importance may be highly
significant in the development of mankind’s culture and belief
systems. Potential connections to Egypt either through
cultural contact or migration from the Caspian region
indicated are tangible and need to be explored further. In this
respect many other subjective links not addressed here are also
worthy of consideration. (Islamov).
A key challenge remains to determine when and for how
long the Kuma-Manych waterway remained open. Linked to
this is the need to understand the influence it had on the
people in the region. and to determine the impact once the
meltwater dried up rendering the waterway unavailable for
navigation. Perhaps failure of the waterway would constitute a
reason for migration out of the region and link to the ‘kurgan
hypothesis’ diaspora as has been described by Marija
Gambutas. Fortunately the wealth of remains in Azerbaijan
offers the possibility of archaeological study to explore these
matters. Some key areas to study include the need to :
i. Determine the accuracy of radiocarbon dating.
This may be done by studying the distribution of
living bivalves in the Caspian Sea and their
radiocarbon dates relative to proximity to mud
volcanoes, the ‘hard water’ background and
8
concentrations of dissolved CO2 and bicarbonate.
(Note: the relative abundance of Carbon 12 and Carbon 13 isotopes
in bivalves would be of interest for nature prefers utilizing the
lighter C12 isotope. Elevated Carbon 13 in fossils may indicated a
swamping effect of mud volcanic carbon and provide indirect
evidence for reduced Carbon 14)
ii. Determine the age of wave cut platforms and
raised terraces. This is necessary to track the
Caspian Sea level profile from the end of the last Ice
Age; understand the influence of tectonic uplift; and
help establish when the Kuma-Manych waterway was
navigable.
iii. Determine the age of the Besh Barmak tide lines.
As the highest Holocene sea levels these may indicate
whether the flood of legend actually occurred in the
Caspian Sea.
iv. Develop a geological/geomorphologic model to
explain presence of the Caspian Seal.
v. Investigate the graves on Besh Barmak and
evaluate the importance of the mountain. These
should be studied using modern techniques to assess
their contents, age and determine if there are any
connections to ancient Egypt. Grave goods and DNA
analyses of organic remains may provide evidence of
connections.
vi. Validate the reality of zoomorphic carvings and
evaluate their archaeological significance.
• Locate all Zoomorphic carvings in Azerbaijan
and assess them for archaeo astronomical
significance.
• Consider if there is a connection Between Besh
Barmak and the Sphinx.
• Determine the age of the zoomorphic carvings
using land based organic sources buried below
carving debris.
vii. Compare and contrast information contained in
rock art petroglyphs between Egypt and the Caspian
region to validate observations of similarity and
cultural connection.
viii. Re-evaluate the Book of the Dead. Scholars and
linguists should accept Professor Flinders Petrie’s
challenge to explore the Book of the Dead and the
possible connections to the Caucasus region.
ix. Re-visit the work of Professor Reginald
Fessenden. Mythologists and archaeologists ought to
study Fessenden’s work and explore his findings with
respect to the Caucasus region.
x. Investigate the multi channeled stone on Besh
Barmak and other similar carved rocks for
astronomical significance.
No doubt more studies may be suggested to investigate
events at the end of the last Ice Age and mankind’s
development during this period. These were momentous times,
occurring at a fascinating time at the start of the Neolithic
period, and deserve to be carefully studied and scientifically
unraveled.
Up till now comparatively little archaeological attention
has been given to Azerbaijan, but it is apparent from the above
observations that the country has many Neolithic secrets to yet
give up. In order to explore and uncover its mysteries, this
will require a multi disciplinary approach, good coordination
and sufficient human and financial resources. Unfortunately
Azerbaijan has insufficient technical skills to do this alone, but
could contribute to fund a project that could be carried out
with international support.
While there may be academic criticism of the
interpretation and suggestions made above, perhaps even
disbelief, the fact remain that the observations are real and
ought to be investigated. A waterways connection via the
Kuma-Manych depression around 6000 to 10000 years ago
allowing cultural exchange provides a simple explanation that
allows the evidence to make sense. I would therefore
encourage the Azerbaijani government to fully recognize the
potential importance of its archaeological and support an
initiative to investigate further.
Obviously there is a huge potential for scientific study and
tourism associated with the above observations. These have to
be carefully managed so that unique sites are not damaged, or
worse plundered with unique information lost. As a priority,
the government needs to heed the advice of the Academy of
sciences Institute of Archaeology to identify, catalogue,
understand and protect all of its archaeological heritage sites.
Many of these are sadly being destroyed by uncontrolled
developments caused by increasing oil wealth.
Gobustan is an international treasure, but from the huge
zoomorphic images and potential links to Egypt, it is apparent
that Azerbaijan may well host other major heritage sites such
as Besh Barmak, for which the country in time may be proud.
References:
1. Aksu et al. Persistent Holocene Outflow from the
Black Sea to the Eastern Mediterranean Contradicts
Noah's Flood Hypothesis GSA Today: Vol. 12, No. 5,
pp. 4–10. http://www.gsajournals.org
2. Bekbasser, Nyssabbay ‘ Astronomical Practices and
Ritual Calendar of Euro-Asian Nomads.
http://www.folklore.ee/folklore/vol31/bekbassar.pdf
3. Bouquet. A.C., Comparative Religion. (1962).
4. Bradley, Richard. ‘Rock Art and the Prehistory of
Atlantic Europe’.
5. Cook, Michael. ‘A Brief History of the Human
Race’.
6. Dalley, Stephanie (translator). ‘Myths from
Mesopotamia. Creation, the Flood, Gilgamesh and
others.’ Oxford World Classics. (2000)
7. Eagle Editions. Publisher - ‘Encyclopedia of Ancient
Myths and Cultures’.
8. Elliot, M. Azerbaijan with Georgia. Trailblazer
publications. (1999)
9. Egypt before the Pharaohs.
http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2000/508/fo3.htm
10. Farajova M. Myths and Legends in the Rock Pictures
of Azerbaijan. International Creative Scientific
Symposium “Myth, Nation, Literature”, Baku,
Azerbaijan, June 2006
9

