The Simple Structure of Our Universe-PHYSICS

PHY2061 R. D.
Field
The Simple Structure of our Universe

Elementary Particle: Indivisible piece of matter without internal
structure and without detectable size or shape .
.
Mass and chage located
inside sphere of radius zero!
• Four Forces:
• Gravity (Solar Systems, Galaxies, Curved Space-Time , Black Holes)
• Electromagnetism (Atoms & Molecules, Chemical Reactions)
• Weak (Neutron Decay, Beta Radioactivity)
• Strong (Atomic Nuclei, Fission & Fusion)
• Two Classes of Elementary

Particles:
• Leptons: Do not interact
with the strong force (but
may interact with weak, EM
and gravity).
• Quarks: Do interact with the
strong force (may also
interact with weak, EM and
gravity).
• Quarks and Leptons have very different properties:

1. Weak and EM forces much weaker that strong force.
2. Quarks have fractional electric charge.
3. Quarks are found only as constituents of composite particles
called hadrons (baryons have B not 0, mesons have B = 0).
Leptons exist as free particles. Baryon
Number
• Gauge Particles are the carriers (or mediators) of the forces:

• Electromagnetism – Photon γ (massless)
• Weak – Weak Vector Bosons W+, W-, Z (massive)
• Gravity – Graviton
• Strong – 8 Gluons (massless)
Department of Physics quark_1.doc University of Florida

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Labeling the Particles – Quantum Numbers

Elementary particles and hadrons are labeled by their quantum numbers.
These labels characterize the properties of the particles.
Symbol Name Additive

M Mass
J Spin Angular Momentum
C Charge Conjugation
P Parity
G G-Parity
B Baryon Number Yes
Qem Electric Charge Q = Y/2 + Iz Q = Qweak + QU1 Yes
QU1 U1 Charge Yes
Qweak Weak Charge Yes
Qcolor Strong Charge
Y Hypercharge Y = B + S + Ch + Bo + To Yes
S Strangness Yes
Ch Charmness Yes
Bo Bottomness Yes
To Topness Yes
I Isospin Yes
Iz 3rd component of Isospin Yes
Le Electron Lepton Number Yes
Lµ Muon Lepton Number Yes
Lτ Tau Lepton Number Yes
L Overall Lepton Number L = Le +Lµ +Lτ Yes
Not all particles carry every label. The particles are only labeled by the
quantum numbers that are conserved for that particle.
• Particles with integral spin J (J = 0, 1, 2, …) are called bosons.

• Particles with half-integral spin J (J = ½, 3/2, …) are called fermions.
• Particles with spin-parity JP = 0+ are refered to a scalars, 0- are
pseudo-scalars, 1- are vectors, 1+ are pseudo-vectors, 2+ are tensors,
etc.
• Hadrons are labeled by IGJPC.

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Leptons & Anti-Leptons

(J = ½ fermions, B = 0, Ch = 0, Bo = 0, To = 0)
Generation Qem = Qweak + QU1
Lepton Mass Qem Le Lµ Lµ QU1 Qweak

MeV
νe 1st ~0 0 1 0 0 -1/2 +1/2
e- 1st 0.5 -1 1 0 0 -1/2 -1/2

νµ 2nd ~0 0 0 1 0 -1/2 +1/2
µ- 2nd 106 -1 0 1 0 -1/2 -1/2

ντ 3rd ~0 0 0 0 1 -1/2 +1/2
rd
τ- 3 1777 -1 0 0 1 -1/2 -1/2
Generation Qem measured in units of the electron charge e
Anti- Mass Qem Le Lµ Lµ QU1 Qweak

Lepton MeV
e+ 1st 0.5 +1 -1 0 0 +1/2 +1/2

1st ~0 0 -1 0 0 +1/2 -1/2
ve
µ+ 2nd 106 +1 0 -1 0 +1/2 +1/2
vµ 2nd ~0 0 0 -1 0 +1/2 -1/2
τ+ 3rd 1777 +1 0 0 -1 +1/2 +1/2

3rd ~0 0 0 0 -1 +1/2 -1/2
vτ
SU(2) Weak Lepton Doublets:

ν  ν  ν 
L1 =  −e  L 2 =  µ−  L 3 =  τ− 
e  µ  τ 
SU(2) Weak Anti-Lepton Doublets:

 e+  µ+  τ + 
L1 =   L 2 =   L3 =  
ν 
ν e   µ ν τ 

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Quarks & Anti-Quarks

µ = 0, Lττ = 0)
(J = ½+ fermions, Le = 0, Lµ
Generation Qem = Qweak + QU1
Quarks Mass B Qem Y I Iz S Ch Bo To QU1 Qweak Qcolor

MeV
u, u, u 1st 5 1/3 2/3 1/3 1/2 1/2 0 0 0 0 +1/6 +1/2 R, B, G
d, d, d 1st 10 1/3 -1/3 1/3 1/2 -1/2 0 0 0 0 +1/6 -1/2 R, B, G
c, c, c 2nd 1,500 1/3 2/3 4/3 0 0 0 1 0 0 +1/6 +1/2 R, B, G
s, s, s 2nd 200 1/3 -1/3 -2/3 0 0 -1 0 0 0 +1/6 -1/2 R, B, G
t, t, t 3rd 175,000 1/3 2/3 4/3 0 0 0 0 0 1 +1/6 +1/2 R, B, G
b, b, b 3rd 4,700 1/3 -1/3 -2/3 0 0 0 0 -1 0 +1/6 -1/2 R, B, G
Anti- Mass B Qem Y I Iz S Ch Bo To QU1 Qw Qcolor

Quarks MeV
dbar, dbar, 1st 10 -1/3 1/3 -1/3 1/2 1/2 0 0 0 0 -1/6 +1/2 Rbar, Bbar,
dbar Gbar
ubar, ubar, 1st 5 -1/3 -2/3 -1/3 1/2 -1/2 0 0 0 0 -1/6 -1/2 Rbar, Bbar,
ubar Gbar
sbar, sbar, 2nd 200 -1/3 1/3 2/3 0 0 1 0 0 0 -1/6 +1/2 Rbar, Bbar,
sbar Gbar
cbar, cbar, 2nd 150 -1/3 -2/3 -4/3 0 0 0 -1 0 0 -1/6 -1/2 Rbar, Bbar,
cbar Gbar
bbar, bbar, 3rd 4,700 -1/3 1/3 2/3 0 0 0 0 1 0 -1/6 +1/2 Rbar, Bbar,
bbar Gbar
tbar, tbar, 3rd 175,000 -1/3 -2/3 -4/3 0 0 0 0 0 -1 -1/6 -1/2 Rbar, Bbar,
tbar Gbar
SU(2) Weak Quark and Anti-Quark Doublets:

 u R ,B ,G   cR ,B ,G   t R ,B ,G 
=   Q 2 =   Q 3 =  
R , B ,G R , B ,G R , B ,G
Q1 
′
 d R ,B ,G  ′
 s R ,B ,G   bR′ ,B ,G 
 d R′ ,B ,G   sR′ ,B ,G   b′ R , B ,G 
=   Q2 =   Q3 =  
R , B ,G R , B ,G R , B ,G
Q1  
 u R ,B ,G   cR ,B ,G   t R ,B ,G 

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Vector Bosons
(J = 1-, B = 0, Ch = 0, Bo = 0, To = 0, Le = 0, Lµ = 0, Lτ = 0)
Qem = Qweak + QU1
Boson Name Mass Qem QU1 Qweak Qcolor

GeV
γ Photon 0 0 0 0 none
W+ W-Boson 81 +1 0 +1 none
W- W-Boson 81 -1 0 -1 none
Z W-Boson 92 0 0 0 none
G1 Gluon 0 0 0 0 RBbar
G2 Gluon 0 0 0 0 RGbar
G3 Gluon 0 0 0 0 BRbar
G4 Gluon 0 0 0 0 BGbar
G5 Gluon 0 0 0 0 GRbar
G6 Gluon 0 0 0 0 GBbar
G7 Gluon 0 0 0 0 RRbar
BBbar
GGbar
G8 Gluon 0 0 0 0 RRbar
BBbar
GGbar

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Hadrons – PseudoScalar Meson Nonet

(JP = 0- bosons, B = 0, Ch = 0, Bo = 0, To = 0)
Y = B + S +Ch +Bo + To Qem = Y/2 + Iz
Symbol Name Mass Qem Net I Iz Y S Qcolor
MeV Quarks
π+ pion 140 +1 udbar 1 +1 0 0 singlet
π0 pion 135 0 uubar, 1 0 0 0 singlet

ddbar
π- pion 140 -1 dubar 1 -1 0 0 singlet
K+ kaon 494 +1 usbar ½ +1/2 +1 +1 singlet
K0 kaon 478 0 dsbar ½ -1/2 +1 +1 singlet
K0bar kaon 478 0 sdbar ½ +1/2 -1 -1 singlet
K- kaon 494 -1 subar ½ -1/2 -1 -1 singlet

η eta 549 0 uubar, 0 0 0 0 singlet
ddbar,
ssbar
η’ eta-prime 958 0 uubar, 0 0 0 0 singlet
ddbar,
ssbar
Y
3 d u
Iz 3x3=8+1
SU(3)flavor Triplet
s
Y Y
8 K0 1
K+
π- η π0 π+ Iz η’ Iz
K- K0bar
SU(3)flavor Octet SU(3)flavor Singlet

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Hadrons – ½+ Baryon Octet

(JP = ½+ fermions, B = 1, Ch = 0, Bo = 0, To = 0)
Symbol Name Mass Qem/e Net I Iz Y S Qcolor

MeV Quarks
Σ+ Sigma 1189 +1 uus 1 +1 0 -1 singlet
Σ0 Sigma 1193 0 uds 1 0 0 -1 singlet
Σ- Sigma 1189 -1 dds 1 -1 0 -1 singlet

p Proton 938 +1 uud ½ +1/2 +1 0 singlet
n Neutron 940 0 udd ½ -1/2 +1 0 singlet
Ξ0 Cascade 1315 0 ssu ½ +1/2 -1 -2 singlet
Ξ- Cascade 1321 -1 ssd ½ -1/2 -1 -2 singlet

Λ Lambda 1116 0 uds 0 0 0 -1 singlet
Y = B + S +Ch +Bo + To Qem = Y/2 + Iz
Y
8 n p
Σ- Λ Σ0 Σ+ Iz
Ξ- Ξ
0
SU(3)flavor Octet
3 x 3 x 3 = 10 + 8 + 8 + 1

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Electrostatic Force and Electric Charge
Electrostatic Force (charges at rest):

• Electrostatic force can be attractive
• Electrostatic force can be repulsive q1 q2
• Electrostatic force acts through empty
space r
• Electrostatic force much stronger than
gravity
• Electrostatic forces are inverse square law forces (proportional to
1/r2)
• Electrostatic force is proportional to the product of the amount of
charge on each interacting object
Magnitude of the Electrostatic Force is given by Coulomb's

Law:
F = K q1q2/r2 (Coulomb's Law)
where K depends on the system of units
K = 8.99x109 Nm2/C2 (in MKS system)

πε0) where ε0 = 8.85x10-12 C2/(Nm2)
K = 1/(4πε
Electric Charge:
electron charge = -e e = 1.6x10-19 C
proton charge = e C = Coulomb
Electric charge is a conserved quantity (net electric charge is never

created or destroyed!).
Department of Physics chp27_1.doc University of Florida

PHY2061 R. D. Field
We will use the

MKS system!
Units
MKS System (meters-kilograms-seconds):
also Amperes, Volts, Ohms, Watts
Force: F = ma Newtons = kg m / s2 = 1 N
Work: W = Fd Joule = Nm = kg m2 / s2 = 1 J
Electric Charge: Q Coulomb = 1 C
F = K q1q2/r2 K = 8.99x109 Nm2/C2 (in MKS system)
CGS System (centimeter-grams-seconds):

Force: F = ma 1 dyne = g cm / s2
Work: W = Fd 1 erg = dyne-cm = g cm2 / s2
Electric Charge: Q esu (electrostatic unit)
F = q1q2/r2 K = 1 (in CGS system)
Conversions (MKS - CGS):

Force: 1 N = 105 dynes
Work: 1 J = 107 ergs
Electric Charge: 1 C = 2.99x109 esu
Fine Structure Constant (dimensionless):
α = K 2π
πe2/hc (same in all systems of units)
h = Plank's Constant c = speed of light in vacuum

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Electrostatic Force versus Gravity
Electrostatic Force :
Fe = K q1q2/r2 (Coulomb's Law)

K = 8.99x109 Nm2/C2 (in MKS system)
Gravitational Force :
Fg = G m1m2/r2 (Newton's Law)

G = 6.67x10-11 Nm2/kg2 (in MKS system)
Ratio of forces for two electrons :
e = 1.6x10-19 C m = 9.11x10-31 kg
e, m e, m
Fe / Fg = K e2 / G m2 = 4.16x1042 (Huge number !!!)

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Vector Forces
^
r
Q q
The Electrostatic Force is a vector:

The force on q due to Q points along the radial direction and is
given by
! KqQ
F = 2 r"
r
Vector Form of
Coulombs Law
F3 q1
F2
q2
Q
F1
q3
Vector Superposition of Electric Forces:
If several point charges q1, q2, q3, … simultaneously exert electric
forces on a charge Q then
F = F1 + F2 +F3 + …

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Vectors & Vector Addition
The Components of a vector:
y-axis
A
Ay =A sin θ
θ
Ax =A cos θ x-axis
Vector Addition:
y-axis
C B
A
x-axis
To add vectors you add the components of the vectors as follows:

!
A = Ax x" + Ay y" + Az z"
!
B = Bx x" + By y" + Bz z"
! ! !
C = A + B = ( Ax + Bx ) x" + ( Ay + By ) y" + ( Az + Bz )z"
Vector Addition

PHY2061 R. D. Field
The Electric Dipole

+Q -Q
d
An electric "dipole" is two equal and opposite point charges
separated by a distance d. It is an electrically neutral system.
The "dipole moment" is defined to be the charge times the
separation (dipole moment = Qd).
Example Problem:
+Q
d
x q
-Q
A dipole with charge Q and separation d is located on the y-axis with its
midpoint at the origin. A charge q is on the x-axis a distance x from the
midpoint of the dipole. What is the electric force on q due to the dipole and
how does this force behave in the limit x >>d (dipole approximation)?
Example Problem:
-Q d +Q
A dipole with charge Q and separation d is located on the x-axis with its
midpoint at the origin. A charge q is on the x-axis a distance x from the
midpoint of the dipole. What is the electric force on q due to the dipole and
how does this force behave in the limit x >>d (dipole approximation)?

PHY2061 R. D. Field
The Electric Field
+Q q
The charge Q produces an electric field which in turn produces

a force on the charge q. The force on q is expressed as two
terms:
F = K qQ/r2 = q (KQ/r2) = q E
The electric field at the point q due to Q is simply the force per
unit positive charge at the point q:
E = F/q E = KQ/r2
The units of E are Newtons per Coulomb (units = N/C).
The electric field is a physical object which can carry both

momentum and energy. It is the mediator (or carrier) of the
electric force. The electric field is massless.
Electric Field of a
The Electric Field is a Vector Field: Point Charge
! KQ
E = 2 r"
r

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Electric Field Lines
+Q -Q
Electric field line diverge from (i.e. start) on positive charge

and end on negative charge. The direction of the line is the
direction of the electric field.
The number of lines penetrating a unit area that is

perpendicular to the line represents the strength of the electric
field.
+2Q
+Q

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Electric Field due to a Distribution of Charge
dQ dE = K dQ/r2 r
The electric field from a continuous distribution of charge is

the superposition (i.e. integral) of all the (infinite) contributions
from each infinitesimal dQ as follows:
! K
E = ∫ "
2 rdQ and
Q = ∫ dQ
r
Charge Distributions:
• Linear charge density λ: λ(x)
λ( ) = charge/unit length
L
dQ = λ dx
For a straight line dQ = λ(x)

λ( ) dx and
Q = ∫ dQ = ∫ λ ( x)dx
If λ(x) = λ is constant then dQ = λ dx and Q = λL,
where L is the length.

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Charge Distributions
Charge Distributions:
• Linear charge density λ: λ(θ) = charge/unit arc length
dQ = λ ds = λ R dθ
R
For a circular arc dQ = λ(θ) ds = λ(θ) Rdθ

θ and
Q = ∫ dQ = ∫ λ (θ ) ds = ∫ λ (θ ) Rdθ
If λ(θ
θ) = λ is constant then dQ = λ ds and Q = λs, where s is the
arc length.
• Surface charge density σ: σ(x,y)
σ( ) = charge/unit area
dQ = σ dA
For a surface dQ = σ(x,y)

σ( ) dA and
Q = ∫ dQ = ∫ σ ( x, y)dA
If σ(x,y) = σ is constant then dQ = σ dA and Q = σA, where
A is the area.
• Volume charge density ρ: ρ(x,y,z)
ρ( ) = charge/unit volume
dQ = ρ dV
For a surface dQ = ρ(x,y,z)

ρ( ) dV and
Q = ∫ dQ = ∫ ρ( x, y, z)dV
If ρ(x,y,z) = ρ is constant then dQ = ρ dV and Q = ρV, where V
is the volume.

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Calculating the Electric Field

Example:
P
L
x
A total amount of charge Q is uniformily distributed along a thin straight
rod of length L. What is the electric field at a point P on the x-axis a
distance x from the end of the rod?
! KQ
E= x"
Answer: x ( x + L)
Example:
P
A total amount of charge Q is uniformily
distributed along a thin straight rod of
y
length L. What is the electric field at a
point P on the y-axis a distance y from the
midpoint of the rod?
L
! KQ
Answer: E= y"
y y 2 + ( L / 2) 2
Example:
P
A infinitely long straight rod has a
uniform charge density λ. What is the
r
electric field at a point P a perpendicular
distance r from the rod? λ
! 2 Kλ
Answer: E= r"
r

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Some Useful Math
Series Expansions:
2 3
x x x
e x = 1 + + + + ....
1! 2! 3!
x3 x5 x7
sin x = x − + − + ....
3! 5! 7!
x2 x4 x6
cos x = 1 − + − + ....
2! 4! 6!
Approximations:
(1 ± ε )p ε ≈<<11 ± pε eε ≈ 1 + ε
ε <<1
sin ε ≈ ε tan ε ≈ ε
ε <<1 ε <<1
Indefinite Integrals:
a2 x
∫ ( x 2 + a 2 ) 3 / 2 dx = x2 + a2
x −1
∫ ( x 2 + a 2 ) 3 / 2 dx = x2 + a2

PHY2061 R. D. Field

Example:
distributed along a thin semicircle of
radius R. What is the electric field at a
R
point P at the center of the circle? P
! 2 KQ x-axis
Answer: E= x"
πR 2
Example:
A total amount of charge Q is
uniformily distributed along a
thin ring of radius R. What is
the electric field at a point P R
on the z-axis a distance z from P z-axis
the center of the ring?
z
! KQz
Answer: E = z"
(z 2 + R 2 )3/2
Example:
uniformily distributed on the
surface of a disk of radius R.
What is the electric field at a R
point P on the z-axis a P z-axis
distance z from the center of
the disk? z
! 2 KQ  z 
Answer: E = 2 1 − 2  z"
R  z + R2 

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Example:
What is the electric field generated by a
large (infinite) sheet carrying a uniform
P
surface charge density of σ coulombs per
meter? z
! σ
E= z"
Answer: 2ε 0
σ
Example:
-σ
What is the electric field at a point P
between two large (infinite) sheets
carrying an equal but opposite uniform
surface charge density of σ?
! σ P
E = z"
Answer: ε0
σ

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Flux of a Vector Field

Fluid Flow:
^
n ^
n
^
n θ
Flux = vA Flux = 0 Flux = vA cosθ
!
Consider the fluid with a vector v which describes the velocity of the fluid
at every point in space and a square with area A = L2 and normal n" . The
flux is the volume of fluid passing through the square area per unit
time.
Generalize to the Electric Field:

Electric flux through the infinitesimal area E
dA is equal to
! ! dA
d Φ = E ⋅ dA θ ^n
where
! dΦ =E dA cosθ
dA = An"
Total Electric Flux through a Closed Surface:
E
! !
normal Φ E = ∫ E ⋅ dA
Surface S
S
Electric Flux
Surface Integral!

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Electric Flux and Gauss' Law

The electric flux through any closed surface is
proportional to the net charge enclosed. Gauss’ Law
! ! Qenclosed
Closed
Surface S
normal
∫S E ⋅ dA = ε0
For the discrete case the total charge enclosed is the sum over all
the enclosed charges:
N
Q enclosed = ∑q
i =1
i
For the continuous case the total charge enclosed is the integral of
the charge density over the volume enclosed by the surface S:
Q enclosed = ∫ ρ dV
Simple Case: If the electric field is constant over the surface and if
it always points in the same direction as the normal to the surface
then
! !
Φ E = ∫ E ⋅ dA = EA
S
The units for the electric flux are Nm2/C.

