Dive Operator Course 10

The Dive Operator
Casualty Prevention and Response

Workbook
By Michael Christie
Copyright ATREC Inc. - February, 2005
Copyright ATREC Inc 2007 1

Rescue Swimmer Workbook
Table of Contents
Content Page
Introduction 3
Risk Assessment and Program Development 5
Recognition of Potential Drowning Subjects and Prevention Activities 9
Open Water and Swiftwater Hydrology 13
Personal Protective and Rescue Equipment 27
Rescuer Communications 34
Water Rescue Philosophy 35
Basic Open Water Rescue Techniques 37
Medical Considerations 40
Media Considerations 47
Documentation 49
Glossary of Terms 57
Bibliography 67
Appendix 1 – Training Job Aids 68
Appendix 2 – Sample Course Outline 73
Appendix 3 – About 78

Introduction
The Dive Operator Casualty Prevention and Response Workshop is designed to mitigate
morbidity and mortality in recreational diving operations. With a unique blend of disciplines the
workshop seeks to prepare participants to provide both preventative and rescue response services
to dive customers or club members. This program will allow participants to gain skills in order
to facilitate stretching their prevention and rescue skills beyond their standard point. In a societal
atmosphere in which even one accident can lead to legal action or aggressive media attention,
either of which may completely destroy an organization or business, this program can be a vital
defense tool against untoward outcomes from diving related incidents.
This program is not meant to supplant the valuable training by educational organizations
providing training under the World Recreational Scuba Training Council (WRSTC) standard;
with it’s focus on accident prevention and response in the pre-dive, early dive, surface, and post
dive phases the workshop is a valuable tool to prevent injury and fatalities in daily dive
operations, while extending the education and training for dive leaders and boat crews.
The 2006 Divers Alert Network Annual Diving Report has a number of pertinent data points
related to the focus of this workshop:
• 28.5% of diving accidents originate in the pre-dive or surface setting. Which suggests
intervention with special tactics and techniques may help mitigate accidents in those settings
• 35.6% of divers lost consciousness pre-dive, on surface, or on descent. Suggesting again
additional training of this type may assist in mitigating these incidents.
• 45% of diver fatalities had been certified for one year or less. Suggesting additional
methods and technique may be valuable to the dive operator to manage what may be a panicked
and inexperienced subject.
• 74% of diver fatalities have a body mass index (BMI) in the overweight, obese, or
morbid obese range. Suggesting additional training on obese patient movement and rescue
should be under taken to succeed in mitigation of incidents.
• 50% of the dive fatalities occurred from charter or private boats. Suggesting that both
dive leaders and boat crew could gain from additional training and techniques.
• 64% of the dive fatalities were the result of drowning. Suggesting that additional skills
related to rescue of the drowning subject may be helpful to dive operators.
This workbook and workshop has evolved out of our experiences developing educational and
response services to tragic water rescue problems with swimmers, divers, and paddlers. One of
the goals of any response program must be the prevention of incidents, not solely focus on the
response to incidents. An example of this blended concept is the American Medical Response
River Rescue Program. The first recorded drowning on the Sandy River in Oregon was during
the Lewis and Clark Expedition and the last recorded drowning on the Sandy River as it flows
through Troutdale was in August 1998. Since the American Medical Response River Rescue
program going into service in 1999 on the Sandy River, no lives have been lost! To address the
problem, the program needed to blend the principles of Open Water Lifeguard, Accident
Prevention, Swift Water Rescue, and Boat based rescue to serve the diverse population of
swimmers, divers, paddlers, and recreationalists.