11. Fessenden, Reginald. The Deluged Civilizations of

the Caucasian Isthmus. (1923).
http://www.radiocom.net/Deluge/Deluge1-6.htm
12. Gallagher. and Blair, B. Secrets of the Maiden
Tower: What they Reveal about Early Man’s
Beliefs’. Azerbaijan International. Autumn 2006 .
http://azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/ai143_fol
der/143_articles/143_mt_secrets.html
13. Gambutas, Marija – Wikipedia. Kurgan Hypothesis.
http://www.search.com/reference/Kurgan_hypothesis
14. Geyushev Rashid. ‘The Archaeology of Azerbaijan, -
A Brief Discourse.’ (1999).
15. Herodotus. ‘The Histories’. Oxford World’s Classics.
Waterfield, Robin (translator)
16. Islamov, A. ‘The Maiden Tower in Baku, Mysteries
of the Ancient Temple”. ( 2007).
17. Johnson, Debbie. ‘The Nature of Reality and Divine
Principles: An Alternative Interpretation of Egypt.’
18. Keane, A.H. ‘Man Past and Present’. Cambridge
University Press. (1919)
19. Kushnareva, K. The Southern Caucasus in Prehistory.
University of Pennsylvania. (1997).
20. Mamedov, AV, 1997, The late Pleistocene–Holocene
history of the Caspian Sea:
Quaternary International, v. 41–42, p. 161–166.
21. Marsadolov, Leonid ‘Mt Ocharovatelnaia and Mt
Siniaia in Altai: Legends and Reality.
http://www.folklore.ee/folklore/vol31/marsadolov.pdf
22. Mason, R.T. The Divine Serpent in Myth and
Legend.
http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Delphi/5789/serpen
t.htm
23. Mithen, S. ‘After the Ice – A Global Human History
20,000 – 5000 BC’. Phoenix 2003.
24. Petrie, Sir Flinders. (Ancient Egypt, Jun., 1926). ‘The
Origins of the Book of the Dead.’ Appendix 1.
25. Renfrew, Colin and Bahn, Paul ‘Archaeology,
Theories Methods and Practice’.
26. Rohl, David. ‘A Test of Time’.
27. Rozwadowski, Andrzej. Symbols Through Time:
Interpreting the Rock Art of Central Asia. Institute of
Eastern Studies Adam Mickiewicz University
28. Strabo. ‘The Geography of Strabo’. Loeb Classical
Library, translated by H.L. Jones.
29. Tylor. Sir Edward Burnett "Primitive Culture"
(1871). Wikipedia.
30. Volk, Sylvia. The Legends of Gog and Magog.
http://www.iras.ucalgary.ca/~volk/sylvia/Myths.htm
10

Photographic Section
1. Location of Cart Rut sites in coastal Mediterranean regional sites and Azerbaijan. 3. Thor Heyerdhall visited Azerbaijan three times, seen here at one of the many boat carvings.
Note the many oarsmen (lines) twin ‘streamers’ at the top of the stern post.