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Conductors in Static Equilibrium

Conductor: In a conductor some
electrons are free to move (without Conductor
restraint) within the volume of the

material (Examples: copper, silver, aluminum, gold)
Conductor in Static Equilibrium:

Conductor in When the charge distribution on a
static equilibrium
E=0
conductor reaches static equilibrium
V = constant (i.e. nothing moving), the net electric
field withing the conducting
material is exactly zero (and the electric potential is constant).
Excess Charge: For a conductor

Surface Charge Density
in static equilibrium all the (extra) σ
electric charge reside on the
surface. There is no net electric Conductor in
static equilibrium
charge within the volume of the
conductor (i.e. ρ = 0). E=0 E
V = constant
ρ=0
Electric Field at the Surface:
The electric field at the surface of a
conductor in static equilibrium is
normal to the surface and has a magnitude, E = σ/εε0, where σ is
the surface charge density (i.e. charge per unit area) and the net
charge on the conductor is
Q = ∫ σdA
S u r fa c e
.

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Gauss' Law Examples

Problem: A solid insulating sphere of radius
Insulating Sphere
R has charge distributed uniformly throughout its
volume. The total charge of the sphere is Q.
R
What is the magnitude of the electric field inside
and outside the sphere?
Answer: ! KQ
E out = r" Total Charge Q
r2 ρ = constant
! KQr
E in = r"
R3
Conducting Problem: A solid conducting sphere of radius R

Sphere has a net charge of Q. What is the magnitude of the
R electric field inside and outside the sphere? Where
are the charges located?
Answer: Charges are on the surface and
Net Charge Q ! KQ
E out = 2 r"
! r
E in = 0
Problem: A solid conducting sphere of

radius b has a spherical hole in it of radius a and
has a net charge of Q. If there is a point charge -
q located at the center of the hole, what is the b
a
magnitude of the electric field inside and outside
-q
the conductor? Where are the charges on the
conductor located? Net Charge Q
Answer: Charges are on the inside and on conductor
outside surface with Qin=q and Qout=Q-q and
! K (Q − q )
E r>b = r"
! r2
E a<r<b = 0
− Kq
Er<a = r"
r2

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Divergence of a Vector Function

!
Let ( x, y, z ) = Fx ( x, y, z ) xˆ + Fy ( x. y.z ) yˆ + Fz ( x, y, z ) zˆ be a vector
F
function of position. The divergence of a
vector function is the flux out of a volume, V,
per unit volume, in the limit of infinitesimal
V. It is the surface integral per unit volume
as the volume enclosed by the surface goes to
zero: Closed
Surface S
 
! ! !  1 ! ! 
div ( F ) = ∇ ⋅ F = lim  ∫ ⋅ Volume V enclosed
F d A  by surface S
V →0 V
 Surface
Closed

! ! !
Symbols: div ( F ) = g = ∇ ⋅ F Vector F(x,y,z) Divergence
Scalar g(x,y,z)
Operator
In cartesian (or retangular) coordinates:

! ∂ ∂ ∂
∇ = xˆ + yˆ + zˆ
∂x ∂y ∂z
! ! ∂Fx ∂Fy ∂Fz
Vector Operator g =∇⋅F = + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
Note:
! ! ! ! ! ! !
∇ ⋅ ( F1 + F2 ) = ∇ ⋅ F1 + ∇ ⋅ F2
! !
∇⋅r = 3
Department of Physics div_1.doc Univesity of Florida

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Divergence Theorem
The divergence theorem states that the
integral of the divergence of a vector function
over a volume, V, is equal to the flux, ΦF, of
the vector function through the closed
surface, S, that encloses the volume V: Closed
Divergence
! ! ! ! Surface S
∫ (∇ ⋅ F )dV = ∫ F ⋅ dA
Theorem
Volume V enclosed
V S by surface S
Proof (sketch):
! ! N ! ! N 1 ! ! ! !
Φ F = ∫ F ⋅ dA = ∑ ∫ F ⋅ dAi = ∑ Vi  ∫S N →∞ ∫
F ⋅ d Ai  ⇒ (∇ ⋅ F )dV
S i =1 Si i =1 Vi i
 Vi →0 V
The Laplacian Operator

!
Suppose that the vector function, F ( x, y, z ) , is the gradient of the scalar
! !
function f(x,y,z), = ∇f . Now suppose we construct a new scalar
F
! ! !
function g(x,y,z) that is the divergence of F ( x, y, z ) , g = ∇ ⋅ F . Then
g(x,y,z) is the divergence of the gradient of f(x,y,z) as follows:
! !
g = ∇ ⋅ ∇f = ∇ 2 f Scalar f(x,y,z) Laplacian
Scalar g(x,y,z)
Operator

! ∂ ∂ ∂ ! !
∇ = xˆ + yˆ + zˆ ∇ ⋅ ∇ = ∇2
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂2 ∂2 ∂2
∇ = 2+ 2+ 2
2 Laplacian
Operator
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂2 f ∂2 f ∂2 f
g =∇ f = 2 + 2 + 2
2
∂x ∂y ∂z

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Divergence of the Electric Field

Point charge Q
at the center Consider a sphere with radius R,
E volume V = 4π πR3/3, and surface area
A = 4ππR2 with a point charge Q at
the center. The electric field from
the charge is given by
Closed
! KQ
E ( r ) = 2 rˆ ,
Surface
r
Sphere of radius R and the electric flux through the
and volume V
surface of the sphere is
! ! KQ KQ KQ Q
Φ E = ∫ E ⋅ dA = ∫ 2 (rˆ ⋅ nˆ ) dA = 2 ∫ dA = 2 (4πR 2 ) = .
S S
R R S R ε0
The divergence of the electric field is given by
! !  1 ! ! Φ  1 Q ρ
∇ ⋅ E = lim  ∫ E ⋅ dA = lim  E  = lim  = .
V →0 V
 S  
V →0 V
 ε 0 V →0  V  ε 0
Volume charge density: The electric charge density is the charge per
unit volume,
 Q  dQ
ρ ( x, y , z ) = lim   = and dQ = ρdV .
  dV
V →0 V
The volume charge density is a scalar function of position and has units
of C/m3.
!
Divergence of ( x, y, z ) : The divergence of the electric field at every
E
point in space is equal to the charge density at that point (divided by ε0).
Differential form of
Gauss’ Law
! ! ρ
∇⋅ E =
ε0

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Gauss’ Law (integral form)
E The total electric flux, ΦE, through any

closed surface S is equal to the total charge
enclosed by the surface S (divided by ε0) as
follows:
Gauss’ Law
Qenclosed
Any Closed Φ E = ∫ E ⋅ dA =
Surface S
S
ε0
Proof:
! ! ! ! 1 Q
Φ E = ∫ E ⋅ dA = ∫ (∇ ⋅ E )dV = ∫ ρdV = enclosed ,
S V
ε0 V ε0
where the total enclosed charge is given by
Qenclosed = ∫ dQ = ∫ ρdV .
V V
Poisson’s Equation
The electrostatic field can be written as the gradient of the electric
potential, V(x,y,z), as follows:
! ! ! ! ρ ! ! ρ
E = −∇V and ∇ ⋅ E = ∇ ⋅ ( − ∇ V ) =
ε 0 so that ε 0 or
Poisson’s
Equation ∂ 2V ∂ 2V ∂ 2V ρ
∇V = 2 + 2 + 2 =−
2
∂x ∂y ∂z ε0 .
Laplace’s Equation
Whenever ρ = 0 , that is, in all parts of space containing no electric
charge the electric potential must satisfy, Laplace’s
∂ 2V ∂ 2V ∂ 2V
Equation
∇ V = 2 + 2 + 2 = 0.
2
∂x ∂y ∂z

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Curl of a Vector Function

n
normal
Surface S The curve C is the boundary of the surface S
which it spans. Define the circulation Γ as the
line integral around the closed curve C as follows:
! !
Γ = ∫ F ⋅ dr .
Boundry Curve C
C
Vector F(x,y,z) Curl

Vector G(x,y,z)
! ! ! ! Operator
Symbols: curl ( F ) = G = ∇ × F
Definition #1:
! !
The component of ∇ × F in the direction of the unit vector n̂ is the limit
of the circulation Γ per unit area, as the enclosed area goes to zero.
! !  Γ  1 ! !
(∇ × F ) ⋅ nˆ = lim  = lim ∫ F ⋅ dr 
  A → 0 A C
A→0 A

Definition #2:
!
The curl of the vector function F is the limit of the ratio of the integral
of its cross product with the outward normal n̂ , over a closed surface S,
to the volume enclosed by the surface as the volume goes to zero.
! ! 1 ! 
∇ × F = lim ∫ ( nˆ × F ) dA 

V →0 V
 S 
Surface S
Volume V enclosed
by surface S
Department of Physics curl_1.doc University of Florida

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Stokes’ Theorem
Surface S Stokes’ Theorem:
! ! ! ! !
∫ (∇ × F ) ⋅ dA = ∫ F ⋅ dr
S C
Boundry Curve C
Closed Curve C
Surface bounded
by closed curve
Proof (sketch):
! ! N  Γi 
Γi Γ = ∫ F ⋅ dr = ∑ Ai  
Ai
C i =1  Ai 
N ! !
= ∑ Ai (∇ × F ) ⋅ nˆi
Γ i =1
! ! !
⇒ ∫ (∇ × F ) ⋅ dA
Boundry Curve C N →∞
Ai → 0 S

! ∂ ∂ ∂
∇ = xˆ + yˆ + zˆ
∂x ∂y ∂z
Vector Operator xˆ yˆ zˆ
! ! ! ∂ ∂ ∂
G = ∇× F =
∂x ∂y ∂z
Fx Fy Fz
∂Fz ∂Fy ∂Fx ∂Fz ∂Fy ∂Fx

Gx = − Gy = − Gz = −
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y
Department of Physics curl_2.doc Univesity of Florida

PHY2061 R. D. Field
The Curl of a Radial Function

!
Suppose F ( x, y, z ) is a radial (or central) function of r. F
! !
Namely, (r ) = f (r )r , it points radially outward (or
F r
!
inward) along the radius vector r = xxˆ + yyˆ + zzˆ and
has a magnitude rf(r) that depends only on the distance
r = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 from the origin.
Theorem: The curl of a radial function is zero.

! ! ! !
∇ × F = 0 if F = f (r )r
Term 1
Proof:
! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
∇ × F = ∇ × ( fr ) = f∇ × r + ∇ f × r
Term 1:
Term 2
xˆ yˆ zˆ
! ! ∂ ∂ ∂
∇×r = =0
∂x ∂y ∂z
x y z
Term 2:
! ∂f ∂f ∂f
∇f = xˆ + yˆ + zˆ
∂x ∂y ∂z
df  ∂r ∂r ∂r 
=  xˆ + yˆ + zˆ 
dr  ∂x ∂y ∂z 
!
df 1 df r
= ( xxˆ + yyˆ + zzˆ ) =
dr r dr r
thus
! ! df 1 ! !
∇f × r = r ×r = 0
dr r

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Gradient of a Scalar Function

" !
Let f(x,y,z) be a scalar function of position and let dr = dxx + dyyˆ + dzzˆ
be an infinitesimal displacement vector.
Directional derivative:
df  f ( x + dx, y + dy, z + dz ) − f ( x, y, z ) 
" = drlim
→  
dr 0
 dr 
The directional derivative depends on the point (x,y,z) and the direction
"
of dr . Scalar Function f(x,y)
f(x,y)
Gradient: The gradient of a scalar
function f(x,y,z) is a vector whose Surface y
magnitude is the maximum directional
derivative at the point being considered
and whose direction is the direction of
the maximum directional derivative at P Direction of
steepest slope
the point.
Scalar f(x,y,z) Gradient Vector F(x,y,z) x

Operator
Symbol:
" "
F = grad ( f ) = ∇f
In cartesian (or rectangular) cordinates:
" ∂ ∂ ∂
∇ = xˆ + yˆ + zˆ
∂x ∂y ∂z
" " ∂f ∂f ∂f
Vector Operator F = ∇f = xˆ + yˆ + zˆ
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂f ∂f ∂f
Fx = Fy = Fz =
∂x ∂y ∂z
Department of Physics grad_1.doc Univesity of Florida

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Line Integral of a Vector Function

!
Let F ( x, y, z ) = Fx ( x, y, z ) xˆ + Fy ( x. y.z ) yˆ + Fz ( x, y, z ) zˆ be a vector
function of position. In general, the line
! F Tangent to P2
integral of F ( x , y , z ) depends of the start curve
Fcosθ
point P1, and the end point P2 and the path θ
chosen from P1 to P2 (curve C):

! !
I ( P1 , P2 , Path ) = ∫ F ⋅ dr , P1
CurveC
where I(P1,P2,Path) is the component of along the path integrated over
the path,
! !
∫ ⋅ dr = ∫ F cosθdr = ∫ ( Fx dx + Fy dy + Fz dz ) .
F
CurveC CurveC CurveC
! !
Remark: If ∇ × F = 0 then I(P1,P2,Path) = I(P1,P2) and is only a function
of the end points P1 and P2 and does not depend on the path (curve C).
In this case:
! !
Closed Loop
I ( P1 , P1 ) = ∫ ⋅ dr = 0
Closed
F
Loop
P1
Line Integral of the Gradient

The line integral is the inverse of the gradient as follows:
! P2
!
f ( P2 ) − f ( P1 ) = ∫ ∇f ⋅ dr .
P1
This line integral is independent of the path since the curl of the
gradient is zero,
! !
∇ × ∇f = 0 .
Department of Physics line_1.doc Univesity of Florida

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Question:
!
When can the vector function ( x, y, z ) be written as the gradient of a
F
scalar function f(x,y,z)?
P2
We know that
! P2
!
f ( P2 ) − f ( P1 ) = ∫ ∇f ⋅ dr .
P1
P1
Closed Loop
This implies that
! !
f ( P1 ) − f ( P1 ) = ∫ ∇f ⋅ dr = 0
. P1
Closed
Lood
Thus if we demand that
! !
F = ∇f , Definition of a
conservative force!
then
! !
Any
∫ F ⋅ dr = 0 .
Closed
Loop
But Stokes’ Theorem tell us that

! ! ! ! !
∫
Closed
F ⋅ dr = ∫ (∇ × F ) ⋅ d A
Surface
.
Loop
Curl of F
Answer:
!
When can the vector function F ( x, y, z ) is derivable from a scalar
! ! ! !
function f(x,y,z) according to F = ∇ f provided ∇ × F = 0 .
Department of Physics line_2.doc Univesity of Florida

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Curl of the Electrostatic Field

! KQ !
The electrostatic field = 3 r is a radial (or central)
E
E
r r
function of r. It points radially outward (or inward)
! Q
along the radius vector r = xxˆ + yyˆ + zzˆ and has a
magnitude E that depends only on the distance
r = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 from the origin. Thus Electrostatic
Field
! !
∇× E = 0
This means that the electrostatic field can be written as the gradient of a
scalar function V as follows:
! ! Electric Potential
E = −∇ V
The electric potential V(x,y,z) is a scalar function of position and is
equal to the potential energy per unit charge.
P
! !
P
∇V = V ( P ) − V ( P0 ) = − ∫ E ⋅ dr .
Curve
C
P0
P0 is some reference point and V(P0) is the
P0
potential at the reference point.
Electric Potential of a Point Charge:

P
KQ !
V ( P) = − ∫ 2
ˆ
r ⋅ d r + V ( P0 )
P0
r
Taking P0 = infinity and V(P0) = 0 gives Point Charge
KQ
V (r ) =
r

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Vector Identities
Curl Grad = 0
! !
∇ × ∇f = 0
! ! !
∇ ⋅ (∇ × F ) = 0
! !
∇ ⋅ ∇f = ∇ 2 f
Div Curl = 0
Div Grad = ! ! !
Laplacian ∇ ( f + f 2 ) = ∇ f1 + ∇ f 2
! 1 ! !
∇( f1 f 2 ) = f1∇f 2 + f 2 ∇f1
! ! ! ! ! ! !
∇ ⋅ ( F1 + F2 ) = ∇ ⋅ F1 + ∇ ⋅ F2
! ! ! ! ! ! !
∇ × ( F1 + F2 ) = ∇ × F1 + ∇ × F2
! ! ! ! ! !
∇ ⋅ ( fF ) = f∇ ⋅ F + F ⋅ ∇f
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
∇ ⋅ ( F1 × F2 ) = F2 ⋅ ∇ × F1 − F1 ⋅ ∇ × F2
! ! ! ! ! !
∇ × ( fF ) = f∇ × F + ∇ f × F
!
Let r = xxˆ + yyˆ + zzˆ then
! !
∇⋅r = 3
! !
∇×r = 0 !
! df r
∇f ( r ) =
dr r
Department of Physics vector_0.doc Univesity of Florida

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Summary: GRAD
P2
Relationship between the points P1 and P2
Points enclose curve and the curve C enclosed by the points:
! !
Curve C
f ( P2 ) − f ( P1 ) = ∫ ∇f ⋅ dr
C
P1
! ∂ ∂ ∂ ! ∂f ∂f ∂f
∇ = xˆ + yˆ + zˆ ∇f = xˆ + yˆ + zˆ
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z
Vector Operator
Summary: STOKES
Curve encloses surface Relationship between the closed curve C and
the surface S enclosed by the curve:
Surface S
! ! ! ! !
∫ F ⋅ dr = ∫ (∇ × F ) ⋅ dA
C S
Boundry Curve C xˆ yˆ zˆ
! ! ∂ ∂ ∂
∇×F =
∂x ∂y ∂z
Fx Fy Fz
Summary: GAUSS
Relationship between the closed surface
Surface encloses volume S and the volume V enclosed by the
surface:
! ! ! !
∫ F ⋅ dA = ∫ (∇ ⋅ F )dV
S V
Closed
Surface S ! ! ∂Fx ∂Fy ∂Fz
∇⋅F = + +
Volume V
∂x ∂y ∂z
Department of Physics vector_1.doc Univesity of Florida

PHY2061 R. D. Field
PHY2060
Review
Gravitational Potential Energy
Gravitational Force: F = G m1m2/r2
Gravitational Potential Energy GPE:
U = GPE = mgh (near surface of the Earth)
1 2
Kinetic Energy: KE = 2 m v
Total Mechanical Energy: E = KE +U
Work Energy Theorem:

W = EB-EA = (KEB-KEA) + (UB-UA)
(work done on the system)
Energy Conservation: EA=EB

(if no external work done on system)
Example:
vi = 0
A ball is dropped from a height h. What is
the speed of the ball when it hits the
h
ground?
vf = ?
Solution: Ei = KEi +Ui = mgh Ef = KEf + Uf = mvf2/2
Ei = E f ⇒ v f = 2 gh

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Electric Potential Energy

Electrostatic Force: F = K q1q2/r2
Electric Potential Energy: EPE = U (Units = Joules)
1 2
Kinetic Energy: KE = 2 m v (Units = Joules)
Total Energy: E = KE + U (Units = Joules)
Work Energy Theorem: (work done on the system)
W = EB - EA = (KEB - KEA) + (UB - UA)
Energy Conservation: EA=EB (if no external work done on system)
Electric Potential Difference ∆V = ∆U/q:
B
Work done (against the electric force)
per unit charge in going from A to B
(without changing the kinetic energy).
A
q ∆V = WAB/q = ∆U/q = UB/q - UA/q
(Units = Volts 1V = 1 J / 1 C)
Electric Potential V = U/q: U = qV

Units for the Electric Field (Volts/meter):
N/C = Nm/(Cm) = J/(Cm) = V/m
Energy Unit (electron-volt): One electron-volt is the amount
of kinetic energy gained by an electron when it drops through one
Volt potential difference
1 eV = (1.6x10-19 C)(1 V) = 1.6x10-19 Joules
1 MeV = 106 eV 1 GeV=1,000 MeV 1 TeV=1,000 GeV

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Accelerating Charged Particles
Example Problem: A particle with mass M

A B
and charge q starts from rest a the point A. What
is its speed at the point B if VA=35V and VB=10V q
(M = 1.8x10-5kg, q = 3x10-5C)?
VA = 35V VB = 10V
Solution: + E -
The total energy of the particle at A and B is
E A = KE A + U A = 0 + qV A
1
E B = KE B + U B = Mv B2 + qVB .
2
Setting EA = EB (energy conservation) yields
1 (Note: the particle gains an amount of kinetic
M v B2 = q (V A − V B ) energy equal to its charge, q, time the change in
2 the electric potential.)
Solving for the particle speed gives

(Note: positive particles fall from high potential to
2 q (V A − V B )
vB = low potential VA >VB, while negative particles
travel from low potential to high potential,
M
VB >VA.)
Plugging in the numbers gives
2 ( 3 × 10 − 5 C )( 25V )
vB = = 9 .1m / s .
1.8 × 10 − 5 kg

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Potential Energy & Electric Potential
Mechanics (last semester!):

Work done by force F in going from A to B:
B
! !
W byF
A→ B = ∫ F ⋅ dr
A
Potential Energy Difference ∆U:
B
! !
W againstF
A→ B = ∆U = U B − U A = − ∫ F ⋅ dr
A
! ! ∂U ∂U ∂U
F = −∇U = − x" − y" − z"
∂x ∂y ∂z
Electrostatics (this semester):
! !
Electrostatic Force: F = qE
Electric Potential Energy Difference ∆U:
(work done against E in moving q from A to B)
B
! !
∆U = U B − U A = − ∫ qE ⋅ dr
A
Electric Potential Difference ∆V=∆
∆U/q:
(work done against E per unit charge in going from A to B)
B
! !
∆V = VB − V A = − ∫ E ⋅ dr
A
! ! ∂V ∂V ∂V
E = −∇V = − x" − y" − z"
∂x ∂y ∂z