This workshop brings similar blending to bear and reflects an outgrown of our experience
developing training for the river personnel, diver teams, marine deputies, lifeguards, and other
water rescuers who must work in limited numbers and are many times the first responders to the
incident whether already on site or nearby when the call comes.
When reading this workbook, keep in mind that water rescue cuts across many disciplines of
rescue, many of which are quite complicated and technical in nature. It is impossible to cover all
of these areas of knowledge in the detail they deserve; consequently we have limited the
discussion in this workbook and workshop to those areas that will bridge the gap in training
between the recreational diving community and the rescue community to develop a workshop
that will help dive operators save lives, prevent accidents, and mitigate civil actions.
The ancillary concepts have been limited to the points that practice differs when applied to the
water rescue environment. Additionally, please remember that this workbook is in no way meant
as a stand alone text on this subject, it is designed for use in conjunction with the Dive Operator
Casualty Prevention and Response Workshop instruction by a qualified instructor.
You cannot learn to be a water rescuer from a book! There is no substitute for professional
training and experience. It is both irresponsible and dangerous for any person to attempt to
perform the techniques in this manual without proper training. It is your responsibility to get
professional, hands on training in this discipline before attempting to apply the information in
this manual. When receiving training, techniques should always be practiced and mastered in a
safe environment prior to advancement to any level of challenging field environment.
Even when utilizing proper technique in safe environments, the risk of serious injury or death
remains when practicing or using the skills described in this workbook. The risk must be
accepted by the rescuer, neither the author nor the publisher assumes any responsibility or
liability for death or personal injury resulting from the use or misuse of information contained in
this manual. There are many products either shown or mentioned in this manual; appearance
here does not constitute an endorsement of any kind or a statement of its fitness for use. Anyone
contemplating equipment purchase should contact the equipment manufactures and dealers for
limitations and proper use.
Please consider this workbook an aid to instruction and continuing education; we hope it is
useful and informative, as well as suitable for your needs. Remember that safety is always first
and personnel limitation, professional training, and proper equipment are the starting point for
safety in this environment.

Risk Assessment and Program Development
In order to establish a process for casualty prevention and response within an organization,
business, or club there must be commitment from the top and bottom of the organizational
structure, risk assessment, and implementation of processes to mitigate the identified risks. With
diving clearly an international sport of significant proportions practiced by all ages, all body
types, and both sexes. While the injury occurrence rate in diving is quite low (estimated at 0.05-
0.75%), the injury type is unfortunately more severe. It is not wise to rely on this type of
statistic, since the injury rate in bowling is similar, yet it would be unfair to compare the
bowler’s wrist injury to the near drowning or decompression illness of a diver. As such, it is
wise to follow a process of risk assessment to identify the most likely events for your operation
and develop prevention and response plans to mitigate those events.
Risk Assessment:
A risk assessment process typically involves several elements: identification,
estimation/evaluation, and consequences. For the process to function, participation should be
solicited from all levels of the organization for the purposes of risk identification, followed by
realistic risk estimation and evaluation; then the development of
Risk Identification:
Risk identification typically identifies specific target areas for potential risk. Risk identification
in recreational diving is fairly well described in literature at this point. It includes:
• Barotraumas (including DCI, Embolism, pneumothorax, ear damage, etc…)
• Drowning
• Nitrogen narcosis
• Dehydration
• Hypothermia or Hyperthermia
• Underwater Injury (including abrasions and cuts from sharp coral or rocks, sprains, bruises)
• Surface injury (including impact with other divers, impact with debris, impact with vessels)
• Dangerous marine life (including jelly fish, urchins, fire coral, sting creatures, and the very rare
attack by large fish)
• Equipment Failure
While the risks associated with recreational diving have been well described, the risk associated
with the pre-dive environment are less represented in literature. While we are unable to cover all
risk areas, some risks may include:
• Exacerbation of chronic medical conditions (including hypertension, heart disease, etc…)
• Trauma from the boating environment (including abrasions, lacerations, orthopedic injury,
major trauma, and burns)
• Drowning from the boating environment (including causes such as sinking, ejection, and
swept off vessel)
• Motion sickness
• Hypo or hyperthermia
• Sun burn