2. Kuma-Manych corridor – a possible navigational highway during meltwater outflow. 4. Greenland Ice Core Temperature during Holocene period.
12

5. Extensive raised beach between Sumqayat and Besh Barmak. 7. Qobu raised beach, elevation 143m above msl and may date to the Pleistocene period.

6. Gobustan Wave cut Terraces 8. Qobu. Water collecting channel and cistern. Possibly Paleolithic.
13

Mound

Large
Rectangular
blocks -

Cave

9. Qobu damaged stone with large bowl carving. One of several that appear to have been 11 Dubendi Cave site with sea damaged ruined structure and man made mound and rock
deliberately destroyed. shelter.

10. Dubendi. Raised terrace at around zero m relative to mean sea level 12. Dubendi petroglyphs. Seven human images with raised arms and two bulls. Upraised
. arms gesture seems to be linked to bulls
14

13 Gobustan Petroglyphs. Human images with raised arms and bulls. 15. Besh Barmak tidelines at plus 130 m relative to mean sea level. Several tidelines apparent
sloping west to East.

14. Besh Barmak with nearby elevated terrace and location of burial mounds highlighted below 16. One of many burial mounds on south eastern flank of Besh Barmak.
craggy summit.
15

17 Representation of Caspian Sea at an elevation of +40 m msl showing Kuma-Manych 19. Pioneer 10 placard depicting earthlings and the location of planet earth and origin of the
connection and outflow to the Sea of Azov. space probe.

18.

18. Outflow from the Caspian Sea leading to the possible formation of long shore spits on the 20. Hunter Scene at Gobustan. Note the multi oared ‘sun boat’, zigzag lines above and behind
northern shore of the Sea of Azov. the hunter and curious lines at the waist of the central figure.
16

21. Petroglyph of prehistoric vessel with image of person with upraised arms. Wadi Barramiya – 23. Badarian Pottery showing a figure (Female?) with Upraised arms. Circa 4000 BCE.
Egypt. Dated ca 4000 BC, after Wilkinson 2003. Note the twin streamers at the stern post. Upraised arms may be a sort of salute or gesture implying identity.

22. Wadi Hammamat - Boat with Star above the prow – ca. 4.000 BCE, after Wilkinson, 2003. 24. Slate carving depicting the King of Upper Egypt represented by a bull overthrowing an
enemy. Both bull and upraised arm imagery may be linked.
17

25. Gobustan figures with hooked sticks. The function of the hooked stick is unknown but 27. Throwing stick (boomerang) used by predynastic Egyptian hunters
appears to be culturally important.

26. Predynastic hieroglyphic and pottery images of hooked stick implement 28. Example of a throwing stick from the Badarian culture grave. (British Museum).
18

29. Highlighted wavy lines behind hunter petroglyph at Gobustan. These are considered to 31. Fish like rock formation. Mt. Ocharovatelnaia in Kazakhstan
represent water. Possible throwing sticks at waist.

30. Montage of swollen Caspian Sea with its outlet at the Kuma Manych depression. 32. Turtle Rock Head with Abbas Islamov sitting in ‘mouth’ to show scale. Features enhanced
by carving
19

33. Turtle Rock. A carved stone through tot represent the head of a turtle shaped zoomorph. 35. Whale Rock head from rear. Zoomorph overlooks an ancient settlement. Burial mounds
Located near to an ancient settlement with rock carvings and a stone circle.. noted with possible pre-Islamic tombstones

34. Whale Rock near village of Rangebar to the South of Baku. Upended limestone layer carved 36.Camel Rock. There is some evidence here to suggest that this natural rock formation has
to enhance animal like features. been carved at the neck and eye to enhance animal like features. Graves noted nearby.
20

37. Bosdag. (or Grey Hill). This is a remarkable site with many ancient features and carvings 39. Satellite Image of snake like or tail image at the rear of Besh Barmak. Blue mark is a
including a stepping stone cistern, cup marked boulders, kurgans and stone circle. seasonal pond and line is a track way. The length of the carving is 1000 m.