PHY2061 R. D. Field
The Electric Potential of a Point Charge

V(r) V(r) = KQ/r
+Q E
Potential from a point charge:
V(r) = ∆V = V(r) - V(infinity) = KQ/r

U = qV = work done against the electric force in bringing the
charge q from infinity to the point r.
+Q q
Potential from a system of N point charges:

N
Kq i
V = ∑i =1 ri

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Electric Potential due to a Distribution of Charge
dQ dV = K dQ/r
The electric potential from a continuous distribution of charge

is the superposition (i.e. integral) of all the (infinite)
contributions from each infinitesimal dQ as follows:
Q = ∫ dQ
K
V = ∫ r
dQ and
Example:
distributed along a thin circle of radius R.
What is the electric potential at a point P R
at the center of the circle? P
x-axis
KQ
Answer: V =
R
Example:
distributed along a thin semicircle of
radius R. What is the electric potential at
R
a point P at the center of the circle? P
KQ x-axis
Answer: V =
R

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Calculating the Electric Potential
Example:
uniformily distributed along a
thin ring of radius R. What is
the electric potential at a point R
P on the z-axis a distance z P z-axis
from the center of the ring?
z
KQ
Answer: V ( z ) =
z2 + R2
Example:
uniformily distributed on the
surface of a disk of radius R.
What is the electric potential R
at a point P on the z-axis a P z-axis
distance z from the center of
the disk? z
Answer: V (z) =
2 KQ
R2
( z2 + R2 − z )

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Electric Potential Energy

For a system of point charges:
The potential energy U is the work required to assemble the final charge
configuration starting from an inital condition of infinite separation.
q1 q2
Two Particles:
r
q1q 2 1  Kq 2  1  Kq1 
U =K = q1  + q  
r 2  r  2 2 r 
so we see that
2
1
U =
2
∑qV
i =1
i i
where Vi is the electric potential at i due to the other charges.
Three Particles: q3
q1q2 q1q 3 q2 q3 r13 r23

U =K +K +K q1 q2
r12 r13 r23
which is equivalent to r12
3
1
U =
2
∑qV
i =1
i i
where Vi is the electric potential at i due to the other charges.
N Particles:
N
1
U =
2
∑qV
i =1
i i

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Stored Electric Potential Energy
For a conductor with charge Q:

The potential energy U is the work required to assemble the final charge
configuration starting from an inital condition of infinite separation.
For a conductor the total charge Q resides

on the surface
E=0
dQ=σdA Q = ∫ dq = ∫ σdA
Also, V is constant on and inside the
V = constant conductor and
1 1
dU = dQV = V σ dA
2 2
and hence
1 1 1
U =
2 ∫ VdQ =
S u rfa c e
2
V ∫ σdA =
S u rfa c e
2
VQ
1
Stored Energy: U c o n d u c to r = QV
2
where Q is the charge on the conductor and V is the electric potential of
the conductor.
For a System of N Conductors:

N
1
U =
2i =1
∑ QV i i
where Qi is the charge on the i-th conductor and Vi is the electric

potential of the i-th conductor.

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Capacitors & Capacitance
Capacitor:
Any arrangement of conductors that is used to store electric charge (will
also store electric potential energy).
Capacitance: C=Q/V or ∆V
C=Q/∆
Units: 1 farad = 1 F = 1 C/1 V 1 µF=10-6 F 1 nF=10-9 F 1 pF=10-12 F
Stored Energy:
1 Q2 1
U c o n d u c to r = QV = = CV 2
2 2C 2
where Q is the charge on the conductor and V is the electric potential of the
conductor and C is the capacitance of the conductor.
Example (Isolated Conducting Sphere):

For an isolated conducting sphere with radius R, V=KQ/R and
hence C=R/K and U=KQ2/(2R).
Example (Parallel Plate Capacitor):

E
Q Area A +σ For two parallel conducting plates
of area A and separation d we
know that E = σ/εε0 = Q/(Aεε0) and
d E=Q/(Aε0) ∆V = Ed = Qd/(Aεε0) so that
C = Aεε0/d. The stored energy is
U = Q2/(2C) = Q2d/(2Aεε0).
-Q Area A
−σ

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Capacitors in Series & Parallel
Parallel:
In this case ∆V1=∆
∆V2=∆∆V and
Q=Q1+Q2. Hence,
Q = Q1 + Q2 = C1∆V1 + C2∆V2 = C1 C2 ∆V
(C1+C2)∆V
so C = Q/∆ ∆V = C1 + C2, where I
used Q1 = C1∆V1 and
Q2 = C2∆V2.
Capacitors in parallel add.
Series:
In this case ∆V=∆
∆V1+∆
∆V2 and Q=Q1=Q2.
Hence, C1
∆V = ∆V1 + ∆V2 = Q1/C1+Q2/C2 = ∆V
(1/C1+1/C2)Q
so 1/C = ∆V/Q = 1/C1 + 1/C2, where I used C2
Q1 = C1∆V1 and Q2 = C2∆V2.
Capacitors in series add inverses.

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Energy Density of the Electric Field
Energy Density u:
Electric field lines contain energy! The amount E
of energy per unit volume is
u = e0E2/2,
where E is the magnitude of the electric field. Volume
The energy density has units of Joules/m3.
Total Stored Energy U:

The total energy strored in the electric field lines in an infinitessimal volume
dV is dU = u dV and
U = ∫ udV
Volum e
If u is constant throughout the volume, V, then U = u V.
Example: Parallel Plate Capacitor

Area A Think of the work done in bringing in the charges
+Q
from infinity and placing them on the capacitor as
E-field the work necessary to produce the electric field lines
d
and that the energy is strored in the electric field!
-Q From before we know that C = Aε ε0/d so that the
stored energy in the capacitor is
U = Q2/(2C) = Q2d/(2Aεε0).
The energy stored in the electric field is U = uV = e0E2V/2 with
E = σ/e0 = Q/(e0A) and V = Ad, thus
U=Q2d/(2Aεε0),
which is the same as the energy stored in the capacitor!

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Electric Energy Examples
Example:
How much electric energy is stored by a
solid conducting sphere of radius R and
Charge Q
total charge Q?
E
KQ 2
Answer: U =
2R R
Example:
-Q
How much electric energy is stored by a two thin
Q
spherical conducting shells one of radius R1 and
R1 charge Q and the other of radius R2 and charge -Q
(spherical capacitor)?
R2
E KQ 2  1 1
U =  − 
Answer: 2  R1 R2 
Example:
How much electric energy is stored by a
solid insulating sphere of radius R and
Charge Q
total charge Q uniformly distributed
throughout its volume? E E
R
 1 KQ
2
3 KQ 2
Answer: U =  1 + 5 2 R = 5 R

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Charge Transport and Current Density

q v
Consider n particles per unit volume A
all moving with velocity v and each
carrying a charge q.
The number of particles, ∆N, passing through the (directed) area A in a

! !
time ∆t is ∆ N = nv ⋅ A ∆ t and the amount of charge, ∆Q, passing
through the (directed) area A in a time ∆t is
! !
∆Q = nqv ⋅ A∆t .
The current, I(A), is the amount of charge per unit time passing through the
(directed) area A:
! ∆Q ! ! ! !
I ( A) = = nqv ⋅ A = J ⋅ A ,
∆t ! !
where the “current density” is given by J = n q v d rift .
The current I is measured in Ampere's where 1 Amp is equal to one
Coulomb per second (1A = 1C/s).
For an infinitesimal area (directed) area dA:

! ! ! dI
dI = J ⋅ dA and J ⋅ n" =
dA .
The “current density” is the amount of current per unit area and has units
of A/m2. The current passing through the surface S is given by
! #
I = ∫ J ⋅ dA
.
S
The current, I, is the “flux” associated with the vector J.

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Electrical Conductivity and Ohms Law

Free Charged Particle:
q m E
For a free charged particle in an electric field,
! ! ! ! q !
F = ma = qE and thus a = E .
m
The acceleration is proportional to the electric field strength E and the
velocity of the particle increases with time!
Charged Particle in a Conductor:

Conductor However, for a charged particle in a
conductor the average velocity is
q E proportional to the electric
! field
!
strength E and since J = nqvave
we have
! !
J = σE ,
where σ is the conductivity of the material and is a property of the
conductor. The resistivity ρ = 1/σ
σ.
Length L
Ohm's Law: Conductor σ

Current I
! ! Electric Field E
J = σE Current Density J A
Potential Change ∆V
I = JA = σ E A V1 V2
I  L 
∆V = EL = L =   I = RI
σA  σA 
∆V = IR (Ohm's Law) R = L/(σ
σA) = ρL/A (Resistance)
Ω = 1V/1A
Units for R are Ohms 1Ω

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Resistors in Series & Parallel
Parallel:
In this case ∆V1=∆∆V2=∆∆V I
and I=I1+I2. Hence, I2
I1
I = I1 + I2 = ∆V1/R1 +
∆V2/R2 = (1/R1+1/R2)∆V ∆V1 R1 R2 ∆V2 ∆V
so 1/R = I/∆∆V = 1/R1 + 1/R2,
where I used I1 = ∆V1/R1
and I2 = ∆V2/R2. Also,
∆V = I1R1 = I2R2 = IR so
I1 = R2I/(R1+R2) and I2 = R1I/(R1+R2).
Resistors in parallel add inverses.
Series: I
In this case ∆V=∆
∆V1+∆
∆V2 and I=I1=I2.
Hence, ∆V1
R1
∆V = ∆V1 + ∆V2 = I1R1+I2R2 = (R1+R2)I
so R = ∆V/I = R1 + R2, where I used ∆V
∆V1 = I1R1 and ∆V2 = I2R2. ∆V2 R2
Resistors in series add.

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Direct Current (DC) Circuits
I I
+
EMF ∆V V
-
EMF + ∆V = 0
Electromotive Force:
The electromotive force EMF of a source of electric potential energy is
defined as the amount of electric energy per Coulomb of positive charge
as the charge passes through the source from low potential to high potental.
EMF = ε = U/q (The units for EMF is Volts)
Single Loop Circuits: I
ε - IR = 0 and I = ε /R
+
ε R
(Kirchhoff's Rule) -
Power Delivered by EMF (P = εI):

dW dq
dW = ε dq P = =ε = εI
dt dt
Power Dissipated in Resistor (P = I2R):
dU dq
dU = ∆ V R dq P = = ∆VR = ∆VR I
dt dt

PHY2061 R. D. Field
DC Circuit Rules
I
Loop Rule:
The algebraic sum of the changes in
+
potential encountered in a complete
EMF ∆V traversal of any loop of a circuit must be
- zero.
EMF + ∆V = 0
∑ ∆V
loop
i = 0 .
Junction Rule:
The sum of the currents entering any junction
must be equal the sum of the currents leaving
that junction.
∑ I =∑ I
in
i
out
i
Resistor: ∆V=-IR
If you move across a resistor in the direction
of the current flow then the potential change
is ∆VR = - IR.
I Capacitor:
If you move across a capacitor from minus to plus
Q + then the potential change is
-
∆ V = Q /C
∆VC = Q/C,
and the current leaving the capacitor is I = -dQ/dt.
Inductor (Chapter 38): I
If you move across an inductor in the direction of

L ∆VL=-LdI/dt
the current flow then the potential change is
∆VL = - L dI/dt.

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Charging a Capacitor
Switch
After the switch is closed the current is
R entering the capacitor so that I = dQ/dt,
+ where Q is the charge on the capacitor
ε C and summing all the potential changes in
- going around the loop gives
Q
ε − IR − =0 ,
C
where I(t) and Q(t) are a function of time. If the switch is closed at t=0 then
Q(0)=0 and
dQ Q
ε − R − =0 ,
dt C
which can be written in the form
= − (Q − ε C ) , where I have define τ=RC.

dQ 1
dt τ
Dividing by (Q-εC) and multipling by dt and integrating gives
 Q − εC 
t
dQ 1 t
∫ = − ∫ dt , which implies ln 
Q
 = − .
0 (Q − ε C ) 0 τ  − εC  τ
Solving for Q(t) gives 1.50

Charging a Capacitor
Q ( t ) = ε C (1 − e − t / τ ) .
1.25
1.00
Q(t) 0.75
0.50
0.25
The curent is given by 0.00

0 1 2 3 4
I(t)=dQ/dt which yields Time

εC − t /τ ε − t /τ
I (t ) = e = e . The quantity τ=RC is call the time
τ R
constant and has dimensions of time.

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Discharging a Capacitor
Switch
After the switch is closed the current is
leaving the capacitor so that I = -dQ/dt,
+ where Q is the charge on the capacitor and
C summing all the potential changes in going
R
- around the loop gives
Q
− IR = 0 ,
C
where I(t) and Q(t) are a function of time. If the switch is closed at t=0 then
Q(0)=Q0 and
Q dQ
+ R =0 ,
C dt
which can be written in the form
dQ 1
= − Q , where I have defined τ=RC.
dt τ
Dividing by Q and multiplying by dt and integrating gives
dQ
t
1  Q t
∫ = − ∫ dt , which implies ln 
Q
 = − .
Q0 Q 0
τ  Q0  τ
Solving for Q(t) gives Discharging a Capacitor

1.00
Q ( t ) = Q0e − t /τ . 0.75
Q(t)
0.50
0.25
The current is given by 0.00

0 1 2 3 4
I(t)=-dQ/dt which yields Time
Q0 − t / τ
I (t ) = e .
RC
The quantity τ=RC is call the "time constant" and has dimensions of
time.

PHY2061 R. D. Field
PHY2060
Review
Postulates of Special Relativity
Light Ray
Consider two frames of reference y y' O: (t,x,y,z)
the O-frame and the O'-frame O': (t'.x',y',z')
moving at a constant velocity V, V
with respect to each other at let
the origins coincide at t= t' = 0.
Follow the path of a light ray that O O'
was emitted at the origin of the x x'
two frames at the instant they
crossed. z z' inertial
First Postulate of Special Relativity (“Relativity Principle”):

• The basic laws of physics are identical in all systems of reference
(frames) which move with uniform (unaccelerated) velocity with
respect to one another. The laws of physics are invariant under a
change of inertial frame. The laws of physics have the same form in
all inertial frames. It is impossible to detect uniform motion.
8
Second Postulate of Special Relativity (“Constant Speed of Light”): 2.99792458x10 m/s
• The speed of light in a vacuum has the same value, c, in all inertial
frames. The speed of light in a vacuum is always independent of the
Experimental velocity of the source of the light or the velocity of the observer.
observation!
The entire theory of special relativity is derived from these two

postulates.
Light Path in O-frame Light Path in O'-frame
d = ct d ′ = ct ′
d = x2 + y2 + z2 d ′ = x′ 2 + y ′ 2 + z ′ 2
(ct ) 2 − x 2 − y 2 − z 2 = 0 (ct ′) 2 − x ′ 2 − y ′ 2 − z ′ 2 = 0
Must find the transformation that results in Invariant!
(ct ) 2 − x 2 − y 2 − z 2 = (ct ′) 2 − x′ 2 − y ′ 2 − z ′2
Department of Physics relativity_1.doc University of Florida

PHY2061 R. D. Field
PHY2060
Review
Lorentz Transformation
Consider two frames of reference y y' Event
the O-frame (label events O: (t,x,y,z)
O': (t'.x',y',z')
according to t,x,y,z) and the O'- V
frame (label events according to
t',x',y',z') moving at a constant
velocity V, with respect to each O O'
other at let the origins coincide at x x'
t= t' = 0. The Lorentz
Galilean Transformations:
transformations tell us how the O z z' Classical Physics
and O' frame are related.
ct = γ (ct ′ + βx′) ct ′ = γ (ct − βx) ct = ct ′

x = γ ( x′ + βct ′) x′ = γ ( x − βct ) x = x′ + βct ′
y = y′ y′ = y y = y′
z = z′ z′ = z z = z′
where β = V / c γ = 1 / 1 − β .
2
Lorentz Transformations:
Special Relativity
4-vector Notation:
 ct   γ βγ 0 0  ct ' 
    
 x   βγ γ 0  x '  ~
r = L~
r′
0
 y= 0 0 1 0  y ' 
    
z  0 1  z ' 
   0 0
 ct ′   γ − βγ 0 0  ct 
    
 x ′   − βγ γ 0  x  ~
r ′ = L−1~
0
 y′  =  0 0 1 0  y  r
    
 z′   0 1  z 
   0 0

PHY2061 R. D. Field
PHY2060
Review
4-Vector Notation
4-vector “dot product”:
Define the 4-vector dot product as follows:
~ ~ ! !
r ⋅ r ≡ x − r ⋅ r = x − x − x22 − x32
0
2 2
0
2
1
where
 x0  3-vector dot product
   x1 
~  x1  !  
r =  and r =  x2 
x x 
 2
x  4-vector  3
 3 3-vector
Space-Time 4-vectors:
 ct   ct ′   γ βγ 0 0  γ − βγ 0 0
       
~  x   x ′   βγ γ 0 0  −1  − βγ γ 0 0
r =  ~ r′=  L = L =
y y′ 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
       
z  z′   0 1   0 1 
     0 0  0 0
Any four quantities that transform from O' to O β = V / c γ = 1/ 1 − β 2
according to Lorentz forms a Lorentz 4-vector
~
r = L~
r′ ~
r ′ = L−1~
r
Lorentz Invariant:
A “Lorentz invariant” is any quantity that is the same in all inertial
frames of reference (i.e. same in O and O' frame). The square of a
Lorentz 4-vector is a Lorentz invariant (i.e. Lorentz scalar).
~
r2 =~
r ⋅~
r =~
r ′⋅~
r ′ = (~
r ′) 2
Same in all inertial frames of reference

PHY2061 R. D. Field
PHY2060
Review
Space-Time Intervals
Consider two events A=(tA,xA,yA,zA) and B=(tB,xB,yB,zB) and define
∆t=tB-tA, ∆x=xB-xA, ∆y=yB-yA, ∆z=zB-zA. These space-time intervals also
transform according to the Lorentz transformations.
ct ct'
Frame O Frame O'
B B
c∆t=c(tB-tA) c∆t'=c(t'B-t'A)
A Light Cone
A
o o
45 x 45 x'
∆x=xB-xA ∆x'=x'B-x'A
c∆t = γ (c∆t ′ + β∆x′) c∆t ′ = γ (c∆t − β∆x)

∆x = γ ( ∆x′ + βc∆t ′) ∆x′ = γ (∆x − βc∆t )
∆y = ∆y ′ ∆y′ = ∆y
∆z = ∆z ′ ∆z′ = ∆z
The following are Lorentz 4-vectors:
 c∆ t   c∆t ′   cdt   cd t ′ 
       
~  ∆x  ~  ∆x ′  ~  dx  ~ ′  dx ′ 
∆r =  ∆r ′ =  and dr =  dr = 
∆y  ∆y ′  dy  dy ′ 
       
 ∆z   ∆z ′   dz   dz ′ 
       
∆S)2:
Space-time Separation (∆ differentials
2
( ∆S ) = ( ∆~
r ) 2 = ( ∆~
r ′) 2
(c∆t ) 2 − ( ∆x ) 2 = (c∆t ′) 2 − ( ∆x′) 2
The quantity (∆ ∆S)2 is a Lorentz invariant (same in all inertial frames).
∆S)2 > 0 the two events A and B are said to be “time-like” and there
If (∆
exists an inertial frame where the two events occur at the same spacial
point (i.e. ∆x'=0). If (∆
∆S)2 < 0 the two events A and B are said to be
“space-like” and there exists an inertial frame where the two events
occur simultaneously (i.e. ∆t'=0). If (∆
∆S)2 = 0 the two events A and B are
said to be “light-like” they can only be connected by light (travelling at
speed c).