Risk Estimation:
Risk estimation focuses on the probability of the risk event. Evaluation reviews the social
consequences associated with the various magnitudes of risk events. As a concept, risk is
typically viewed as being a function of two major factors: the probability that an event will occur
and the consequence on the event exposure area (Petak & Anderson, 1982). Therefore we must
utilize mathematical process or known probabilities that the risk identified will result in actual
events, in recreational diving we can utilize several known probabilities for evaluation:
• Tympanic membrane and round/oval window rupture were reported by 5.4% of divers
(David M.D. 2003).
• Decompression Illness was reported by 4.4% (David M.D. 2003) and estimated at 10-
20/100,000 divers (DAN, 2004).
• Ear, sinus, and tooth “squeeze” problems were reported by 53.5%, 36.7%, and 11.4% of
divers, respectively (David M.D. 2003).
• Fatality rates for recreational divers are estimated at 18/100,000 (DAN, 2006).
• Overall Injury rates for recreational divers are estimated at 55/100,000 (DAN, 2006).
Risk Consequences:
The final step in the risk assessment process is judging the importance of the consequences of a
risk event. Thus, risk assessment necessarily involves making value judgments. The process may
include the quantification of risk consequence levels, the estimation of human judgments about
risk, and methodologies to integrate the two to evaluate tradeoffs among alternatives to reduce
risk (Zimmerman, 1986).
For the purposes of this discussion, we shall focus on consequences which may result in impact
to insurance coverage, high level economic damage to the business or organization, and loss of
function or life by the customer. In order to this, each individual organization or business must
spend time considering these criteria and developing a comprehensive risk assessment list to
prioritize management of those risks.
Risk Management:
Risk management is where our prevention and response plans transform into dramatic action.
Where risk assessment is the estimation and evaluation of risk, risk management involves the
reduction or control of risk to an acceptable level, whether or not that level can be explicitly set.
In reality, these processes are not separable because the uncertainty in one affects the judgments
made about the other and vice versa.
An essential part of risk management is determining what an acceptable risk is and deciding who
is qualified to make this judgment. Some frameworks for making this determination include:
1. Risk-benefit analysis is weighing a particular population exposure level to a hazard is
weighted against the benefits obtained from the existence of the recreational feature. Since we
are discussing whether the risk benefit of the organization or business continuing dive operations
is worthwhile, we can for the purposes of this discussion assume the answer is yes.
2. Risk-risk analysis is the risk of exposure as compared with other risks commonly
encountered in the environment or the risks of doing without any management program. Since
recreational diving is unlike any other risk commonly encountered in the water environment, it

can be assumed for the purpose of this discussion that a management program for the risks in
dive operations is required.
3. Risk-cost analysis is the cost of achieving a more stringent standard when compared with
the resultant reduction in risk. For the purposes of this discussion, the cost of achieving risk
reduction would appear beneficial in comparison to a large insurance or legal judgment; and
much more beneficial to closure of the organization or business as a result of media exposure or
judgment.
A risk management plan is a proactive approach to managing risk. While it is virtually

impossible to design a plan comprehensive enough to serve all purposes, there are significant
benefits to developing a basic risk management program:
• promotion and demonstration of concern for user safety,
• assurances that steps are being taken to maximize safety within the bounds of possibility,
• demonstration of intent to provide a reasonably safe environment,
• reduction in losses and/or injuries, and
• increased safety for users.
People make decisions and take actions based on their personal perception of risk, rather than on
some objectively derived measure of threat. The management of risks requires an understanding
that often the major part of the problem will result from a difference between perceived and
actual risks. The scientific, engineering and business facts of a situation may have little to do
with the concerned public's perception of risks. As a result, most risk management plans seek to
increase public awareness to hazards as a major activity of the overall program in order to
counter perceived risk issues with customers and reorient to real risk.
Many types of recreation include the user's perception of risk as a vital element. Climbing,
surfing, scuba diving, and other, sometimes more passive, recreational pursuits have elements of
risk that may make the recreation more stimulating. While the risk factor of each activity may be
evident, it must also be manageable.
What are some examples of risk control that can be programmed into your prevention and
response program?
• Use of web and shop materials to reorient customers from perceived risk to real risk issues.
• Use of proper equipment and user familiarity with equipment. Meaning that customers, as
well as, staff must inspect equipment before they are in a position where repair or
replacement is not possible. Additionally, all people engaged in the activity must be able to
operate their equipment.
• Preplanning the loading of the vessel to facilitate evacuation of the vessel in the event of an
emergency such as fire or sinking.
• Preplanning the mooring procedure for the vessel.
• Briefing customers on movement while underway, equipment preparation, use of hand
rails, procedure for movement to step
• Inclusion in the dive briefing direction on what to do if disoriented or lost, what to do is
exhausted or too tired to surface swim to boat, what to do in the event you or your partner
have trouble and are unable to attract the attention of the dive leader, what to do if you have
trouble on the surface, and what to do if you have difficulty boarding the vessel.