38. Besh Barmak View from the North. Rocky crag ( head) and recumbent appearance is evident 40. Snake like excavation at rear of Besh Barmak. The excavation seems to serve no obvious
when viewed from the South, East and North. Pilgrims climb to the summit for blessings. purpose and may be ornamental. Possible religious significance.
21

41. Human image with upraised arms overlooking Besh Barmak. The image is around 200m across 43. Dr Idris Aliyev standing on top of a burial mound (kurgan) near carving of the human
and can be seen from a great distance. figure with upraised arms. The kurgan is one of many in a rich ritual landscape.

42. Human Image close up. Surface vegetation removed to reveal features. 44. Intricately carved stone on Besh Barmak which may have astronomical significance.
22
Appendix 1.
24

THE ORIGINS OF THE BOOK OF THE DEAD.

To understand the mythologic literature of Egypt it is needful to have regard to the many sources of
population, each of which has in turn probably added to the heterogeneous mass of myths that is seen in
the historic times, One great group of myths, known the Pyramid Texts, is particularly the royal religion,
identified with the line of kings in the Vth dynasty, and knows nothing of the geography of the Book of the
Dead; as it contains much of remote savagery in its composition, it has clearly been brought in with
ancient tribal traditions. On the other hand, the Book of the Dead is the popular mythology, cherished by
the majority down to the end of paganism, yet containing much that is very primitive embedded in its
structure. Until we obtain a firm outline of the various tribal movements and invasions of prehistoric times,
we cannot hope to analyze the confusion of the mythology. There is good hope that, by advancing the
study of the varied civilizations side by side with that of the mythology, each may serve to elucidate the
other.

The discovery of the Badarian civilization has greatly changed our ideas of the early history. We are in the
presence of an advanced culture, apparently imported, and decaying in Egypt. There is the probability
that it came from Asia and connections point to the Caucasus region. This is a very old idea, as
Herodotus comments on the traditional connection of the Colchians with Egyptians, and states that in his
time they were still alike in customs, way of living, and language. Now, in the Book of the Dead, as Prof.
Fessenden has pointed out, a most striking peculiarity is the frequent mention of lakes of fire, not as
places of horror, but in the midst of the paradise of cultivation, yet also and high mountains. Such
incongruous conditions are not often to be found; they cannot have been suggested by Egypt itself, but
certainly belong to some distant region, and the nearest country with such features is the Caucasus, with
its oil springs in the midst of the most fertile valley surrounded by barren mountains.

The suggestion that the Book of the Dead embodied traditions of the Caucasus region has been noted
already in this journal (1924, p. 124). Such a possibility is so important, that it is worth close examination
to see whether the evidence is systematic, or is only an accidental resemblance. There are some
geographical indications to be gathered in these traditions, places being described as east or west, north
or south, up or down stream. So long as the whole descriptions are referred to mere imaginations of a
spiritual world, the details have been neglected. But if the possibility of a tradition being based on real
localities is considered, then the descriptions should be carefully observed. During the present
misfortunes in the region of the Caucasus, it is impossible to examine the early civilizations there; all that
can be done is to take the evidence of names, so as to prepare the way for testing the conclusions on the
actual ground at some future time.

The suitability of such a region for civilization is attested by Strabo (XI, iv, 3); he describes Albania, the
lower part of the valley of the Kur, as producing " every kind of fruit, even the most delicate, and every
kind of plant and evergreen; . . . all that is excellent grows without sowing, and without plowing……In
many places the ground, which has been sowed once, produces two or three crops, the first of which is
even fifty-fold, and that without a fallow . . . The whole plain is better watered than Babylon or Egypt, by
rivers and streams, so that it always presents the appearance of heritage. The young trees bear fruit even
in the second year, but the full groove yield so much that a large quantity of it is left on the branches. The
cattle both tame and wild thrive well in this country. The men are distinguished for beauty of person and
for size." In modern times Maurier, in his guide Guide au Caucase (1894), mentions maize as the main
crop, growing seven to ten feet high, and bearing eight hundred-fold. Flax has been an immemorial crop
in Mingrelia. These descriptions accord with the fertile Egyptian paradise, with flowing streams and
growing corn seven cubits high. The temperature in the winter is that of the south of England in the
summer it is like that of northern Lombardy.