PHY2061 R. D. Field
PHY2060
Review
Analogy with Rotations
Consider two frames of reference Point
the O-frame (label points y O P: (x,y)
y' P': (x',y')
according to x,y) and the O'- O'
frame (label points according to
r = r' x'
x',y'). Let the origins of the two
frames coincide and rotate the O'-
frame about the z-axis by an angle θ
θ. The two frames are related by x
the following transformation (i.e.
by a rotation).
x = x′ cosθ − y′ sin θ x′ = x cosθ + y sin θ
y = x′ sin θ + y′ cosθ y′ = − x sin θ + y cosθ
Vector Notation:
 x   cosθ − sin θ  x′  r r
r = Rr ′
Length of vector
  =    invariant under
  
y sin θ cos θ  y′  rotations
 cos θ − sin θ  r  x r  x′ 
R =   r =   r ′ =  
 sin θ cos θ   y  y′ 
Rotational Invariant:
r r r r
r = r ⋅ r = x + y = x + y = r ′ ⋅ r ′ = r ′2
2 2 2
′ 2
′ 2
Hyperbolic cosine Hyperbolic sine

sin2θ + cos2θ = 1
θ = γ and sinhθ
Lorentz Transformation: Let coshθ θ = βγ then
 ct   cosh θ sinh θ  ct ′  ~
  =    r = L~
r′ “Length” of vector
θ θ  x′ 
invariant under
  
x sinh cosh “rotations”
 cosh θ sinh θ  ~  ct  ~  ct ′ 
L =   r =   r ′ =  
 sinh θ cosh θ   x  x′ 
Lorentz Invariant:
~
r2 =~ r = (ct ) 2 − x 2 = (ct ′) 2 − x′ 2 = ~
r ⋅~ r ′⋅~
r′=~
r ′2
cosh2θ - sinh2θ = 1
Department of Physics relativity_4a.doc University of Florida

PHY2061 R. D. Field
PHY2060
Review
Moving Clocks & Simultaneity
Consider two clocks in the O- y y'
frame located a distance ∆x = L O O'
apart (simultaneous in the O- V
frame) and one clock at the origin
of the O'-frame. Let event A be
the comparison of the O and O' x'
clock at the origin and let the two x
clocks agree. Let event B be the
A ∆x = L B
comparison of the O' clock with
Simltaneous in O-frame
the second O clock at ∆x = L.
ct Frame O ct'
B Frame O'
c∆t=cγτ B
proper time =
c∆t'=cτ time at rest
with clock
A
∆x=L
x A ∆x'=0 x'
c∆t = γ (c∆t ′ + β∆x ′) c∆t ′ = cτ

∆x = γ ( ∆x ′ + βc∆t ′) ∆x′ = 0 Moving clocks are slower!
where β = V / c γ = 1 / 1 − β .
2
Thus, ∆x = γβcτ and ∆t = γτ
Simultaneity: Suppose that two events A and B a distance ∆x = L

appart occur simultaneously in the O-frame (i.e. ∆t = 0).
ct Frame O ct'
Frame O'
Events simultaneous
c∆t=0 ∆x'=γL
A A x'
x
∆x=L B c∆t'=-βγL
Events NOT simultaneous
B
c∆t ′ = γ (c∆t − β∆x ) = −γβL

∆ x ′ = γ ( ∆ x − βc ∆ t ) = γ L
Not simultaneous in O'-frame,
event B occurs first!

PHY2061 R. D. Field
PHY2060
Review
Moving Lengths
y y’
Parellel Moving Lengths:
The “proper length”, L0, of a rod is V Rod at rest in
defined to be its length at rest. Suppose the O' frame
the rod is at rest in the O'-frame so that L0
O O'
∆x' = L0. The length of the moving rod
x x’
as observed in the O-frame, L, is
defined be marking both ends of the rod Mark ends
z z’ simultaneously in
simultaneously in S (i.e. ∆t=0). Thus, the O frame
∆x′ = γ ( ∆x − βc∆t ) implies that
∆x′ = L0 = γ∆x = γL and L = L0 / γ
where β = V / c γ = 1 / 1 − β .
2
Parallel moving
lengths are shorter!
Length Contraction!
y y’
Rod at rest in
Perpenduclar Moving Lengths: the O' frame
V
Perpendicular moving distances are
invariant under uniform velocities since L0
L = ∆y = ∆y′ = L0 O O'
x x’
z z’
Perpenduclar moving
lengths are invariant!

PHY2061 R. D. Field
PHY2060
Review
Velocity Transformations
Consider a particle moving with y y' Particle
O O: (vx,vy,vz)
velocity v in the O-frame and v' in O' O': (vx',vy',vz')
the O' frame. V
v x = v′x + V
v y = v′y x x'
z z'
In the O-Frame In the O'-Frame

dx dx ′
Galilean Transformation vx = v′x =
Classical Physics dt dt ′
dy dy ′
vy = v′y =
dt dt ′
dz dz ′
vz = v′z =
dt dt ′
Lorentz Transformations: β = V / c γ = 1/ 1 − β 2
dx = γ (dx ′ + βcdt ' )
dy = dy ′
dz = dz ′
cdt = γ (cdt ′ + βdx′) Relativity!
Velocities:
 dx ′ 
 + βc 
vx =
dx
=
γ (dx′ + βcdt ′)
= 
dt ′  = (v ′x + V )
dt γ (dt ′ + βdx ′ / c )  β dx ′   V 
1 +  1 + 2 v′x 
 c dt ′   c 
dy dy ′ dy ′ / dt ′ ′
vy
vy = = = =
dt γ ( dt ′ + βdx ′ / c )  β dx ′   V 
γ 1 +  γ 1 + 2 v ′x 
 c dt ′   c 

PHY2061 R. D. Field
PHY2060
Review
Relativistic Energy and Momentum
Relativistic Energy:
The total relativistic energy is the sum of the kinetic energy (energy of
motion) plus the rest mass energy (RME = m0c2).
E = KE + RME = KE + m c 0
2
Also, the relativistic energy is equal to the relativistic mass, m, times c

squared. Mass of the
object at rest
E = mc = γm c
2
0
2
with m = γm 0
where β = v / c γ = 1 / 1 − β .
2
Relativistic Mass
Relativistic Kinetic Energy:

KE = E − RME = mc 2 − m0 c 2 = (γ − 1) m0 c 2
1
Relativistic energy
and momentum
KE = (γ − 1) m0 c 2 β

<<1
→ m0 v 2
are conserved!
2
Classical KE
Relativistic Momentum:
The relativistic momentum p is the relativistic mass, m, time the
velocity.
! ! !
p = mv = γm0 v m = γm0
Energy Momentum Connection:
E = (cp ) + ( m c )
2 2
0
2 2
with p= p x2 + p y2 + p z2
Speed β of a particle:
The speed of an object with rest mass m0 is given by
v cp cp
β= = =
c E (cp ) 2 + ( m0 c 2 ) 2 .

PHY2061 R. D. Field
PHY2060
Review
Relativistic Kinetic Energy (derivation)
Relativistic Force:
The force is equal to the rate of chance of the (relativistic) momentum as
follows:
! dp! d ( mv! ) ! Classically
dv dm ! this term is
F= = =m + v zero and
F = ma
dt dt dt dt
where m = γm0 is the relativistic mass.
Time t = 0 Later time t

Relativistic Kinetic Energy: The
kinetic energy of a particle is (as F v
classical) the total work done in
moving particle from rest to the Particle at rest: Particle moving at
speed v, m = γm0
v = 0, m = m0
speed v as follows:
d ( mv )
KE = ∫ Fdx = ∫ dx = ∫ vd ( mv ) = ∫ ( mvdv + v 2 dm )
dt
m m
= ∫ ((c − v ) dm + v dm ) = c
2 2 2 2
∫ dm = mc
2
− m0 c 2 = E − RME
m0 m0
where I used
v 2 = c 2 (1 − m02 / m 2 ) and mvdv = (c 2 − v 2 ) dm .
Energy Momentum Connection:

m 2 = m02 /(1 − v 2 / c 2 ) and m 2 (1 − v 2 / c 2 ) = m02
which implies that
m 2 − m 2 v 2 / c 2 = m02 and m 2 c 4 − m 2 v 2 c 2 = m02 c 4
thus
E 2 = (cp ) 2 + ( m0 c 2 ) 2 .
Speed β of a particle:
Since p = mv and m = E / c we get p = Ev / c and thus
2 2
v cp cp
β= = = .
c E (cp ) 2 + ( m0 c 2 ) 2
Department of Physics relativity_8b.doc University of Florida

PHY2061 R. D. Field
PHY2060
Review
Relativistic Energy & Momentum
Consider two frames of reference y y' Object
the O-frame (label energy and O O: (E,px,py,pz)
O' O': (E',px',py',pz')
momentum according to V
E,px,py,pz) and the O'-frame (label
energy and momentum according
to E',px',py',pz') moving at a
constant velocity V, with respect x x'
to each other at let the origins
coincide at t= t' = 0. The Lorentz z z'
transformations tell us how the
frames are related.
E = γ ( E ′ + βcp ′x ) E ′ = γ ( E − βcp x )
cp x = γ (cp ′x + βE ′) cp ′x = γ (cp x − βE )
cp y = cp ′y cp′y = cp y
cp z = cp ′z cp ′z = cp z
where β = V / c γ = 1 / 1 − β .
2
The following are Lorentz 4-vectors:

 E   E′   dE   dE ′ 
       
~  cp x  ~  cp ′x  ~  cdp x  ~  cd p ′x 
p= p′ =  and dp =  dp ′ = 
cp  cp ′  cdp y  cd p ′y 
 y  y    
 cp   cp ′   cdp   cd p ′ 
 z  z  z   z 
differentials
Invariant Mass:
2 ~
p =~
p⋅ ~
p=~
p′ ⋅ ~
p′ = ( ~
p ′) 2 = ( m0 c 2 ) 2
Same in all
frames!

PHY2061 R. D. Field
PHY2060
Review
Force Transformations
Consider a particle moving with y y' Particle
O O: (E,px,py,pz)
velocity v' in the x' direction in the O' O': (E',px',py',pz')
the O' frame. Let β = V/c and β' = V
v'/c. Hence, β' = px'c/E' and
v'
E ′ = c 2 p ′x2 + ( m0 c 2 ) 2
dE ′ c 2 p ′x x x'
= = cβ ′
dp ′x E′
dE ′ dE ′ dp ′x dp ′ z z'
= = cβ ′ x
dt ′ dp ′x dt ′ dt ′
In the O-Frame In the O'-Frame
dx dx ′
v= v′ =
dt dt ′
dp x dp ′x
Fx = Fx′ =
dt dt ′
dp y dp ′y
Fy = Fy′ =
dt dt ′
Lorentz Transformations: β = V / c γ = 1/ 1 − β 2
dx = γ (dx ′ + βcdt ' ) cdp x = γ (cdp ′x + βdE ′)
dy = dy ′ dp y = dp ′y
cdt = γ (cdt ′ + βdx′) dE = γ (dE ′ + βcdp ′x )
Forces:
 dp ′x β dE ′ 
 + 
dp x γ (dp ′x + βdE ′ / c )  dt ′ c dt ′  (1 + ββ ′ ) dp′x dp ′x
Fx = = = = = = Fx′
dt γ ( dt ′ + βdx ′ / c )  β dx ′  (1 + ββ ′ ) d t ′ dt ′
1 + 
 c dt ′ 
dp y dp′y dp ′y / dt ′ 1 dp′y 1
Fy = = = = = Fy′
dt d t ′
γ( + β / ) d x ′ c  β d x ′  γ (1 + ββ ) ′ d t ′ γ (1 + ββ )′
γ 1 + 
 c dt ′ 
1
F|| = F||′ F⊥ = F⊥′
γ (1 + ββ ′)

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Invariance of Electric Charge
Surface S'
y y'
Surface S
V
Q
O O'
x x'
z z'
In O-frame charge is defined using Gauss’ Law as follows:

! ! Measure total flux
Q = ε 0 ∫ E ⋅ dA
through surface S at
time t.
S (t )
In O'-frame charge is also defined using Gauss’ Law as follows:

! ! Measure total flux
Q′ = ε 0 ∫ E ′ ⋅ dA′
through surface S' at
time t'.
S ′(t′)
Experimental result: Q = Q'

Electric charge is a Lorentz invariant quantity (it is a Lorentz scalar)!
! ! ! !
∫ E ⋅ dA =
S (t )
∫ E ′ ⋅ dA′
S ′( t ′)

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Moving Charge Density

y y'
Linear Charge Density: Charges at rest
Let λ0 be the linear charge density V in O' frame
in the frame at rest with respect to

L0
the charges (O'-frame). Then,
λ0 = charge/length = Q'/L0. O O'
+++++++
Let λ be the charge density
x x'
observed in the O-frame. Then,
λ = Q/L, but Q = Q' and L = L0/γγ. z'
z
Thus,
Q γQ ′
λ= = = γλ0 and λ = γλ0
L L0
where β = V / c γ = 1 / 1 − β .
2
y y' L0
Surface Charge Density: V ++++++

Let σ0 be the surface charge L0
++++++
++++++
density in the frame at rest with
++++++
respect to the charges (O'-frame). O'
O
Then,
x x'
σ0 = charge/area = Q'/(L0)2.
Let σ be the charge density z z'
Charges at rest
in O' frame
observed in the O-frame. Then,
λ = Q/(LxLy), but Q = Q' and Lx = L0/γγ and Ly = L0.
Thus,
Q γQ ′
σ = = 2 = γσ 0 and σ = γσ 0
Lx L y L0
where β = V / c γ = 1 / 1 − β .
2

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Electric Field Measured in Different Frames

Transverse Components: y y'
Consider two (large) parallel sheets --------
- - - - - - - - σ0
V -
of opposite charge density at rest in
---------
the x'-z' plane O'-frame. ++++++
+ + +E'+ + + σ0
+
In the O'-frame, Ey' = σ0/εε0. In the
++++++
O-frame, Ey = σ/εε0, but we know O O'
that x x'
σ = γσ 0 z z' Charges at rest

in O' frame
with β = V / c γ = 1 / 1 − β .
2
Thus,
E y = γE ′y and similarly E z = γE z′ . E⊥ = γE⊥′
Transverse components of the electric

field transform acccording to
Parallel Component:
Consider two (large) parallel sheets +
y y' --
++
of opposite charge density at rest in ---
the y'-z' plane O'-frame. V +++ ----
+++
In the O'-frame, Ex' = σ0/εε0. In the +++
---
----
O-frame, Ex = σ/εε0, but in this case + + E'
+σ - -- -
σ = σ0 . O O' σ
x x'
Thus, E x = E x′ .
z z' Charges at rest
in O' frame
E|| = E||′
The parallel component

of the electric field is
invariant!

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Electric Field of a Moving Charge Particle

Consider a point charge Q at rest at the y'
V E'
origin in the O'-frame and consider the
electric field in the O-frame at the moment
O' P'=(x',y')
the origins of the two frames coincide (t = t' r'
= 0). We know that, θ'
! KQ Q
E′ = rˆ′ . x'
( r ′) 2
Charge Q at rest in O' frame
In the O'-frame:
KQ KQ x′
E x′ = cos θ ′ = cos θ ′ = x ′ / r ′
( r ′) 2 ( x′ 2 + y ′ 2 ) 3 / 2
sin θ ′ = y ′ / r ′
KQ KQ y′
E ′y = sin θ ′ = r ′ = x′2 + y ′2
( r ′) 2 ( x′ 2 + y ′ 2 ) 3 / 2
y
In the O-frame: E
P=(x,y)
cos θ = x / r
O r
sin θ = y / r
θ
r = x2 + y2 Q
x
Charge Q moving at speed V
β = V / c γ = 1/ 1 − β 2 in O frame
KQ x ′ KQ γx KQ (1 − β 2 ) cos θ
E x = E ′x = = =
( x′ 2 + y ′ 2 ) 3 / 2 (γ 2 x 2 + y 2 ) 3 / 2 r 2 (1 − β 2 sin 2 θ ) 3 / 2
γKQ y ′ KQ γy KQ (1 − β 2 ) sin θ
E y = γE ′y = = =
( x′ 2 + y ′ 2 ) 3 / 2 (γ 2 x 2 + y 2 ) 3 / 2 r 2 (1 − β 2 sin 2 θ ) 3 / 2
The magnitude of E is given by E = E x + E y and hence,
2 2 2
E-field of a
moving charge!
KQ (1 − β 2 )
E= 2
r (1 − β 2 sin 2 θ ) 3 / 2

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Electric Field of a Moving Charge Particle

E
Q θ
Q V
Moving Charge:
E-field NOT Spherically Summetric
Stationary Charge:
Spherically Symmetric E-field
There is the same amount of electric flux lines but lines are shifted. In
both cases
! !
Q = ε 0 ∫ E ⋅ dA
S (t )
Closed Loop
The E-field of a moving charge is a
E remarkable electric field. It is a field that
no stationary charge distribution, in
θ whatever form, can produce. For this
Q electric field has the property that
V ! !
∇× E ≠ 0
and the line integral of E is not zero
around every closed loop. The field of a
moving charge is not an electrostatic field
which has
! !
∇× E = 0 .
Electrostatic Field

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Force on a Charged Particle in an E-Field

Consider the interaction of a moving charge with stationary charges
(Case I, O-frame, lab frame) or a stationary charge with moving
charges (Case II, O'-frame, particle frame).
Case I: Parallel Force
E|| = E||′
E V
+ - V E'
+ -
+ -
F|| = F||′
+ -
+ - + -
+ -
F|| = QE ||
V + -
+ Q - + Q -
+ -
F||′ = QE||′
+ -
+ - + -
+ - + -
Lab Frame Particle Frame
O-frame O'-frame
Case II: Perpendicular Force

--------------
E⊥′ = γE⊥
-------------- V
F⊥ = F⊥′ / γ
E E'
Q V F⊥ = QE ⊥ Q
F⊥′ = QE⊥′ V
++++++++++ ++++++++++
Lab Frame Particle Frame
O-frame O'-frame
Same in all
Hence, frames!
r r
F = QE
in any frame of reference. The laws of physics are invariant under
change of frame of reference!

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Interaction of a Moving Charge with a Current

Carrying Wire
Consider the force on of a moving charge particle with speed, V, due to a
(neutral) wire carring a current, I. Even though the wire is electrically
neutral (no electric force), the charge particle experiences a force, Fnew.
This new force is the magnetic force and can be calculated from our
knowledge of the electric force and special relativity.
Case I: V and I in the same direction

Attractive
Q 2 KQ VI
Fnew =
Toward Wire
V
c2 r
Fnew r 1
K=
4πε 0
Neutral Wire
Current I
Case II: V and I in the opposite directions
Fnew 2 KQ VI
Q Fnew =
V c2 r
1
K=
Repulsive
4πε 0
r Away from Wire
Neutral Wire
Current I
The Magnetic Force:

! ! ! ! 2 kI K
Fnew = FB = QV × B Bwire = k=
r c2

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Interaction of a Moving Charge with other

Moving Charges – Case I
y Moving Charge y'
O Q O'
V Q
F Charge at rest
F'
-+-+- +
- -+- +- -+-+- -+-+- +- -+- +- -+-+- +- -+- +- -+-+- +
- -+- +- V ++++++++++++++++++++++
V -------------------------------
x x'
Neutral Wire Negatively Charged Wire
z z'
Lab Frame (O-frame): Charge Particle Frame (O'-frame): Charge

particle Q moving to the right with particle Q at rest. Wire is now
velocity V. Neutral wire with current negatively charged with λ' =λ λ'- <0,
λ'+-λ
I = λ+V moving to the right with λ and the particle experiences an
=λ λ- =0, where λ is the net charge
λ+-λ electric field, E' = 2Kλλ'/r' and an
density of the wire. Particle (attractive) electric force F’ =
experiences a “magnetic” force F. 2KQλ λ'/r'.
Calculate the force in the lab frame from knowledge of the electric force
in the particle frame! “Rest” Densities Neutral Wire
Lab Frame:
λ+ = γλ+0 λ− = λ−0 λ = λ+ − λ− = 0 Negatively
+ − + +
γλ = λ0 0 I = λ V = cγβλ 0
Charged Wire!
Particle Frame:
λ ′+ = λ+0 λ ′− = γλ−0 λ ′ = λ ′+ − λ ′− = λ+0 − γλ−0 = − β 2γ 2 λ+0
F⊥′ = 2 KQ λ ′ / r ′ = 2 KQ β 2γ 2 λ+0 / r ′ Attractive Force
Lab Frame:
βI VI
F⊥ = F⊥′ / γ = 2 KQ β 2γλ+0 / r = 2 KQ = 2 KQ 2
Magnetic Force!
cr c r
F⊥ = QVB B = 2 kI / r k = K / c2
Magnetic Field!
PHY2061 R. D. Field
Interaction of a Moving Charge with other

Moving Charges – Case II
y F Moving Charge y'
O F'
O'
Q V Q
Charge at rest
V v'x
-+-+- +
- -+- +- -+-+- -+-+- +- -+- +- -+-+- +- -+- +- -+-+- +
- -+- +- ++++++++++++++++++++++
-------------------------------
x V x'
Neutral Wire Positively Charged Wire
z z'
Lab Frame (O-frame): Charge Particle Frame (O'-frame): Charge

particle Q moving to the right with particle Q at rest. Wire is now
velocity V. Neutral wire with current positively charged with λ' =λ λ'+-λ
λ'- >0,
I = λ+V moving to the left with λ =λλ+- and the particle experiences an
λ- =0, where λ is the net charge density λ'/r' and an
electric field, E' = 2Kλ
of the wire. Particle experiences a (repulsive) electric force F’ =
“magnetic” force F. 2KQλ λ'/r'.
Calculate the force in the lab frame from knowledge of the electric force
in the particle frame! “Rest” Densities Neutral Wire
Lab Frame:
λ+ = γλ+0 λ− = λ−0 λ = λ+ − λ− = 0 Positively
γλ+0 = λ−0 I = λ+V = cγβλ+0