• Delineate for dive leaders and crew what their responsibilities are in the event a rescue or
assist must be accomplished.
• Requirement for daily inventory of rescue and medical equipment, as well as, description
of where equipment will be stored on the vessel.
• Delineation of what each dive leader will carry on their person to affect a rescue; such as
safety sausage, line, buoy, etc…
• Standardized communication for boat crew and dive leaders in the event of rescue.
• Requirement for early intervention by staff.

Recognition of Potential Rescue Subjects and Necessary
Prevention Activities
This section is designed as a compliment to lecture presentation by a qualified instructor. As
such, the basic lecture slides outline have been provided for the participant, with space available
for note taking and alternate slides
Slide 1: Recognition and Prevention Issues

Christie 2002
Slide 2: Primary and secondary functions of a water rescue professional.

Primary: Safe Response, Assure Incident Safety, Search, Rescue, and
Recovery
Secondary: Prevention and Enforcement
Slide 3: Recognition and Assessment of Drowning Potential

In the United States Lifesaving Association’s manual the chapter on Water
Surveillance is introduced with the following statement:
“In emergency medicine there is often reference made to a golden hour -- the
period of time after a traumatic injury during which effective medical
intervention is essential to the saving of life. In open water lifesaving, such a
time frame is an unheard of luxury. Lifeguards measure the opportunity for
successful intervention not in minutes, but in moments.”
Slide 4: Recognition and Assessment of Drowning Potential

In order to successfully intervene before a drowning occurs, one of the primary
skills a rescuer must have is the recognition and assessment of potential victims.
Experienced open water lifeguards can frequently predict which persons will need
assistance long before an emergency arises and sometimes even before they leave
the parking lot. This is possible by observing visual clues.
The following recommended observation matrix was developed by the USLA
based on USLA and ISLA statistical evidence from thousands of rescue records.
Slide 5: Recognition and Assessment of Drowning Potential – Pre-Dive Observations

Age: very old or very young individuals should be watched carefully. They
may lack the physical ability or strength to fight an unexpected current or
to quickly move away from a dangerous situation. These individuals
usually incur injuries very near the shoreline requiring quick recognition
and immediate response.
Body Weight: Persons who are overweight or extremely underweight each
have their own specific problems in an aquatic environment, but both may
be out of shape an not capable of struggling for longer periods of time as
compared to individuals who have stayed in some physically inclined
condition.

Overweight persons may become easily exhausted and are hampered in
their ability to move quickly to avoid danger while those who are
underweight can be adversely affected even by moderately cold water.
Slide 6: Recognition and Assessment of Drowning Potential – Dry Land Observations

Pale or Extremely White Complexion or Extreme Sunburn
Individuals who look as though they just stepped out of a mayonnaise jar
often are making their first visit to the beach this season, or for that matter
their first trip ever.
These people should be watched carefully to ascertain their swimming
ability once they enter the water. They should also be contacted about the
hazards of the sun.
Extremely sunburned individuals may simply be the ones who were here
yesterday that came back to fill in their “tan”. Guards should continue to
key on these persons for the same reasons as those who are milk white.
Intoxication
Statistics indicate high degrees of drowning incidents in the United States
are related to alcohol consumption.
Individuals are impacted in two general ways that will contribute to the
probability of their getting into trouble in the water; the impairment of
their normal physical abilities and impairment of their ability to act
responsibly.
Slide 7: Recognition and Assessment of Drowning Potential – Pre Dive Observations

Improper Equipment & Flotation Devices
Improper Attire: Persons entering the water wearing clothes, other than
those meant for swimming are also at risk.
Disabilities & Ethnicity: While persons with physical impairments generally
know their limitations and often use swimming as a
means of exercise, the addition of currents, waves,
variable water temperatures and other
environmentally driven factors, may cause them
great difficulty.
There have been studies that identify significant
differences in the drowning rates of various racial
and ethnic groups. Agencies should evaluate their
own statistics to identify at risk populations in their
own areas of operation.
Slide 8: Recognition and Assessment of Drowning Potential – Swimmer/Diver

Observations
Facing Toward Shore: Swimmers and divers generally face toward the
boat or shore when they are concerned about how to
get there.