In looking at the Egyptian traditions, the natural condition of a people who have emigrated must be taken
into account. The Norse entering Britain planted the names of their gods in many places; they adopted
these places the new homes of their mythology. In modern times, emigrants use names from their old
country in new conditions. In the United States there are two or three dozen of each of the names of our
principal cities. The spoken form of a name may be commoner than the real form. There are seven
Sandfords in England, only one in America, alongside of nineteen Sanfords there. Further, when
migrating people are without writing they depend entirely on the spoken names, and when, in later time,
the names begin to be written, it is natural for them to be expressed by rebus words, which have nothing
to do with the sense, but only show the sound. An unlettered Englishman might address a letter to Livorno
by drawing a leg and a horn. It is obvious that the Egyptian form of writing an imported name may appear
quite Egyptian in its dress, and yet be a verbal representation of its original sound.

In order to test the possible connection of Egyptians with the Caucasus, all the geographical terms of
direction associated with place-names must be noted; the names must then be searched for in the
Caucuses in the same relative connection, as this greatly limits the range, and so gives further likelihood
25

to such similarities of name as may pass this test. The results of this comparison stated on the
accompanying map; the names in capitals are those in the Book of the Dead, those in small type are the
classical forms in Ptolemy's Geography, those in italics are the modern names.

One of the most important names is that of the kingdom of Osiris (ch. xviii, cxxvii) or Un-Nefer (ch. xv),
called AKRET or IKRET. This is closely like the Greek name of a region in the upper part of the main
river, Ekretike, the modern Kartlia; [see note below].

The “Pillars of Shu" were prominent hills over which the sun rose (ch. cix of Nu), therefore somewhere
east of the kingdom of AKRET. The gate ZESERT (=TOSORT, Gr) is the gate of the pillars of Shu (ch.
xvii), and therefore also east of AKRET; in that relation we se the district of Tosarene.

Near ZESERT lay the most fertile plain of the fields of AĂRU or IĂRU, and thus near Tosarene is the river
lora through the midst of Transcaucasia. This river has others on either side of it which receive the
mountain torrents, while it only drains a fertile plain free of violent changes, In a Trip through the Eastern
Caucasus, 1889, the Hon. John (later Lord) Abercromby describes the level cultivated plains traversed by
tile Iora; again, a splendid open grassy space, with abundance of wood and water at an elevation (of
3,600 feet above the sea, with the Iora, and beyond it more wooded hills. The blessed Fields of the Iaru
yet had a lake of fire in them, and on the Iora is a great naphtha spring, marked ‘N’ on this map.

The fields of Iaru are described as behind, or at the back of the head of KĂRU (ch. xvii), and the waters of
the Iora start from the mountain at the head of the Kur river. The description rather suggests looking at
this region from the Colchis side.

From AKRET the Egyptian sailed down the river (ch. xv) to DADU or TATTU; so, descending from
Ekretike, the region of Tot, Totene, is reached, half-way to the river mouth.

Further on, it is said, the eastern gate of heaven had on its south the lake of KHALUSA (NU, ch. cix); so
at the eastern end of the valley, on the south side, was Kholuata, now lake Chalasi.
26

We read that that RESTAU is the DUAT region (ch. xvii) - they are identical. The DUAT had its north gate
at ZESERT, Tosarene, and so lay south of that, and in the south-east is Resht, agreeing to the name of
RESTAU.

To the north of the fields of IARU was the river REU (ch. cxlix) ; and at the north of the Caucasus is the
great river Rha, the Volga.

BAKHAU is often named; it was a great mountain upon which heaven rested, 9½ by 6½ miles in size,
which seems like a real estimate. It was the "Mount Bakhau of the rising sun " (ch. clxxii, Nebseni): the
name seems connected with beka, “the dawn”." Baku at the eastern end of the Caucasus range agrees
with this position.

At the other end of the day was the land of sunset, TAMANU (ch. xv, D.6,12; E. 15). The western end of
the Caucasus range is the Taman peninsula.

So far, we are dealing with places whose position is stated in relation to each other, and which therefore
support each other in identification. Other places may less certainly be identified, by the names in a
suitable position, but not directly connected one with another.

Homage is paid to the divinity of the stars in AUN or 0N, which lay to the west (ch. lxxxv), and the god
Annu in ANDES (ch. xv). The stars of the gods are specially the undying ones in the north, and looking
north from Ekretike there is the city Oni, and the mountains of Andish. The “divine door of the city of BTA"
may possibly be the city of Ptua near Totene.