Charged Wire!
Particle Frame:
λ ′+ = γ ′λ+0 λ ′− = γλ−0 λ ′ = λ ′+ − λ ′− = (γ ′ − γ 2 )λ+0 = β 2γ 2 λ+0
v′x = (v x − V ) /(1 − v xV / c 2 ) = −2V /(1 + β 2 ) γ ′ = γ 2 (1 + β 2 )
F⊥′ = 2 KQ λ ′ / r ′ = 2 KQ β 2γ 2 λ+0 / r ′ Repulsive Force
Lab Frame:
βI VI
F⊥ = F⊥′ / γ = 2 KQ β 2γλ+0 / r = 2 KQ = 2 KQ 2
cr c r
Magnetic Force!
F⊥ = QVB B = 2 kI / r k = K / c2
Magnetic Field!
PHY2061 R. D. Field
Transformation Properties of E and B

y y' O : (Ex,Ey,Ez,Bx,By,Bz)
Consider two frames of reference O': (E'x,E'y,E'z,B'x,B'y,B'z)
the O-frame and the O'-frame V
moving at a constant velocity V,
with respect to each other at let
Point P
the origins coincide at t= t' = 0. O O'
Note that B has units of Tesla =
x x'
N/(C m/s) and E has units of N/C
so that E and cB have the same
z z'
units.
E x′ = E x E ′y = γ ( E y − βcBz ) E z′ = γ ( E z + βcB y )
cBx′ = cBx cB′y = γ (cB y + βE z ) cBz′ = γ (cBz − βE y )
Same in all inertial frames
Lorentz Invariants:
r r
E⋅B and E 2 − c 2 B 2 are Lorentz invariants
r
Special Case: Suppose that B = 0 everywhere in the O-frame. Then, in
the O'-frame
E x′ = E x E ′y = γE y E z′ = γE z
cBx′ = 0 cB′y = γβE z cBz′ = − βγE y
cBx′ = 0 cB′y = βE z′ cBz′ = − βE ′y
and thus
r 1 r r r
B = 2 v ′ × E′
′ where v ′ = −Vxˆ ′ .
c
True if B = 0 in O-frame

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Magnetic Field of a Moving Charged Particle

E
Lab Frame:
Particle moving at speed V
E
θ
Q Q V
Particle Frame:
Particle at rest
B=0
Particle Frame:
! KQ !
E = 2 rˆ B=0
r
Lab Frame:
! KQ (1 − β 2 )
Q
E= rˆ B E
V
r (1 − β sin θ )
2 2 2 3/ 2
! 1 ! !
B = 2V ×E
c
B B is perpenducular to both E and V and has a
magnitude
E
KQ (1 − β 2 )V sin θ
B= 2 2
Q
c r (1 − β 2 sin 2 θ ) 3 / 2
V out of paper

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Force Between Two Moving Charged Particles

Consider the force on q moving with velocity v due to v
q
Q moving with velocity V. The moving charge Q
produces both an electric and magnetic field given by
r
! KQ (1 − β ) 2
E= rˆ r
θ
r 2 (1 − β 2 sin 2 θ ) 3 / 2
V
Q
! 1 ! !
B = 2 V ×E
c
where β = V/c, which produce a force on q given by
! ! ! !
F = qE + q v × B
and thus
! KqQ (1 − β 2 ) KqQ (1 − β 2 ) ! !
F= ˆ
r + ( v × V × rˆ)
r 2 (1 − β 2 sin 2 θ ) 3 / 2 c 2 r 2 (1 − β 2 sin 2 θ ) 3 / 2
Classical Result: If is assume that v << c and V << c then we arrive at

the classical formula (approximation)
! ! ! KqQ KqQ ! !
F = FE + FB = 2 rˆ + 2 2 (v × V × rˆ)
r c r
where
! KqQ !
FE = 2 rˆ = qE
r
! kqQ ! ! ! !
FB = 2 (v × V × rˆ) = qv × B
r Classical Approximation
with k = K/c2 and
! KQ
E = 2 rˆ
r
! kQ !
B = 2 (V × rˆ)
r

PHY2061 R. D. Field
The Electromagnetic Force

The Force Between Two-Charged Particles (at rest):
v= 0 The force between two charged particles at rest is
q the electrostatic force and is given by
r ! KQq
FE = r" (electrostatic force) ,
r r2
V=0 Q
where K = 8.99x109 Nm2/C2.
The Force Between Two Moving Charged Particles:

v The force between two moving charged particles is
q the electromagnetic force and is given by
! KQq KQq ! !
r FE M = r + 2 2 v × V × r"
"
r2 c r
r (electromagnetic force)
V
Q Classical where K = 8.99x109 Nm2/C2 and c = 3x108 m/s
Approximation (speed of light in a vacuum). The first term is the
electric force and the second (new) term is the called the magnetic force so
! ! !
that F E M = F E + FB , with
! KQq  KQ  !
FE = 2 r" = q  2  r" = qE
r  r 
! KQq ! ! !  KQ !  ! !
FB = 2 2 v × V × r" = qv ×  2 2 V × r" = qv × B
c r c r 
Electric and Magnetic Fields of a The electric and magnetic fields due to the
Charged Particle Q moving with
Speed V (out of the paper) particle Q are
! KQ
E = 2 r"
r
! KQ !
Q E B = 2 2 V × r"
cr
The electromagnetic force on q is given by
! ! ! !
B
FE M = qE + qv × B (Lorenz Force).
Department of Physics chp34_1.doc Univesity of Florida

PHY2061 R. D. Field
The Magnetic Force

The Force on Charged Particle in a Magnetic Field:
The magnetic force an a charged particle q in a magnetic
B
field B is given by
! ! !
θ FB = qv × B .
q
v
θ and
The magnitude of the magnetic force is FB = qvB sinθ
B = FB/(qv sinθθ) is the definition of the magnetic field. (The
units for B are Tesla, T, where 1 T = 1 N/(C m/s)). The magnetic force
an infinitesimal charged particle dq in a magnetic field B is given by
! ! !
dFB = dqv × B .
The Force on Wire Carrying a Current in a Magnetic Field:

A current in a wire corresponds to
B-out moving charged particles with
I = dq/dt. The magnetic force on
the charge dq is
! ! !
dq
dFB = dqv × B ,
I and the speed v=dl/dt. Hence,
dl !
! dl !
dF dqv = dq = Idl ,
dt
and the magnetic force on a
! " !
infinitesimal length dl of the wire becomes dF B = Idl × B . The total
magnetic force on the wire is
! ! " !
FB = ∫ dFB = ∫ Idl × B ,
which for a straight wire of length L in a uniform magnetic field becomes
! ! !
FB = IL × B .

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Vector Multiplication: Dot & Cross

Two Vectors:
Define two vectors according to B
!
A = A x x" + A y y" + A z z"
! θ
B = B x x" + B y y" + B z z" .
The magnitudes of the vectors is given by A
!
A = A= A x2 + A y2 + A z2
!
B = B = B x2 + B y2 + B z2
Dot Product (Scalar Product):

The dot product, S, is a scalar and is given by
! ! ! !
S = A ⋅ B = A B cosθ = Ax B x + Ay B y + Az Bz
Cross Product (Vector

! Product):
The cross product, C , is a vector and is given by
! ! !
C = A × B = ( Ay Bz − Az By ) x" − ( Ax Bz − Az Bx ) y" + ( Ax By − Ay Bx )z"
The magnitude of the cross product is given by
! ! ! ! !
C = A × B = A B sin θ
The direction of the cross product can be determined from the "right
hand rule".
Determinant Method:
The cross product can be constructed by evaluating the following
determinant:
x" y" z"

! ! !
C = A × B = Ax Ay Az
Bx By Bz

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Motion of a Charged Particle in a Magnetic Field

y-axis
Consider a charged particle q
with velocity
!
v = v x x" + v y y" ,
v and kinetic energy
1 1 ! !
E kin = mv 2 = mv ⋅ v ,
q x-axis 2 2
R
in a uniform magnetic field
!
B = − Bz" .
B-in The magnetic force on the
particle is given by !
! !
FB = qv × B .
The magnetic force does not change the speed (kinetic energy)
of the charged particle. The magnetic force does no work on the
charged particle since the force is always perpendicular to the path of the
particle. There is no change in the particle's kinetic energy and no change in
its speed.
! ! !
! ! dv dv ! !
Proof: We know that FB = qv × B = m m = qv × B . Hence
dt dt
! ! !
dE kin 1 dv 2 1 d ( v ⋅ v ) ! dv ! ! !
= m = m = mv ⋅ = qv ⋅ v × B = 0 ,
dt 2 dt 2 dt dt
and thus Ekin (and v) are constant in time.
The magnetic force can change the direction a charged particle but not
its speed. The particle undergoes circular
v(t+dt) motion with angular velocity ω = qB/m.
Fdt/m
F qvB
dθ vd θ = dt = dt
m m
v(t) dθ qB
ω = =
dt m

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Circular Motion: Magnetic vs Gravitational

Planetary Motion:
For circular planetary motion the force on
v
the orbiting planet is equal the mass times
the centripetal acceleration, a = v2/r, as m
M r
follows:
FG = GmM/r2 = mv2/r
Solving for the radius and speed gives,
r = GM/v2 and v = (GM/r)1/2. The
period of the rotation (time it takes to go around once) is given by
2π
T=2π πr/v=2ππGM/v3 or T = r 3 / 2 . The angular velocity, ω = dθ
θ/dt,
GM
ω, since s = rθ
and linear velocity v = ds/dt are related by v = rω θ. Thus,
ω = GM / r . The angular velocity an period are related by T = 2π
3/2
π/ω
ω
and the linear frequency f and ω are related by ω = 2π πf with T = 1/f.
Planets further from the sum travel slower and thus have a longer
period T.
Magnetism:
For magnetic circular motion the force
on the charged particle is equal its mass
v times the centripetal acceleration,
a = v2/r, as follows:
r
q
FB = qvB = mv2/r.
Solving for the radius and speed gives,
B-in
r = mv/(qB) = p/(qB) ,
and v = qBr/m. The period of the
πr/v =
rotation is given by T = 2π
πm/(qB) and is independent of the radius! The frequency (called the
2π
πm) is the same for all
cyclotron frequency) is given by f = 1/T= qB/(2π
particles with the same charge and mass (ω = qB/m).

PHY2061 R. D. Field
The Magnetic Field Produced by a Current

The Law of Biot-Savart:
P The magnetic field at the
point P due to a charge dQ
moving with speed V within
r a wire carrying a current I
r is given by
! K dQ !
dB = 2 2 V × r"
W ire
dQ I
dl
c r
where K = 8.99x109 Nm2/C2 and c = 3x108 m/s
!
(speed of light in a vacuum).
! dl ! !
However, we know that I = dQ/dt and V = so that dQ V = Idl
dt
and,
! kI !
dB = 2 dl × r" (Law of Biot-Savart),
r
where k = K/c2 = 10-7 Tm/A. For historical reasons we define µ0 as
follows:
µ0 K
k = = 2 , µ0 = 4π
(µ π x 10-7 Tm/A).
4π c
Example (Infinite Straight Wire): Magnetic Field of an Infinite Wire

Carrying Current I (out of the paper)
I
An infinitely long straight wire carries a steady
I-out
current I. What is the magnetic field at a
distance r from the wire? B
2 kI
Answer: B (r ) =
r

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Calculating the Magnetic Field (1)
I
L
Example (Straight Wire Segment):
An infinitely long straight wire carries a steady current I. What is the
magnetic field at a distance y from the wire due to the segment 0 <x < L?
kI L
Answer: B ( r ) =
y y 2 + L2
Example (Semi-Circle):
A thin wire carrying a current I
is bent into a semi-circle of R
I
radius R. What is the magnitude
P
of magnetic field at the center of
the semi-circle?
πkI
Answer: B =
R
Example (Circle): I
A thin wire carrying a current I is forms a
R
circle of radius R. What is the magnitude of
magnetic field at the center of the semi-circle? P
2πkI
Answer: B =
R

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Calculating the Magnetic Field (2)
Example (Current Loop): I

A thin ring of radius R carries a
current I. What is the magnetic R
field at a point P on the z-axis a P z-axis
distance z from the center of the
z
ring?
Answer:
2 kIπR 2
Bz ( z ) =
(z 2 + R 2 )3/2
Example (Magnetic Dipole):

A thin ring of radius R carries a R P z-axis
current I. What is the magnetic z
field at a point P on the z-axis a I
distance z >> R from the center of
the ring?
2 kµ B
Answer: B ( z ) = µB = IπR 2 = IA
z
z3
The quantity µB is called the magnetic dipole moment,
µB = NIA,
where N is the number of loops, I is the current and A is the area.

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Ampere's Law
Gauss' Law for Magnetism:

The net magnetic flux emanating from a closed surface S is proportional to
the amount of magnetic charge enclosed by the surface as follows:
! !
Φ B = ∫ B ⋅ dA ∝ Qenclosed
Magnetic
.
S
However, there are no magnetic charges (no magnetic monopoles) so the
net magnetic flux emanating from a closed surface S is always zero,
! ! ! !
Φ B = ∫ B ⋅ dA = 0 which implies ∇⋅B = 0
S
Ampere's Law:
Magnetic Field of an Infinite Wire The line integral of the magnetic field around a
Carrying Current I (out of the paper) closed loop (circle) of radius r around a
is B(r) = 2kI/r.
current carrying wire is given by
!
∫
Loop
B ⋅ dl = 2 π rB ( r ) = 4 π kI = µ 0 I .
r
I-out This result is true for any closed loop that
Curve C encloses the current I.
B
The line integral of the magnetic field around any closed path C is equal
to µ0 times the current intercepted by the area spanning the path:
!
∫ B ⋅ dl = µ0 I enclosed
C
Ampere's Law
The current enclosed by the closed curve C is given by the integral over
the surface S (bounded by the curve C) of the current density J as follows:
! !
I enclosed = ∫S
J ⋅ dA

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Ampere's Law Examples

Example (Infinite Straight Wire with radius R):
An infinitely long straight wire has a circular cross section of radius R and
carries a uniform current density J along the wire. The total current carried
by the wire is I. What is the magnitude of the magnetic field inside and
outside the wire?
Answer:
R
2 kI
B out ( r ) = I
r
2 krI .
B in ( r ) =
R2
Example (Infinite Solenoid):

An infinitely long thin straight wire carrying current I is tightly wound into
helical coil of wire (solenoid) of radius R and infinite length and with n
turns of wire per unit length. What is the magnitude and direction of the
magnetic field inside and outside the Infinite Solenoid
solenoid (assume zero pitch)? I R
Answer:
B out ( r ) = 0 B
B in ( r ) = µ 0 nI .
Example (Toroid):
A solenoid bent into the shape of a doughnut is called a toriod. What is the
magnitude and direction of the magnetic field
inside and outside a toriod of inner radius R1 and Toriod
outer radius R2 and N turns of wire carrying a
current I (assume zero pitch)?
Answer:
R1
B out ( r ) = 0
R2
2 kN I
B in ( r ) =
r

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Electromagnetic Induction
Conducting Rod Moving through a Uniform Magnetic Field:
Rod B-out The magnetic force on the charge
q in the rod is
! ! !
q FB = qv × B .
L v
FB The induced EMF, ε, is equal to
the amount of work done by the
magnetic field in moving a unit
charge across the rod,
1 ! ! ! ! !
ε = ∫ FB ⋅ dl = ∫ v × B ⋅ dl = vLB .
q
In Steady State:
In steady state a charge q in the rod Rod B-out
experiences no net force since, ---
! !
FE + F B = 0 , FE
and thus,
! ! ! q
E = −v × B . L v
FB
The induced EMF (change in
electric potential across the rod) is
+++
calculated from the electric field in
the usual way,
! ! ! ! !
ε = ∫ E ⋅ dl = − ∫ v × B ⋅ dl = vLB ,
which is the same as the work done per unit charge by the magnetic
field.

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Induced Electric Fields
y Rod B-out y' Rod B'-out
E'
q q
v
x x'
Lab Frame (O-frame) Rod Frame (O'-frame)
Lab Frame: Rod Frame:

! ! ! !
B ext = B zˆ V rod = V xˆ ′ ′
B ext = γ B zˆ V rod′ =0
! ! ! ! !
F = F B = q V × B = − qVB yˆ ′ = − γβ cB yˆ
E ext
! ! !
F ′ = F E′ = q E ′ = − q γ VB yˆ ′
Observer O: Inside
the rod there has
developed and induced Observer O': Inside
In Steady State: electric field that exerts In Steady State: the rod there is no net
a force which just electric field although
Rod balances the magnetic Rod there is a uniform
----- force. ------ magnetic field, no force
arises from it because
F=qEind F' =qE'ind no charges are moving.
q V q
FB F'E
+++++ +++++
! ! ! !
q E ind + F B = 0 ′ + F E′ = 0
q E ind
! !
E ind = VB yˆ ′ = γ VB yˆ ′
E ind

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Electromagnetic Induction
Conducting Loop Moving through a Uniform Magnetic Field:
The magnetic force on the charge
Loop B-out q in the loop on side 1 is,
--- ! ! !
FB 1 = qv × B1 ,
FE
and for a charge q on side 2 to it is,
! ! !
q v FB 2 = qv × B 2 .
FB However, because the magnetic
! !
field is uniform, B1 = B 2 ,
1 2
+++
and the induced EMF's on side 1
and side 2 are equal, ε1 = ε2, and
the net EMF around the loop (counterclockwise) is zero,
1 ! !
ε =
q Loop
∫ FB ⋅ dl = ε1 − ε 2 = 0 .
Conducting Loop Moving through a Non-Uniform Magnetic

Field:
If we move a conducting loop
B1 through a non-uniform magnetic
B2 field then induced EMF's on side 1
and side 2 are not equal, ε1 = vLB1,
L FB2 ε2 = vLB2, and the net EMF
FB1 v
around the loop (counterclockwise)
1 2 is,
1 ! !
ε =
q ∫
Loop
FB ⋅ d l = ε 1 − ε 2 = v L ( B1 − B 2 ) .
This induced EMF will cause a current to flow around the loop in a
counterclockwise direction (if B1 > B2)!

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Faraday's Law of Induction
Magnetic Flux:
The magnetic flux through the surface S is defined by,
! !
Φ B = ∫
S
B ⋅ dA .
In the simple case where B is constant and normal to the surface then
ΦB = BA.
The units for magnetic flux are webbers (1 Wb = 1 Tm2).
Rate of Change of the Magnetic Flux through Moving Loop:
B1 The change in magnetic flux, dΦ Φ B,

B2 in a time dt through the moving loop
is,
L ΦB = B2dA-B1dA,
dΦ
v with dA = vdtL so that
dΦ B
vdt vdt
= − v L ( B1 − B 2 ) = − ε
dt
where ε is the induced EMF. Hence,
dΦ B
ε = − (Faraday's Law of Induction).
dt
Substituting in the definition of the induced EMF and the magnetic flux
yields,
!
! ! dΦ B d  ! ! ∂B !
ε = ∫ E ⋅ dl = − = −  ∫ B ⋅ dA = − ∫ ⋅ d A
C lo s e d
dt d t  S u r fa c e 
 S u r fa c e
∂t
Loop
We see that a changing magnetic field (with time) can produce an

electric field!

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Lenz's Law
Example (Loop of Wire in a Changing Magnetic Field):
A wire loop with a radius, r, of 1
B-out meter is placed in a uniform
changing with time
magnetic field. Suppose that the
r
electromagnetic is suddenly
switched off and the strength of
the magnetic field decreases at a
rate of 20 Tesla per second.
What is the induced EMF in the
Loop loop (in Volts)? If the resistance
of the loop, R, is 5 Ohms, what is
the induced current in the loop (in Amps)? What is the direction of the
induced current? What is the magnitude and direction of the magnetic
field produced by the induced current (the induced magnetic field) at
the center of the circle?
Answers: If I choose my orientation to be counterclockwise then
ΦB = BA and
ε = -dΦ
ΦB/dt = -A dB/dt = -(πr2)(-20T/s) = 62.8 V.
The induced current is I = ε/R = (62.8 V)/(5 Ω) = 12.6 A. Since ε is
positive the current is flowing in the direction of my chosen orientation
(counterclockwise). The induced magnetic field at the center of the circle
is given by Bind = 2ππkI/r = (2π x 10-7 Tm/A)(12.6 A)/(1 m) = 7.9 µT and
points out of the paper.
Lenz's Law: It is a physical fact not a law or not a consequence of

sign conventions that an electromagnetic system tends to resist change.
Traditionally this is referred to as Lenz's Law:
Induced EMF's are always in such a direction as to oppose the
change that generated them.

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Induction Examples
Example (simple generator):
A conducting rod of length L is pulled
B-out
along horizontal, frictionless,
Rod conducting rails at a constant speed v.
A uniform magnetic field (out of the
R
paper) fills the region in which the rod
v
moves. The rails and the rod have
negligible resistance but are connected
by a resistor R. What is the induced
EMF in the loop? What is the
induced current in the loop? At what rate is thermal energy being
generated in the resistor? What force must be applied to the rod by an
external agent to keep it in uniform motion? At what rate does this
external agent do work on the system?
B-out
Example (terminal velocity):
A long rectangular loop of wire of width L, L
mass M, and resistance R, falls vertically

due to gravity out of a uniform magnetic
field. Instead of falling with an
acceleration, g, the loop falls a constant
velocity (called the terminal velocity).
What is the terminal velocity of the loop?
Example (non-uniform magnetic field): Mg

A rectangular loop of wire with
c a I length a, width b, and resistance R
is moved with velocity v away from
an infinitely long wire carrying a
b
current I. What is the induced
current in the loop when it is a
v distance c from the wire?

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Mutual & Self Inductance

B1 Mutual Inductance (M):
I1 I2 Consider two fixed coils with a varying
current I1 in coil 1 producing a magnetic
field B1. The induced EMF in coil 2 due
Coil 1 Coil 2
to B1 is proportional to the magnetic flux
! !
through coil 2, Φ 2 = ∫B 1 ⋅ dA 2 = N 2 φ2 ,
coil 2
where N2 is the number of loops in coil 2 and φ2 is the flux through a single
loop in coil 2. However, we know that B1 is proportional to I1 which
means that Φ2 is proportional to I1. The mutual inductance M is defined
to be the constant of proportionality between Φ2 and I1 and depends on
the geometry of the situation,
Φ N φ
M = 2 = 2 2 Φ 2 = N 2 φ 2 = M I 1 . The induced EMF in coil 2 due
I1 I1
to the varying current in coil 1 is given by,
The units for inductance is a Henry
dΦ 2 dI
ε2 = − = −M 1 (1 H = Tm2/A = Vs/A).
dt dt
Self Inductance (L): B1

I1
When the current I1 in coil 1 is varying there is a
changing magnetic flux due to B1 in coil 1 itself!
The self inductance L is defined to be the constant of Coil 1
proportionality between Φ1 and I1 and depends on the
geometry of the situation,
Φ N φ
L = 1 = 1 1 Φ 1 = N 1φ1 = L I 1 ,
I1 I1
where N1 is the number of loops in coil 1 and φ1 is the flux through a single
loop in coil 1. The induced EMF in coil 2 due to the varying current in
coil 1 is given by,
dΦ 1 dI
ε1 = − = −L 1
dt dt

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Energy Stored in a Magnetic Field

When an external source of EMF is connected to an B
inductor and current begins to flow, the induced I
EMF (called back EMF) will oppose the increasing
current and the external EMF must do work in
order to overcome this opposition. This work is Coil
stored in the magnetic field and can be recovered by
removing the external EMF.
Energy Stored in an Inductor L:
The rate at which work is done by the back EMF (power) is
dI
Pba ck = ε I = − L I
dt ,
since ε = -LdI/dt. The power supplied by the external EMF (rate at which
work is done against the back EMF) is
dW dI
P = = LI
dt dt ,
and the energy stored in the magnetic field of the inductor is
t I
dI 1 2
U = ∫ P dt = ∫
0
LI
dt
dt = ∫0
LIdI =
2
LI .
Energy Density of the Magnetic Field u:

Magnetic field line contain energy! The amount of
energy per unit volume is B
1
uB = B2
2µ0
where B is the magnitude of the magnetic field. The
magnetic energy density has units of Joules/m3.
The total amount of energy in an infinitesimal volume
dV is dU = uBdV and
U = ∫u
V o lu m e
B dV .
If B is constant through the volume, V, then U = uB V.

PHY2061 R. D. Field
RL Circuits
"Building-Up" Phase: A
Switch
Connecting the switch to position A B
R
corresponds to the "building up" phase of +
an RL circuit. Summing all the potential ε L
changes in going around the loop gives
dI -
ε − IR − L = 0 ,
dt
where I(t) is a function of time. If the switch is closed (position A) at t=0
and I(0)=0 (assuming the current is zero at t=0) then
dI 1 ε 
R  , where I have define τ=L/R.
= − I − 
dt τ 
Dividing by (I-ε/R) and multiplying by dt and integrating gives
 I − ε / R
t
dI 1 t
∫0 (I − ε / R ) ∫0 τ , which implies  − ε / R 
I
= − dt ln   = −
τ .
Solving for I(t) gives "Building-Up" Phase of an RL Circuit
ε
1.50
I (t ) =
R
(1 − e − t /τ ) . 1.25
1.00
The potential change I(t) 0.75
across the inductor is 0.50
given by ∆VL(t)=-LdI/dt 0.25
which yields 0.00

0 1 2 3 4
− t /τ
∆ V L (t ) = − εe . Time
The quantity τ=L/R is call the time constant and has dimensions of time.
"Collapsing" Phase:
Connecting the switch to position B corresponds to the "collapsing" phase
of an RL circuit. Summing all the potential changes in going around the
dI
loop gives − I R − L = 0 , where I(t) is a function of time. If the
dt
switch is closed (position B) at t=0 then I(0)=I0 and
dI 1
= − I and I ( t ) = I 0 e − t / τ .
dt τ

PHY2061 R. D. Field
PHY2060
Review
Simple Harmonic Motion
Hooke's Law Spring:
For a Hooke's Law spring the restoring force is linearly proportional to the
distance from equilibrium, Fx = -kx, where k is the spring constant. Since,
Fx = max we have
d 2x d 2x k
− kx = m 2 or + x = 0 , where x = x(t).
dt dt 2 m
General Form of SHM Differential Equation:
The general for of the simple harmonic motion (SHM) differential
equation is
d 2 x (t )
+ Cx ( t ) = 0 ,
dt 2
where C is a positive constant (for the Hooke's Law spring C=k/m). The
most general solution of this 2nd order differential equation can be written
in the following four ways:
x ( t ) = Ae iωt + Be − iωt
x ( t ) = A cos(ω t ) + B sin(ω t )
x ( t ) = A sin(ω t + φ )
x ( t ) = A cos(ω t + φ )
where A, B, and φ are
arbitrary constants and ωt+φ
x(t) = Acos(ω φ)
ω = C . In the chart, A is
1.0
the amplitude of the T
oscillations and T is the 0.5
A
period. The linear 0.0
frequency f = 1/T is 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
measured in cycles per second -0.5
(1 Hz = 1/sec). The angular -1.0

frequency ω = 2π πf and is ωt+φ (radians)
measured in radians/second.
For the Hooke's Law Spring C = k/m and thus ω = C = k / m .

PHY2061 R. D. Field
PHY2060
Review
SHM Differential Equation
The general for of the simple harmonic motion (SHM) differential
equation is
d 2 x (t )
+ Cx ( t ) = 0 ,
dt 2
where C is a constant. One way to solve this equation is to turn it into an
algebraic equation by looking for a solution of the form
x ( t ) = Ae at .
Substituting this into the differential equation yields,
a 2 Ae at + CAe at = 0 or a = − C .
2
Case I (C > 0, oscillatory solution):

For positive C, a = ± i C = ± iω , where ω = C . In this case
the most general solution of this 2nd order differential equation can be
written in the following four ways:
x ( t ) = Ae iωt + Be − iωt
x ( t ) = A cos(ω t ) + B sin(ω t )
x ( t ) = A sin(ω t + φ )
x ( t ) = A cos(ω t + φ )
where A, B, and φ are arbitrary constants (two arbitrary constants for a
± iθ
2nd order differential equation). Remember that e = cosθ ± i sin θ
where i = −1.
Case II (C < 0, exponential solution):
For negative C, a = ± − C = ± γ , where γ = − C . In this case,
the most general solution of this 2nd order differential equation can be
written as follows:
x ( t ) = A e γt + B e − γt ,
where A and B arbitrary constants.

PHY2061 R. D. Field
PHY2060
Review
The Complex Plane
z = Re(z ) + i Im(z ) = z eiφ

Im(z) z = x+iy
z = Re(z ) − i Im(z ) = z e −iφ
y |z|
1
x = Re(z) = z cosφ = ( z + z ∗ )
φ 2
1
y = Im(z) = z sinφ = ( z − z ∗ )
x Re(z)
Magnitude 2i
Phase
φ = arctan(y / x)
z = x2 + y 2 = zz∗
π
±iφ ±i
e ±iφ
= cosφ ± i sinφ e =1 i = −1 ± i = e
2 2
Using Complex Numbers to Represent SHM

z = Aeiωω t ωt
Im(z) = Asinω
Im(z) We can use complex
A
numbers to represent
simple harmonic motion.
φ = ωt
ω
If we let
Re(z) t
z = Aeiωt
then
Re(z) = Acosω
SHM with
amplitude A and
“angular”
Re(z) = A sin ωt
frequency ω
Im(z) = A cosωt
ωt
A= z
t
Department of Physics chp38_5b.doc University of Florida

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Capacitors and Inductors
Capacitors Store Electric Potential Energy:
Q2
UE =
Q 2C
C E
Q = C ∆ VC ∆ VC = Q / C
1
uE = ε0 E 2 (E-field energy density)
2
Inductors Store Magnetic Potential Energy:

1
B U B = LI 2
2
I
Φ B = LI L = ΦB / I
L dI
εL = − L
dt
1
uB = B 2 (B-field energy density)
2 µ0

PHY2061 R. D. Field
An LC Circuit
At t = 0 the switch is closed and a
capacitor with initial charge Q0 is
Switch connected in series across an inductor
Q (assume there is no resistance). The
+++ +++
L initial conditions are Q(0) = Q0 and
C
--- ---
I(0) = 0. Moving around the circuit in
the direction of the current flow yields
Q dI
− L = 0.
C dt
Since I is flowing out of the capacitor, I = − dQ / dt , so that
d 2Q 1
+ Q = 0.
dt 2 LC
This differential equation for Q(t) is the SHM differential equation we
studied earlier with ω = 1 / LC and solution
Q ( t ) = A co s ω t + B sin ω t .
The current is thus,
dQ
I (t ) = − = A ω sin ω t − B ω co s ω t .
dt
Applying the initial conditions yields
Q ( t ) = Q 0 co s ω t
I ( t ) = Q 0ω sin ω t
Thus, Q(t) and I(t) oscillate with SHM with angular frequency
ω = 1 / LC . The stored energy oscillates between electric and magnetic
according to
Q 2 (t ) Q 02
U E (t ) = = co s 2 ω t
2C 2C
1 1
U B ( t ) = L I 2 ( t ) = L Q 02 ω 2 sin 2 ω t
2 2
Energy is conserved since Utot(t) = UE(t) + UB(t) = Q02/2C is constant.

PHY2061 R. D. Field
LC Oscillations
I I
t=0 t = T/4 B
Q
+++ +++
E C L L
C
--- ---
1.0
Q ( t ) = Q 0 co s ω t Q(t)
I ( t ) = Q 0ω sin ω t
0.5
I(t)
0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
-0.5
-1.0
ωt (radians)
Utot = UE + UB
1.0
Q 02
UE(t) UB(t) U E (t ) = co s 2 ω t
2C
Q 02
0.5 U B (t ) = sin 2 ω t
2C
0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
ωt (radians)

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Mechanical Analogy
t=0 I
t=0
Q
+++ +++
k E C L
m --- ---
x-axis
x0
At t = 0: At t = 0:
1 2 1
E = kx U = Q 02
2 0 2C
v = 0 I =0
At Later t: At Later t:
dx dQ
v= I =−
dt dt
x ( t ) = x 0 cos ω t Q ( t ) = Q0 cos ω t
k 1
ω = ω =
m LC
1 1 1 1
E = mv 2 + kx 2 E = LI 2 + Q2
2 2 2 2C
Constant
Correspondence:
x (t ) ↔ Q (t )
v (t ) ↔ I (t )
m↔ L
k ↔ 1/ C

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Maxwell's Equations (integral form)
I. (Gauss' Law):
E
! ! Qenclosed 1
Φ E = ∫ E ⋅ dA = = ∫ ρdV Charge Q
Surface
ε0 ε 0 Volume
Volume Enclosed by Surface

Two Sources of Electric Fields
II. (Gauss' Law for Magnetism):

! !
ΦB = ∫ B ⋅ dA = 0
Surface
No Magnetic Charges!
III. (Faraday's Law of Induction): E

!
! ! dΦ B ∂B !
ε = ∫ E ⋅ dl = − =− ∫
Changing
⋅ dA Magnetic
Curve
dt Surface
∂ t Field
Surface Bounded by Curve
IV. (Ampere's Law): B
! ! ! !
∫ B ⋅ dl = µ0 I enclosed = µ0 ∫ J ⋅ dA
Current
Density J
Curve Surface
Surface Bounded by Curve One Source of Magnetic Fields

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Curl of the Electric Field

Consider a fixed coil with varying current I. If C is a B(x,y,z,t)
closed curve, stationary in the O-frame, and if S is a I
r
surface spanning C, and B ( x , y , z , t ) is the magnetic
field measured in the O-frame at time t, then Curve C
r r r r Coil
ε = ∫ E ⋅ dr and
Φ B = ∫ B ⋅ dA . Faraday’s
C S
Law of induction tells us that
dΦ r r r r r
ε =− B
dt and Stoke’s Theorem says ∫ E ⋅ d r = ∫ (∇ × E ) ⋅ d A .
C S
Thus,
r
r r r r r d r r ∂B r
∫
C
E ⋅ d r = ∫S ( ∇ × E ) ⋅ d A = −
dt ∫S B ⋅ dA = − ∫S ∂t ⋅ dA
which implies that Differential form
r of Faraday’s Law!
r r ∂B
∇×E = −
∂t
J
Charge Conservation: Consider a volume charge
density ρ enclosed within a fixed closed surface S and
Closed
Surface S a current density J flowing through the surface.
Since electric charge is conserved we know that
Volume Charge
dQ r r
= ∫S ⋅ dA and Q = V∫ ρdV .
Density ρ
I =− where I J
dt
Thus,
r r r r d ∂ρ
∫S J ⋅ d A = ∫V ⋅ J ) dV = − dt
( ∇ ∫ ρdV
V
= −∫
V
∂t
dV
which implies that

Charge Conservation!
r r ∂ρ
∇⋅J = −
Divergence Theorem ∂t

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Maxwell's Equations (differential form)

Electric charges
I. (Gauss' Law): are a source (and
sink) of E-field!
Integral Differential
! ! Q enclosed ! ! ρ
∫
Surface
E ⋅ dA =
ε0
∇⋅E =
ε0
No magnetic
II. (Gauss' Law for Magnetism): monopoles!
! ! ! !
∫ B ⋅ dA = 0
Surface
∇⋅B = 0
Changing magnetic
III. (Faraday's Law of Induction): fields are a source
of E-field!
!
! ! dΦ B ! ! ∂B
∫
Curve
E ⋅ d l = −
dt
∇×E = −
∂t
Current is a
IV. (Ampere's Law): source of B-field!
!Integral
! Differential
! ! !
∫ B ⋅ dl = µ 0 I enclosed
Curve
∇ × B = µ0 J
Changing charge
0. (Charge Conservation): is the source of
current!
dQ ! ! ∂ρ
I =− ∇⋅J = −
dt ∂t
Something Missing! Equation IV is not consistant with Equation 0
1 ! ! ! ! 1 ! ! !
since J = ∇ × B implies ∇ ⋅ J = ∇ ⋅ ∇ × B ≡ 0 (since Div Curl = 0)
µ0 µ0
! ! ∂ρ
and charge conservation says that ∇ ⋅ J = − . Hence Equation IV cannot
∂t
be correct as it stands!

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Finding the Missing Term (differential method)

Must make Ampere’s Law consistant with charge conservation. Look for
the missing piece as follows: Missing term
! ! ! !
∇ × B = µ0 J + X .
Solution:
! 1 ! ! ! ! ! ∂ρ
J = ∇×B − X ∇⋅J = −
µ0 ∂t
! ! 1 ! ! ! 1 ! ! ∂ρ
∇⋅J = ∇ ⋅∇ × B − ∇⋅X = −
µ0 µ0 ∂t
0
Thus,
! ! ∂ρ ! !
∇ ⋅ X = µ0 ρ = ε 0∇ ⋅ E
∂t but
so that
! Corrected
! ! ∂ ! ! !  ∂E 
∇ ⋅ X = µ 0ε 0 (∇ ⋅ E ) = ∇ ⋅  µ 0ε 0 
Ampere’s Law!
∂t ∂ 
 t 
and hence
! !
Missing term! ! ∂E ! ! ! ∂E
X = µ 0ε 0 ∇ × B = µ 0 J + µ 0ε 0
∂t and
∂t
Corrected Ampere’s Law (integral form):
!
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ∂E !
∫C B ⋅ d l = ∫S ( ∇ × B ) ⋅ d A = µ 0∫
S
J ⋅ d A + µ 0 0∫
ε
S
∂ t
⋅ dA
Corrected
Thus, Ampere’s Law!
! ! ∂Φ E
∫
C
B ⋅ d l = µ I
0 enclosed + µ ε
0 0
∂t
where
! ! ! !
I = ∫ J ⋅ dA Φ E = ∫ E ⋅ dA
S S
Electric Flux!

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Finding the Missing Term (integral method)

We are looking for a new term in
E
Q
Ampere's Law of the form,
I I
! ! dΦ E
+
C
S2
S1
∫ B ⋅ dl = µ 0 I + δ
dt ,
C1 C1
ε where δ is an unknown constant
- and
! ! ! !
I = ∫ J ⋅ dA Φ E = ∫ E ⋅ dA ,
S S
R where S is any surface bounded by
the curve C1.
Case I (use surface S1):
If we use the surface S1 which is bounded by the curve C1 then
!
! ! dΦ E  ! ∂E  !
∫C 1 B ⋅ dl = µ 0 I + δ
dt
= ∫S 1  µ0 J + δ ∂ t  ⋅ dA = µ0 I ,
since E = 0 through the surface S1. 0 Must be equal,
Case II (use surface S2): hence δ=µµ0ε0.
If we use the surface S2 which is bounded by the curve C1 then

!
! ! dΦ E  ! ∂E  ! δI
∫C 1 B ⋅ dl = µ 0 I + δ
dt
= ∫S 1  µ0 J + δ ∂ t  ⋅ dA = ε0 ,
since J = 0 through the surface S2 and 0
σ Q ∂E 1 dQ I
E = = = =
ε0 ε0 A ∂t ε 0 A dt ε0 A .
Ampere's Law (complete): !
! ! dΦ E  ! ∂E  !
∫ B ⋅ d l = µ 0 I + µ 0 ε 0 d t = µ 0 ∫  J + ε 0 ∂ t  ⋅ d A = µ0 (I + I d ) ,
C u rve S u r fa c e 
!
! ! ! ∂E
Id = ∫ Jd ⋅dA Jd = ε0 .
S
∂t
"Displacement Current" "Displacement Current" Density

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Complete Maxwell's Equations (integral form)

I. (Gauss' Law):
E
! ! Qenclosed 1
Φ E = ∫ E ⋅ dA = = ∫ ρdV Charge Q
Surface
ε0 ε 0 Volume
Volume Enclosed by Surface
II. (Gauss' Law for Magnetism): Two Sources of Electric Fields
! !
ΦB = ∫ B ⋅ dA = 0
Surface
No Magnetic Charges!
E
III. (Faraday's Law of Induction): Changing

Magnetic
! Field
! ! dΦ B ∂B !
ε = ∫ E ⋅ dl = − =− ∫ ⋅ dA
Curve
dt Surface
∂ t
Two Sources of Magnetic Fields
B B
Current Changing
Density J Electric
IV. (Ampere's Law): Field
!
! ! dΦ E  ! ∂E  !
∫ B ⋅ dl = µ 0 I enc + µ 0 ε 0
Curve
dt
= µ0 ∫  J + ε0
Surface  ∂ t
 ⋅ dA


PHY2061 R. D. Field
Complete Maxwell's Equations (differential form)

Electric charges
I. (Gauss' Law): are a source (and
sink) of E-field!
! ! Q enclosed ! ! ρ
∫
Surface
E ⋅ dA =
ε0
∇⋅E =
ε0
No magnetic
II. (Gauss' Law for Magnetism): monopoles!
! ! ! !
∫ B ⋅ dA = 0
Surface
∇⋅B = 0
Changing magnetic
III. (Faraday's Law of Induction): fields are a source
of E-field!
! ! !
dΦ B ! ! ∂B
∫
Curve
E ⋅ dl = −
dt
∇×E = −
∂t
Current is a
IV. (Ampere's Law): source of B-field!
!
! ! ∂Φ E ! ! ! ∂E
∫ B
Curve
⋅ d l = µ I
0 enclosed + µ ε
0 0
∂t
∇ × B = µ 0 J + µ 0ε 0
∂t
Changing electric field Changing charge
is a source of B-field! is the source of
0. (Charge Conservation): current!
dQ ! ! ∂ρ
I =− ∇⋅J = −
dt ∂t

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Electric & Magnetic Fields that Change with

Time
Changing Magnetic Field Produces an Electric Field:
B-out increasing with time
A uniform magnetic field is confined to a
circular region of radius, r, and is increasing
with time. What is the direction and
r
magnitude of the induced electric field at
E the radius r?
Answer: If I choose my orientation to be
counterclockwise then ΦB = B(t)A with
A = πr2. Faraday's Law of Induction tells us that
! ! dΦ B dB
∫
C ircle
E ⋅ d l = 2 π rE ( r ) = −
dt
= −πr 2
dt ,
and hence E(r) = -(r/2) dB/dt. Since dB/dt > 0 (increasing with time), E is
negative which means that it points opposite my chosen orientation.
Changing Electric Field Produces a Magnetic Field:

E-out increasing with time
A uniform electric field is confined to a
circular region of radius, r, and is increasing
B with time. What is the direction and
r
magnitude of the induced magnetic field at
the radius r?
Answer: If I choose my orientation to be
counterclockwise then ΦE = E(t)A with
A = πr2. Ampere's Law (with J = 0) tells us that
! ! dΦ E π r 2 dE
∫
C ircle
B ⋅ dl = 2 π rB ( r ) = ε 0 µ 0
dt
= 2
c dt ,
and hence B(r) = (r/2c2) dE/dt. Since dE/dt > 0 (increasing with time), B is
positive which means that it points in the direction of my chosen
orientation.