ANRUDEE, "it does not increases'' the barren region, had DUAT and RESTAU to the south of it (ch. xvii).
It seems likely that it was the Caucasus mountain range.

There was a lake of fire in that region near the SHENY dwelling (ch. xvii); at the foot of the mountains in
Sanua.

Not far from this is Mosega, and this might be MESQTO, which was a place of purification, probably by
fire (ch. cxxii, clxxvi).
ASTES is reached after ANRUDEF (ch. cxlvi), probably the same as ASSET, which is said to be too
remote to be seen (ch. cxlix). Both descriptions would agree to the northern place Ashti.

DESDES was the lake over which the sun set (ch. XV)) and repeatedly it is claimed that this lake is at
peace. 'The name is literally “the choppy”; from the position, it would refer to the Black Sea, and the
prevalent west wind would make it rough on the eastern coast.

MAOATI was a lake, of which the heads, or sources, were known (ch. xvii). It is singularly like the name of
the lake of Maiotis, or Sea of Azov.

The FENKU were a people who gave gifts, which were buried on the shore of the lake MAOATI (ch.
cxxv), and they were therefore in its region. This suggests a possible link with Phanagoria at the mouth of
Maiotis.

In chapter cx there are three lakes drawn, named URMU, QETQETMU, and HETEPMU, or the “great”,
the “moving” and the “peaceful" lakes. The name URMU may be linked with Urmia, the large lake south of
the Caucasus; if so, the moving and quiet lakes might be lakes Van and Sevan.

This list accounts for most of the important names of places in the mythology of the Book of the Dead.
Names, however, are very risky material on which to base conclusions; no doubt almost any name may
have one or more parallels somewhere in the world, yet here we are dealing with a single region, and the
names fall into place in accord with the indications of direction one from another. It seems very
improbable that in so limited a field, already indicated by the physical description, more than a dozen
names should so closely correspond, without having a real connection.

If this localisation should be accepted, it will have much influence on our understanding of the early
religion. We may begin to analyse the Book of the Dead into the Caucasian and Nilotic sections. Osiris,
repeatedly named as ruler of Akret, will thus be linked to the earliest stratum, and be of northern origin.
Byblos may then have been an Osiris sanctuary during the migration through Syria. The strange mention
of Sebek at Bakhau looks like some transference of Egyptian ideas. Possibly, the Zeus named by Strabo
was Zeus Sabasios of Asia Minor, and so the name Sabas might have been transformed to Sebek on
going to Egypt.
27

The mediaeval history of the kingdom of Akret or Ekretike may be here noted, from Telfer’s Crimea and
Transcaucasia (1876). The position of Ekretike is that of the modern Imeritia, which kingdom was formerly
called Egris (ii, 30). from Egros, son of Thargamos (Togarmah). This Egros seems to be equivalent in
another dialect to Karthlos, son of Thargamos (i, 172). From him is named Mount Karthlos and the rivulet
Karthly (i, 162, 172). Evidently this district was the great kingdom of the country (see i, 176; ii, 33), with a
long tradition of its early importance, which we can now perceive far back in the beginnings of civilisation.

In looking at a remote origin for the popular mythology of Egypt, we must remember the persistence of
folk-tales and their long antiquity. They are cherished as religious literature even when of secular origin,
such as the Tibetan sacred books, which are the racy and vivid stories of north Indian life during the
Asoka period. When only transmitted by word of mouths they can survive for thousands of years, like the
Eskimo tales which are verbally the same on the Atlantic and Alaska, though the people rarely know
anything more than a day's journey from their own centre. The maintenance of a detailed record of history
goes back for many centuries in the African kingdoms, and the Polynesians (in spite of being so
scattered) have kept in memory their migrations and colonising of New Zealand. There is, therefore, no
improbability in place-names which have been embodied in mythology being preserved for very long
periods.

It appears, then, that the cultural connections of the earliest Egyptians, as well as the physical
descriptions in their mythology, point to the Caucasus region. When, further, we find there the names of
the principal places of the mythology in their relative positions, it gives strong grounds for regarding that
region as the homeland of the earliest civilisation of the Egyptians.

FLINDERS PETRIE.

‘Ancient Egypt’, June 1926.