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Traveling Waves
A “wave” is a traveling disturbance that transports energy but
not matter.
Constructing Traveling Waves:
To construct a wave with shape y = f(x) at time t = 0 traveling to the right
with speed v simply make the replacement x → x − vt .
y = f(x) at time t=0 y = f(x-vt)
x=0 x = vt
Traveling Harmonic Waves:

Harmonic waves have the
form y = A sin(kx) or y=Asin(kx)
y = Acos(kx) at time t = 0, λ
1.0
where k is the "wave number"
(k = 2ππ/λ
λ where λ is the "wave 0.5 A
length") and A is the 0.0
"amplitude". To construct an -0.5

harmonic wave traveling to the
right with speed v, replace x by -1.0
x-vt as follows: kx (radians)

y = Asin(k(x-vt) = Asin(kx-ω ωt) where ω = kv (v = ω/k). The period of the
π/ω
oscillation, T = 2π ω = 1/f, where f is the linear frequency (measured in
Hertz where 1Hz = 1/sec) and ω is the angular frequency (ω ω = 2π
πf). The
speed of propagation is given by v = ω/k = λf .
ωt) right moving harmonic wave

y = y(x,t) = Asin(kx-ω
ωt) left moving harmonic wave
y = y(x,t) = Asin(kx+ω

PHY2061 R. D. Field
The Wave Equation
∂ 2 y( x, t ) 1 ∂ 2 y( x, t )
− 2 =0
∂x 2
v ∂t 2
Whenever analysis of a system results in an equation of the

form given above then we know that the system supports
traveling waves propagating at speed v.
General Proof:
If y = y(x,t) = f(x-vt) then
∂y ∂2y
= f ′ = f ′′
∂x ∂x 2
∂y ∂2y
= − vf ′ = v 2
f ′′
∂t ∂t 2
and
∂ 2 y(x,t) 1 ∂ 2 y(x,t)
− 2 = f ′′ − f ′′ = 0 .
∂x 2
v ∂t 2
Proof for Harmonic Wave:

If y = y(x,t) = Asin(kx-ωωt) then
∂ y
2
∂2y
2 = − k A sin( kx − ωt ) 2 = −ω A sin( kx − ωt )
2 2
∂x ∂t
and
∂ 2 y( x, t ) 1 ∂ 2 y( x, t )  ω2
− 2 =  − k + 2  A sin( kx − ω t ) = 0 ,
2
∂x 2 v ∂t 2  v 
since ω = kv.

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Light Propagating in Empty Space

Since there are no charges and no y-axis
current in empty space, ρ = 0 and J = E
0, and Maxwell’s Equartions take the

form: ! x-axis
! ! ∂B
∇× E = −
(1) ∂t z-axis B
!
! ! ∂E
∇ × B = µ 0ε 0 ! ! ! !
(2) ∂t with ∇ ⋅ E = 0 and ⋅ B = 0 .
∇
!
Look for a solution of the form: E ( x , t ) = E y ( x , t ) yˆ
Equation (1) implies that
! xˆ yˆ zˆ
∂B ! ! ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂E y
= −∇ × E = − =− zˆ
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x
0 E y ( x, t ) 0
Thus let,
!
B ( x , t ) = B z ( x , t ) zˆ
and equation (2) gives
! xˆ yˆ zˆ
∂E ! ! ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂B
µ 0ε 0 = ∇× B = = − z yˆ
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x
0 0 Bz
Coupled Differential Equations for E & B:

∂Bz ∂E y
=−
∂t ∂x
∂E ∂B
µ 0ε 0 y = − z
∂t ∂x

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Electromagnetic Plane Waves (1)

y-axis
We have the following two differential
E
equations for Ey(x,t) and Bz(x,t):
∂Bz ∂E y
= − (1)
∂t ∂x x-axis
and
∂E y 1 ∂Bz z-axis B
=−
∂t µ0 ε 0 ∂ x (2)
Taking the time derivative of (2) and using (1) gives
∂ 2Ey 1 ∂  ∂ Bz  1 ∂  ∂ Bz  1 ∂ Ey
2
=−   =−   =
∂t 2 µ0 ε 0 ∂ t  ∂ x  µ0 ε 0 ∂ x  ∂ t  µ0 ε 0 ∂ x 2
which implies Wave equation for Ey!
∂ Ey2
∂ Ey 2
− µ ε = 0.
∂x 2 0 0
∂t 2
Thus Ey(x,t) satisfies the wave equation with speed v = 1 / ε 0 µ 0 and has a
solution in the form of traveling waves as follows:
Ey(x,t) = E0sin(kx-ω ωt),
where E0 is the amplitude of the electric field oscillations and where the
wave has a unique speed
ω 1
v=c= = λf = = 2.99792 × 10 8 m / s (speed of light).
k ε0 µ0
From (1) we see that
∂Bz ∂E y
=− = − E 0 k cos( kx − ω t ) ,
∂t ∂x
which has a solution given by
k E
Bz ( x , t ) = E 0 sin ( kx − ω t ) = 0 sin ( kx − ω t ) ,
ω c
so that
ωt),
Bz(x,t) = B0sin(kx-ω
where B0 = E0/c is the amplitude of the magnetic field oscillations.

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Electromagnetic Plane Waves (2)

The plane harmonic wave solution y-axis Direction of Propagation
E
for light with frequency f and
wavelength λ and speed c = fλ λ is
given by
!
E ( x , t ) = E 0 sin( kx − ω t ) y" x-axis
!
B ( x , t ) = B 0 sin( kx − ω t ) z" B
z-axis
π/λ
where k = 2π λ, ω = 2π
πf, and
E0 = cB0.
Properties of the Electromagnetic Plane Wave:

• Wave travels at speed c ( c =1/ µ0ε0 ).
! !
• E and B are perpendicular ( ⋅ B = 0).! !
E
• The wave travels in the direction of E × B .
• At any point and time E = cB.
The Electromagnetic Spectrum:
Frequency (in Hertz)
6 3
24 21 18 15 12 9
10 10 1
10 10 10 10 10 10 1 MHz 1 kHz 1 Hz
Gamma rays Ultraviolet Infrared
X-rays Visible Microwaves TV FM AM Long radio waves
-15 -12 -9 -6 -3 3 6 9
10 10 10 10 10 1 10 10 10
1 fm 1 pm 1 nm 1 µm 1 mm 1m 1 km
Wavelength (in meters)
RelativeSensitivity of theHumanEye
100%
Violet Blue Green Yellow Orange Red Visible spectrum
400nm – 700nm
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
400 450 500 550 600 650 700
Wavelength (innm)
PHY2061 R. D. Field
Energy Transport - Poynting Vector

Electric and Magnetic Energy Density: y-axis
For an electromagnetic plane wave E
Ey(x,t) = E0sin(kx-ωωt),
ωt),
Bz(x,t) = B0sin(kx-ω x-axis
where B0 = E0/c. The electric energy density

z-axis B
is given by
1 1
uE = ε0 E 2 = ε0 E02 sin 2 ( kx − ωt ) and the magnetic energy density is
2 2
1 2 1 1
uB = B = E 2
= ε0 E 2 = uE ,
2 µ0 2 µ0 c 2
2
where I used E = cB. Thus, for light the electric and magnetic field
energy densities are equal and the total energy density is
1 2
utot = uE + uB = ε0 E 2 = B = ε0 E02 sin 2 ( kx − ωt ) .
µ0
! 1 ! !
Poynting Vector ( = µ E × B ):
S
0
The direction of the Poynting y-axis
E
Vector is the direction of energy
A
flow and the magnitude
Energy Flow
1 E2 1 dU
S = EB = =
µ0 µ0 c A dt x-axis
is the energy per unit time per
B
unit area (units of Watts/m2). z-axis
Proof: cdt
dU tot = utotV = ε0 E 2 Acdt so

1 dU E2 E 02
S = = ε 0 cE =
2
= sin 2 ( kx − ω t ) .
A dt µ0 c µ0c
Intensity of the Radiation (Watts/m2):
The intensity, I, is the average of S as follows:
1 dU E 02 E 02
I =S = = sin ( kx − ω t ) =
2
A dt µ0 c 2 µ0 c .

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Momentum Transport - Radiation Pressure
Relativistic Energy and Momentum:
E2 = (cp)2 + (m0c2)2
energy momentum rest mass
For light m0 =0 and
E = cp (for light)
For light the average momentum per unit time per unit area is equal to
the intensity of the light, I, divided by speed of light, c, as follows:
1 dp 1 1 dU 1
= = I.
A dt c A dt c
Total Absorption:
dp 1 dU 1 Light
F = = = IA
dt c dt c
F 1
P= = I (radiation pressure) Total Absorption
A c
Total Reflection:
dp 2 dU 2
F = = = IA . Light
dt c dt c
F 2
P= = I (radiation pressure)
A c Total Reflection

PHY2061 R. D. Field
The Radiation Power of the Sun
P = 3.9 x 1026 W
Problem:
The radiation power of the
sun is 3.9x1026 W and the
Sun
distance from the Earth to
d = 1.5 x 1011 m
the sun is 1.5x1011 m. Earth
(a) What is the intensity of
the electromagnetic radiation from the sun at the surface of the Earth
(outside the atmosphere)? (answer: 1.4 kW/m2)
(b) What is the maximum value of the electric field in the light coming
from the sun? (answer: 1,020 V/m)
(c) What is the maximum energy density of the electric field in the light
coming from the sun? (answer: 4.6x10-6 J/m3)
(d) What is the maximum value of the magnetic field in the light coming
from the sun? (answer: 3.4 µT)
(e) What is the maximum energy density of the magnetic field in the light
coming from the sun? (answer: 4.6x10-6 J/m3)
(f) Assuming complete absorption what is the radiation pressure on the
Earth from the light coming from the sun? (answer: 4.7x10-6 N/m2)
(g) Assuming complete absorption what is the radiation force on the Earth
from the light coming from the sun? The radius of the Earth is about
6.4x106 m. (answer: 6x108 N)
(h) What is the gravitational force on the Earth due to the sun. The mass of
the Earth and the sun are 5.98x1024 kg and 1.99x1030 kg, respectively, and
G = 6.67x10-11 Nm2/kg2. (answer: 3.5x1022 N)

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Relativistic Doppler Shift (source moving away)

Consider a flashlight at rest in the y y'
O'-frame shinning its light in the O V
O'
–x' direction. Since the O'-frame Light source at rest
in O'-frame
is at rest with the source of light f' 1 2 3 4
= f0, λ' = λ0, and T' = T0, where f0, x'

l0, and T0 are the “proper x
frequency”, “proper wavelength”,
and “proper period” of the light. Let event A be the occurrence of
wavefront 2 reaching the O-frame and let event B be the occurrence of
wavefront 3 reaching the O-frame, etc..
Frame O' ct Frame O
B ct'
proper period B
c∆t' at rest with light
3 source c∆t=cT 3
A
cT0 A Light Path
Light Path
2 2
∆x'=-V∆t'
1 1
o
o
45 x' 45 x
O'-frame Path
O-frame Path
c∆t = γ (c∆t ′ + β∆x ′)

γcT0
c∆t ′ = c (t B − t A ) = cT0 + V∆t ′ = (1 − β 2 ) = γ (1 + β )cT0
cT0 1− β
c∆t ′ = ∆x = γ ( ∆x ′ + βc∆t ′)
1− β
γcT0
∆x′ = xB − xA = −V∆t ′ = −
VT0 = (β − β ) = 0
1− β 1− β
fλ′ ′ = c f ′ = f 0 = 1 / T0 fλ = c f = 1 / T
where β = V / c γ = 1 / 1 − β .
2
f0
T = γ (1 + β )T0 λ = γ (1 + β )λ0 f =
Thus, and γ (1 + β )
Relativistic Doppler shift
(source moving away)

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Relativistic Doppler Shift (general case)

y O-frame
Consider an observer at rest in the O-frame and
V ! !
r
a light source moving with velocity β = V / c .
Then the observed period, wavelength, and
x
frequency are given by
Classical
! ! Doppler Shift!
T = γ (1 + β ⋅ rˆ)T0 T = (1 + β ⋅ rˆ)T0
Relativistic
! !
λ = γ (1 + β ⋅ rˆ)λ0 λ = (1 + β ⋅ rˆ)λ0
Doppler Shift!
f0 f0
f = ! f = !
γ (1 + β ⋅ rˆ) (1 + β ⋅ rˆ)
! "
with β = V / c γ = 1 / 1 − β and where T0, λ0, and f0 are the period,
2
wavelength, and frequency of the light in the frame at rest with the
source.
!
Case I “away” ( β ⋅ rˆ = 1 ):
f0
λaway = γ (1 + β )λ0 f away =
γ (1 + β )
!
Case II “toward” ( β ⋅ rˆ = −1 ):
f0
λtoward = γ (1 − β )λ0 f toward =
γ (1 − β )
!
Case III “transverse” ( β ⋅ rˆ = 0 ):
f0
λtransverse = γλ0 f transverse =
γ
Transverse Doppler Shift!

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Geometric Optics
Fermat's Principle:
In traveling from one point to another, light follows the path that
requires minimal time compared to the times from the other possible
paths.
Theory of Reflection: B
Let tAB be the time for light to go
from the point A to the point B
A
reflecting off the point P. Thus, L2
L1 b
1 1
t AB = L1 + L2 , a
θi θr
c c
where x d-x
L1 = x 2 + a 2 P
. d
L2 = ( d − x ) 2 + b 2
To find the path of minimal time we set the derivative of tAB equal to zero
as follows:
dt AB 1 dL1 1 dL2
= + = 0,
dx c dx c dx
which implies
dL1 dL
=− 2, B
dx dx
but
dL1 x A
L2
= = sin θi L1 b
dx L1
dL2 − ( d − x ) a
θi θr
= = − sin θr
dx L2 x d-x
so that the condition for minimal time P
becomes d
sin θi = sin θr θi = θ r .

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Law of Refraction
Index of Refraction:
Light travels at speed c in a vacuum. It travels at a speed v < c in a medium.
The index for refraction, n, is the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to
its speed in the medium,
n = c/v, A n1
where n is greater than or equal to L1
one.
a
θ1
Theory of Refraction: d-x
x
Let tAB be the time for light to go
P
from the point A to the point B
refracting at the point P. Thus,
1 1 θ2 L2
t AB = L1 + L b
v1 v2 2 ,
where n2
L1 = x 2 + a 2 d B
.
L2 = ( d − x ) 2 + b 2
To find the path of minimal time we set the derivative of tAB equal to zero
as follows:
dt AB 1 dL1 1 dL2 1 dL1 1 dL2
= + = 0 , which implies =−
dx v1 dx v2 dx v1 dx v2 dx , but
dL1 x
= = sin θ1
dx L1
dL2 − ( d − x )
= = − sin θ2
dx L2
so that the condition for minimal time becomes
1 1
sin θ1 = sin θ2 n1 sin θ1 = n 2 sin θ2
v1 v2 Snell's Law .

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Total Internal Reflection
Total internal refection

occurs when light travels
from medium n1 to
medium n2 (n1 > n2) if θ1 o
θ 2 = 90 n2
is greater than or equal to
the critical angle, θc, where
θc
n1
n2
sin θc =
n1 .
Problem:
A point source of light is
n 2= 1 located 10 meters below the
R surface of a large lake
(n=1.3). What is the area (in
θc m2) of the largest circle on
the pool's surface through
which light coming directly
from the source can emerge?
n 1 = 1.3 (answer: 455)

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Refraction Examples
Problem:
A scuba diver 20 meters
beneath the smooth surface
of a clear lake looks
upward and judges the sun θ2
o n2=1
to be 40 from directly
overhead. At the same
time, a fisherman is in a θ1
n1=4/3
boat directly above the
diver. 20 m
(a) At what angle from the
vertical would the
fisherman measure the
sun? (answer: 59o)
(b) If the fisherman looks
downward, at what depth below the surface would he judge the diver to be?
(answer: 15 meters)

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Spherical Mirrors
Vertex and Center of Curvature:
The vertex, V, is the point where
Concave Mirror R = Radius of Curvature
the principal axis crosses the C = Center of Curvature
mirror and the center of Light Ray Enters F = Focal Point
curvature is the center of the V = Vertex
R
spherical mirror with radius of Principal Axis
curvature R. R-side C F V V-side
Real and Virtual Sides: Light Ray Exits

The "R" or real side of a
spherical mirror is the side of the mirror that the light exits and the other
side is the "V" or virtual side. If the center of curvature lies on the R-side
then the radius of curvature, R, is taken to be positive and if the center of
curvature lies on the V-side then the radius of curvature, R, is taken to be
negative.
Light Ray Exits
R = Radius of Curvature Focal Point:
C = Center of Curvature
F = Focal Point A light ray parallel to the
Light Ray Enters V = Vertex principal axis will pass
through the focal point, F,
R
Principal Axis where F lies a distance f
R-side V F C V-side (focal length) from the vertex
of the mirror. For spherical
Convex Mirror mirrors a good approximation
is f = R/2.
Concave and Convex Mirrors:
A concave mirror is one where the center of curvature lies on the R-side so
the R > 0 and f > 0 and a convex mirror is one where the center of
curvature lies on the V-side so that R < 0 and f < 0.
concave f>0
convex f<0
Flat Mirror:
A flat mirror is the limiting case where the radius R (and thus the local
length f) become infinite.

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Mirror Equation
Object and Image Position:

For spherical mirrors,
1 1 1
+ =
p i f ,
where p is the distance from the
vertex to the object, i is the p
distance from the vertex to the
image, and f is the focal length. R-side C i V-side
C = Center of Curvature
F = Focal Point
Focal Length: p = Object Position
For spherical mirrors the focal i = Image Position
length, f, is one-half of the radius
of curvature, R, as follows:
f = R/2.
Magnification:
The magnification is
i
m=−
p , (magnification equation)
where the magnitude of the magnification is the ratio of the height of the
image, hi, to the height of the object, hp, as follows:
hi
m =
hp .
Sign Conventions:
Variable Assigned a Positive Value Assigned a Negative Value
p (object distance) almost always positive special compound lens case
i (image distance) if image is on R-side (real image) if image is on V-side (virtual image)
R (radius of curvature) if C is on R-side (concave) if C is on V-side (convex)
f (focal length) if C is on R-side (concave) if C is on V-side (convex)
m (magnification) if the image is not inverted if the image is inverted

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Mirror Examples (1)
Mirror Equations:
R 1 1 1 i
f = + = m= −
2 p i f p
Example:
Concave Mirror
R = 2, p = 3
f = 1, i = 3/2, m = -1/2
i
p C F
R-side V-side
Reduced Inverted Real Image

Example:
Concave Mirror
R = 2, p = 3/2
f = 1, i = 3, m = -2
i
p
C F
R-side V-side
Magnified Inverted Real Image

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Mirror Examples (2)
Mirror Equations:
R 1 1 1 i
f = + = m= −
2 p i f p
Example:
Concave Mirror
R = 2, p = 1/2
f = 1, i = -1, m = 2
C F p i
R-side V-side
Magnified Non-inverted Virtual Image

Example:
Convex Mirror
R = -2, p = 3
f = -1, i = -3/4, m = 1/4 V-side
p R-side i F C
Reduced Non-inverted Virtual Image

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Thin Lenses Formula

Lens Makers Equation:
The lens makers formula is
1  1 1 
= ( n − 1)  − 
f  R1 R 2  ,
where f is the focal length, n is the index of refraction, R1 is the radius of
curvature of side 1 (side that light enters the lens), and R2 is the radius of
curvature of side 2 (side that light exits the lens).
Lens Equation: Converging Lens

1 1 1
+ =
p i f
n
Magnification: V-side C2 F F C1 R-side
i
m=−
p Side 1 Side 2
Sign Conventions:
Variable Assigned a Positive Value Assigned a Negative Value
p (object distance) almost always positive special compound lens case
i (image distance) if image is on R-side (real image) if image is on V-side (virtual image)
R1 (radius of curvature) if C1 is on R-side if C1 is on V-side
R2 (radius of curvature) if C2 is on R-side if C2 is on V-side
f (focal length) if f > 0 then converging lens if f < 0 then diverging lens
m (magnification) if the image is not inverted if the image is inverted
R
Example (converging lens): R1 = R R2 = − R f = 2(n − 1) > 0
−R
Example (diverging lens): R1 = − R R2 = R f = 2(n − 1) < 0

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Thin Lenses (converging)
Example:
Converging Lens
f = 1, p = 2
i = 2, m = -1 n i
V-side p F F R-side
1 2
Inverted Real Image
Example:
Converging Lens
f = 1, p = 1/2
i = -1, m = 2
i n
V-side p
F F R-side
1 2
Magnified Non-inverted Virtual Image

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Thin Lenses (diverging)
Example:
Diverging Lens
f = -1, p = 2
i = -2/3, m = 1/3 p
V-side F i F R-side
1 2
n
Example:
Diverging Lens
f = -1, p = 1/2
i = -1/3, m = 2/3
V-side F p i F R-side
1 2
n

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Two-Lens Systems
Consider two lenses
Lens 1 Lens 2 separated by a distance
Light
L.
Object
Step 1: Let p1 be the
distance of the object
p1 L from lens 1. Find the
location of the image, i1,
from lens 1 (ignoring
Image 1 lens 2) using
Step 1 1 1 1
+ =
Object p1 i1 f1
and m1 = -i1/p1.
p1 Step 2: Take the image
|i1| formed in step 1 as the
object for lens 2. Take
Lens 1
p2 positive if image 1
Step 2 is to the left of lens 2
Image 1 = Object 2
Lens 2 (regardless of whether
image 1 is real or
virtual) and take p2
negative if image 1 is
|i1| L to the right of lens 2
p2 Image 2 = (opposite the side of
Overall Image the entering light).
Find the location of the
image, i2, from lens 2 (ignoring lens 1) using
1 1 1
+ =
p2 i2 f 2 and m2 = -i2/p2. Image 2 is the overall image
with overall magnification M = m1m2.

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Two-Lens Systems Examples
Example 1: Consider the case f1 = 1, f2 = 1, L = 1, and p1 = ½. We

see that i1 = -1, m1 =
Lens 1 Lens 2
f1 = 1 f2 = 1 2. Thus, p2 = 2 and
Light
i2 = 2, m2 = -1, and
Object M = m1m2 = -2.
Hence, the resulting
p1 = 1/2 L=1
image is an enlarged
Enlarged real inverted image
Inverted Real
located 2 units to the
Image
right of lens 2.
Example 2: Consider the case f1 = 1, f2 = 1, L = 1, and p1 = 3/2.

We see that i1 = 3, m1
Light Lens 1 Lens 2
f1 = 1 f2 = 1 = -2. Thus, p2 = -2
and i2 = 2/3, m2 = 1/3,
Object and M = m1m2 = -
2/3. Hence, the
p1 = 3/2 L=1
resulting image is a
reduced real
Reduced Inverted
Real Image
inverted image
located 2/3 units to
the right of lens 2.

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Light as a Wave - Interference
Huygen’s Principle:
ct New wavefront
All points on a wavefront serve as Wavefront at t = 0 Spherical at time t
wavelets
point sources of spherical
wavelets. After a time t, the new
position of the wavefront will be
the surface tangent to the ct
secondary wavelets.
The Law of Refraction:
v1
v1 λ1
θ1
λ1
n1 = c/v1 n1 = c/v1
L
n2 = c/v2 λ2 n2 = c/v2
v2 λ2
θ2
v2 < v1 v2 < v1
v2
Zero incident angle: Incident angle θ1:

λ λ1
sin θ 1 =
∆t = 1 L
v1 λ2
λ 2 = v2 ∆t sin θ 2 =
L
λ 2 λ1 sin θ 1 sin θ 2
Snell’s Law
= =
v2 v1 λ1 λ2
n1λ1 = n2 λ 2 n1 sin θ 1 = n2 sin θ 2

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Interference
Wave Superposition
ysum = y1 +y2
2.0
∆ r)) )
y2=Asin(k(x+∆
1.5
∆r
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
-1.0
-1.5
y2=Asin(kx)
-2.0
kx (radians)
Wave Superposition:
Consider the addition (superposition) of two waves with the same
amplitude and wavelength:
y1 = Asin(kx) “Lateral” shift
y2 = Asin(k ( x + ∆r)) = Asin(kx + ∆φ )

ysum = y1 + y2
The "phase shift", ∆φ,
∆φ between the two waves is related to the quantity ∆r
by
∆φ ∆r
∆φ = k∆r or =
2π λ
π/λ
where k=2π λ is the wave number and λ is the wavelength.
Maximal Constructive Interference:
The condition for maximal constructive interference is
∆φ = 2πm ∆r = mλ m = 0,±1,±2,! (max constructive)
Maximal Destructive Interference:
The condition for maximal destructive interference is
 1
∆φ = π + 2πm ∆r =  m + λ m = 0,±1,±2,! (max destructive)
 2

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Interference Examples
∆r = λ; max constructive):
Wave Superposition (∆
Wave Superposition
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
-1.0
-1.5
-2.0
ysum = y1 + y2
kx (radians)
∆r = λ/2;
Wave Superposition (∆ λ/2 max destructive):
Wave Superposition
1.0
0.5
0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
-0.5
-1.0
ysum = y1 + y2
kx (radians)
∆r = λ/4):
Wave Superposition (∆
W ave S u p erp osition

1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
y sum = y 1 + y 2 k x (rad ian s)

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Representing Waves as Complex Numbers

Ψ = Aei(kx-ωω t) Ψ ) = Asin(kx-ω
Im(Ψ ωt) Crest
Ψ)
Im(Ψ
A A
φ = kx- ωt
ω
Ψ)
Re(Ψ t
A
Phase Trough
We can use complex numbers to represent traveling waves. If we let

Ψ = Aei (kx−ωt ) then Re(Ψ) = A sin(kx − ωt )
Wave
Function
is a traveling plane wave with wave number k = 2π π/λ

λ, “angular” frequency
ω = 2π πf, and amplitude A. The intensity, I, is proportional to A2. Intensity
∗
A = Ψ = ΨΨ
2
I∝A = Ψ
Amplitude 2
Phase-Shift Due to a Path Length Difference

Ψ(0,t) = Ae-iωωt Ψ(r,t) = Aei(kr-ωωt)
A
A
x=0 x=r
Distance r
φ =- ωt
ω φ = kr- ωt
ω
Consider two traveling wave that are in phase at their source, but wave 1
travels a distance r1 and wave 2 travels a distance r2 to the point P. The
phase difference between the two waves at the point P is given by
2π
∆φ = φ2 − φ1 = k (r2 − r1 ) = ∆r
λ
∆φ = 2πm ∆r = mλ m = 0,±1,±2,! (max constructive)
 1
∆φ = π + 2πm ∆r =  m + λ m = 0,±1,±2, ! (max destructive)
 2

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Double Slit Interference

The simplest way to produce a Double Slit
phase shift a difference in the P
path length between the two
r1
wave sources, S1 and S2 is with y
a double slit. The point P is S1 r2

d
located on a screen that is a
S2
distance L away from the slits
and the slits are separated by a
distance d. L
Double Slit
r1
θ
If L >> d then to a good approximation
S1
d
the path length difference is,
r2
S2 θ ∆r = r2 − r1 = d sinθ .
θ
d sinθ

The condition for maximal
constructive interference is Double Slit
λ
sinθ = m m = 0,±1,±2,!
P
d
r y
(Bright Fringes - max constructive)
S1
Order of the Bright Fringe θ
d
Maximal Destructive S2 L
Interference:
The condition for maximal θ
y = L tanθ
destructive interference is
 1λ
sinθ =  m +  m = 0,±1,±2,!
 2 d
(Dark Fringes - max destructive)

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Double Slit Intensity Pattern

Double Slit We form the superposition of the two
waves at the point P on the screen as
r1
follows.
θ
S1
d r2
Ψ1 = Aei ( kr1 −ωt )
θ
S2
Ψ2 = Aei ( kr2 −ωt )
∆ r =d sinθ
θ Ψtot = Ψ1 + Ψ2
and thus
Ψtot = Ψ1 + Ψ2 = Aei ( kr1−ωt ) + Aei ( kr2 −ωt )

( ) (
= Aei ( kr1−ωt ) 1 + eik∆r = Aei ( kr1−ωt ) eik∆r / 2 eik∆r / 2 + e−ik∆r / 2 )
= Aei ( kr1−ωt ) eik∆r / 2 2 cos(12 k∆r )
where k = 2p/l. The path difference (for L >> d) is given by
∆r = r2 − r1 = d sinθ
The distance from the center of the two slits and the point P on the screen is
given by r = r1 + ∆r/2 and hence
Ψtot (r,θ ) = Aei ( kr−ωt ) 2 cos(πd sinθ / λ ) .
The intensity is proportional to the amplitude squared and hence
I (θ ) = 4I 0 cos2 (πd sinθ / λ )
where I0 is the intensity of a single wave (wave 1 or wave 2).
Double Slit 5/2
2
P 1/2
r 1
S1 1/2
d sinθ
θ
d 0
θ /λ
S2
λ
L -1/2
-1
-3/2
Central Bright Spot
-2
Intensity

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Thin Film Interference

Thin film
interference Incident Light 1
2
occurs when a
thin layer of
material
(thickness T) n1
with index of
refraction n2 (the "film" ∆1
T
"film" layer) is n2
sandwiched
between two ∆2
other mediums
n3
n1 and n3.
The overall lateral shift Shift Condition Value

between the reflected waves 1 ∆1 n1 > n2 0
and 2 is given by, ∆1 n1 < n2 λfilm/2
∆ overall = 2T + ∆1 + ∆ 2 , ∆2 n2 > n3 0
where it is assumed that the ∆2 n2 < n3 λfilm/2
incident light ray is nearly
perpendicular to the surface and the lateral shifts ∆1 and ∆2 are given the
table.

∆ overall = 2T + ∆1 + ∆ 2 = mλ film m = 0,±1,±2,! (max constructive)
where λfilm = λ0/n2, with λ0 the vacuum wavelength.
Maximal Destructive Interference:

 1
∆ overall = 2T + ∆1 + ∆ 2 =  m +  λ film m = 0,±1,±2,! (max destructive)
 2

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Interference Problems
Double Slit Example:

Red light (λλ = 664 nm) is used with slits separated by d = 1.2x10-4 m. The
screen is located a distance from the slits given by L = 2.75 m. Find the
distance y on the screen between the central bright fringe and the third-
order bright fringe.
Answer: y = 0.0456 m
Thin Film Example:

A thin film of gasoline floats on a puddle of water. Sunlight falls almost
perpendicularly on the film and reflects into your eyes. Although the
sunlight is white, since it contains all colors, the film has a yellow hue,
because destructive interference has occurred eliminating the color of blue
λ0 = 469 nm) from the reflected light. If ngas = 1.4 and nwater = 1.33,
(λ
determine the minimum thickness of the film.
Answer: Tmin = 168 nm

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Narrow Slit Diffraction

Case 1: Without Diffraction Case 2: With Diffraction
λ << W W << λ Dark Fringe
Diffraction
Bright spot on Pattern on
Wavefronts Slit width W Wavefronts Slit width W
Screen Screen
Wavelength = λ Wavelength = λ
Consider a plane wave with wavelength λ incident on a narrow slit of width

W. Case 1 (λ << W) corresponds to little or no diffraction with a bright spot
on the screen of width not much larger than W. Case 2 (W << λ)
corresponds to a lot of diffraction resulting in the spreading out of the light
across the screen in the form of a “diffraction pattern” with a central bright
spot and a series of dark and
Each point along wavefront light fringes similar to the
acts as a source!
P two-slit interference pattern.
Actually diffraction is a form
y of interference in which each
r of the infinite number of
W θ points along the wavefront
acts as a point source of
Screen
secondary spherical wavelets
(Huygen’s Principle). Each
L of these waves has a different
θ
y = L tanθ
path length to the point P on
the screen and hence they interfere with each other and produce an
“interference” (diffraction) pattern. At y = 0 (central axis) all the paths are
roughly equal resulting in constructive interference and a central bright
spot. If is mathematically difficult to calculate the position of the bright
fringes, but the dark fringes are located at Position of dark fringes
λ y
sinθ = m m = ±1,±2,! where tanθ = .
W L
The bright fringes are roughly (but not exactly) at the midpoint of the dark
fringes.

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Single-Slit Diffraction Intensity Pattern (1)

Consider N point sources a distance ∆y
r1 = W/(N-1) apart across the width of the
r2 slit such that W = (N-1)∆ ∆y (we will let
1
∆y rn-1
N become large). In the limit L >> W,
2
rn r2 = r1 + ∆y sinθ
rn = rn−1 + ∆y sinθ = r1 + (n −1)∆y sinθ
∆y
n-1
W =(N-1)∆
∆ y sinθ
θ
rN = r1 + ( N −1)∆y sinθ = r1 + W sinθ
n
center axis
Thus, the phase difference between the
source n and source n-1 is given by
θ
N-1
∆φ = φn − φn−1 = k (rn − rn−1 )
N
2π
θ
W sinθ ∆y sinθ =
λ
and the phase difference between source 1 and source N is
Maximum 2π
Phase Shift ∆Φ = φ1 − φ N = k (r1 − rN ) = W sinθ = ( N −1)∆φ
λ
The overall wave function at the point P on the screen is the sun of all the
individual wavelets as follows:
( )
N
ΨN = ∑ Ψn = Ae−iωt eikr1 + eikr2 + ... + eikrN
n=1
Overall Wave
Function at P ( )
= Ae−iωt eikr1 1 + eik ( r2 −r1 ) + ... + eik ( rN −r1 ) = Ae−iωt eikr1 S N
where
S N = 1 + a + a 2 + ... + a N −1 with a = ei∆φ = eik∆y sinθ .
Note that aSN – SN = aN –1 and hence
SN = = i∆φ = i∆φ / 2 i∆φ / 2 −i∆φ / 2

(
a N − 1 eiN∆φ − 1 eiN∆φ / 2 eiN∆φ / 2 − e −iN∆φ / 2 )
a −1 e −1 e e −e ( )
eiN∆φ / 2 sin(12 N∆φ ) i ( N −1) ∆φ / 2 sin(12 N∆φ )
= i∆φ / 2 =e
e sin(12 ∆φ ) sin(12 ∆φ )

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Single-Slit Diffraction Intensity Pattern (2)

The overall wave function at the point P on the screen is given by
N
sin( 12 N∆φ )
ΨN = ∑ Ψn = Ae −iωt ikr1
e S N = Ae e e −ωt ikr1 i ( N −1) ∆φ / 2
n=1 sin(12 ∆φ ) .
The distance where r from the center of the slit to the point P is given by,
r = r1 + 12 W sinθ = r1 + 21k ( N −1)∆φ .
Now as N becomes large
∆Φ = ( N −1)∆φ  → N∆φ
N >>1
and
i ( kr−ωt ) sin( 12 N∆φ ) i ( kr−ωt ) sin(12 ∆Φ)
ΨN = Ae ≈ Ae
sin( 12 ∆φ ) sin(12 ∆Φ / N )
i ( kr−ωt ) sin(12 ∆Φ)
≈ NAe
2 ∆Φ
1
where I used
Single Slit
 ∆Φ  ∆Φ
sin   
N >>1
→ . Central Bright
2
 2N  2N Spot
P 1
Thus for large N r
W sinθ
i ( kr −ωt ) sin(12 ∆Φ) W
θ 0
ΨN (r,θ ) ≈ NAe
θ/λ
λ
2 ∆Φ
L
1 -1
2π
where ∆Φ = W sinθ .
-2
λ Intensity
The intensity is proportional to

ΨN and hence
2
Note:
sin 2 ( 12 ∆Φ) sin x
Single-Slit I (θ ) = I max 1 = 1 − 16 x 2 + ...
Intensity Pattern ( 2 ∆Φ) 2 x
θ=0). Note that I(θ

where Imax = I(θ θ) vanishes when sin x
= 1 at x = 0
2π x
∆Φ = 2πm = W sinθ m = ±1,±2,...
λ
W sinθ = mλ m = ±1,±2,...
Dark Fringes

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Diffraction Summary
Single Slit
Single Slit-Diffraction: P
Angular position of the dark fringes:

λ
y
sinθ = m m = ±1,±2, ! θ
W W
L
Width of the Slit
y = L tanθ
(Dark Fringes - max destructive)
Round Hole-Diffraction:
Angular position of the first dark ring: Diameter of the Hole
λ
sinθ = 1.22
D
(Dark Ring - max destructive)
Diffraction Grating: Diffraction

Angular position of the bright Grating
P
fringes:
λ y
sinθ = m m = 0,±1,±2,! d
d θ
L
Slit Separation
(Bright Fringes - max constructive) y = L tanθ

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Resolving Power
Intensity The fact that round holes produce a

diffraction patter in which the light
spreads out on the screen is
important when we wish to
Diffraction
“resolve” (distinguish) two distant
Round hole
diameter D Patterns on objects whose angular separation is
Screen
small. Rayleigh’s Criterion for
resolvability states that the
minimum angle θmin such that two
objects can be distinguished as two
θ min separate objects occurs when the
center of the central bright spot of
object 1 is located at the first
Object 1 Object 2
diffraction minimum of object 2
(or visa-versa). For angles less that θmin the two objects will appear as one.
For round hole diffraction the first diffraction minimum of object 2 occurs
at
λ
sinθ = 1.22
D. Rayleigh’s Criterion for
Thus (assuming small angles, θ << 1), we get resolution
λ
θ min ≈ 1.22
D
This is only an approximation (the actual resolution is usually worse than
this), but it allows us to make calculations.
Example Problem: A hang glider is flying at an altitude of 120 m. Green

λ0 = 555 nm) enters the pilot’s eye through a pupil that has a diameter
light (λ
D = 2.5 mm. If the average index of refraction of the material in the eye is
n = 1.36, determine how far apart two point objects on the ground must be if
the pilot is to have any hope of distinguishing between them.
Answer: 2.4 cm

PHY2061 R. D. Field
Diffraction Problems
Single Slit Example:

Light passes through a slit and shines on a flat screen that is located L = 0.4
m away. The width of the slit is W = 4x10-6 m. The distance between the
middle of the central bright spot and the first dark fringe is y. Determine the
width 2y of the central bright spot when the wavelength of light is λ = 690
nm.
Answer: 2y = 0.14 m

The Simple Structure of Our Universe-PHYSICS

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The Simple Structure of Our Universe-PHYSICS

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PHY2061 R. D.

The Simple Structure of our Universe

• Two Classes of Elementary

• Quarks and Leptons have very different properties:

• Gauge Particles are the carriers (or mediators) of the forces:

Department of Physics quark_1.doc University of Florida

Labeling the Particles – Quantum Numbers

Symbol Name Additive

• Particles with integral spin J (J = 0, 1, 2, …) are called bosons.

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Leptons & Anti-Leptons

Lepton Mass Qem Le Lµ Lµ QU1 Qweak

e- 1st 0.5 -1 1 0 0 -1/2 -1/2

µ- 2nd 106 -1 0 1 0 -1/2 -1/2

Generation Qem measured in units of the electron charge e

Anti- Mass Qem Le Lµ Lµ QU1 Qweak

e+ 1st 0.5 +1 -1 0 0 +1/2 +1/2

vµ 2nd ~0 0 0 -1 0 +1/2 -1/2

τ+ 3rd 1777 +1 0 0 -1 +1/2 +1/2

SU(2) Weak Lepton Doublets:

SU(2) Weak Anti-Lepton Doublets:

Department of Physics quark_3.doc University of Florida

Quarks & Anti-Quarks

Quarks Mass B Qem Y I Iz S Ch Bo To QU1 Qweak Qcolor

Anti- Mass B Qem Y I Iz S Ch Bo To QU1 Qw Qcolor

SU(2) Weak Quark and Anti-Quark Doublets:

Department of Physics quark_4.doc University of Florida

Boson Name Mass Qem QU1 Qweak Qcolor

Department of Physics quark_5.doc University of Florida

Hadrons – PseudoScalar Meson Nonet

π0 pion 135 0 uubar, 1 0 0 0 singlet

K+ kaon 494 +1 usbar ½ +1/2 +1 +1 singlet

K0 kaon 478 0 dsbar ½ -1/2 +1 +1 singlet

K0bar kaon 478 0 sdbar ½ +1/2 -1 -1 singlet

K- kaon 494 -1 subar ½ -1/2 -1 -1 singlet

SU(3)flavor Octet SU(3)flavor Singlet

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Hadrons – ½+ Baryon Octet

Symbol Name Mass Qem/e Net I Iz Y S Qcolor

Σ0 Sigma 1193 0 uds 1 0 0 -1 singlet

Σ- Sigma 1189 -1 dds 1 -1 0 -1 singlet

Ξ- Cascade 1321 -1 ssd ½ -1/2 -1 -2 singlet

Y = B + S +Ch +Bo + To Qem = Y/2 + Iz

Department of Physics quark_7.doc University of Florida

Electrostatic Force and Electric Charge

Electrostatic Force (charges at rest):

Magnitude of the Electrostatic Force is given by Coulomb's

F = K q1q2/r2 (Coulomb's Law)

where K depends on the system of units

K = 8.99x109 Nm2/C2 (in MKS system)

Electric charge is a conserved quantity (net electric charge is never

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We will use the

CGS System (centimeter-grams-seconds):

Conversions (MKS - CGS):

Fine Structure Constant (dimensionless):

h = Plank's Constant c = speed of light in vacuum

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Electrostatic Force versus Gravity

Fe = K q1q2/r2 (Coulomb's Law)

Fg = G m1m2/r2 (Newton's Law)

Ratio of forces for two electrons :

Fe / Fg = K e2 / G m2 = 4.16x1042 (Huge number !!!)