Head Low in the Water: Competent swimmers and divers remaining in a
stationary position usually hold their head high or
keep their regulator or snorkel in their mouth.
Lack of Kick: Under normal circumstance the weaker swimmer or
diver displays little or no kick.
Low or Erratic Stroke The swimmer or diver may display erratic arm
movement.
Slide 9: Recognition and Assessment of Drowning Potential – Swimmer Observations

Waves Breaking Over the Head: Most people who are competent swimmers
or divers will dive under or float over waves
to prevent themselves from being
pummeled.
Hair in the Eyes: The natural instinct for most people in control of
themselves in the water is to sweep the hair out of their
eyes.
Glassy, Empty or Anxious Eyes: Depending on the distance and the quality of
optical equipment, the observer can read
fear, anxiety and fatigue in the eyes of a
distressed swimmer or diver.
Heads Together: Swimmers or divers who suddenly converge and remain
together may be attempting to assist one another.
Slide 10: Recognition and Assessment of Drowning Potential – Swimmer Observations

Hand Waving
Being Swept Along By or Fighting the Current: The first sign of distress for a
swimmer or diver caught in a current is that they are being swept
laterally or being pulled away by the current.
Erratic or Unusual Behavior: Watch for hyper-active motions, such as
flailing or for total immobility in the water..
Clinging to Fixed Objects: Individuals hanging onto pier pilings or other solid
structures
Slide 11: Recognition and Assessment of Drowning Potential – Drowning Observations

Double Arm Grasping: This resembles an ineffective butterfly stroke where
the individual slaps the water with both arms
simultaneously.
Climbing the Ladder: The victim looks as though they are climbing an
imaginary ladder in the water and/or looks as
though they are attempting to crawl up out of the
water.
Slide 12: Prevention Activities

Any operation or rescue program must have a prevention program for it to be
effective.

Prevention is clearly shown to save more lives than response activities can or ever
will.
Prevention is really simply taking advantage of access to the client, customer,
public and media to “get the message out”.
Develop the “message” and stick to it with all materials, customer contact, and
media contact.
When doing guide work – USE THE USLA Recognition Observations and TAKE
ACTION!!!!
So it won’t be a rescue, but you will have an “assist” under your belt and have
prevented a rescue!
Slide 13: Prevention Messages.

Advisory Message
“Getting the risks across”
Providing safer options
Providing helpful materials, both child and adult focused
Authority Message
What are the rules?
Slide 14: When Communicating with the Customer or Public

Show Good Attitude
Be Helpful
Be Customer Service Oriented
Always have materials available
Slide 15: Interface with other local safety agencies and stakeholders for prevention
activities.
Ambulance
Police
Rescue personnel
Fire
User groups
Recreation Councils
Slide 16: Promote Prevention through In-service training processes

Monthly Water Rescue Drills should include opportunities for the public and
customers to observe safe behaviors at all times and for the media to attend and
receive your “safety message”.
Slide 17: Promote Personal Safety

Lead stretching exercises at every training and patrol day.
Use safe training practices
Use wetsuits and other protective gear at every training and on patrol.
Advocate use of rescue equipment and victims as buffers from sources of injury.
Slide 18: That’s It Folks - Questions?

Basic River and Open Water Hydrology
There is tremendous power in any water environment

If you work against it, it will defeat you and perhaps kill you.

The water rescue professional needs an understanding of both river and open water
characteristics and hazards. There are entire texts on the topics of hydrology and we will not
attempt to substitute for those tomes here. The following discussion is meant to give the rescuer
a basic understanding of water characteristics and hazards associated with open and swift water
conditions.
Characteristics of Open Water Environments:

Open water encompasses a vast array of conditions, from the
ocean to inland seas, from lakes to rivers and streams. For our
purposes, we will consider swift water in a separate discussion
and focus our efforts in this portion on ocean and lake
environments.
Waves:
Waves are the result of either cyclic forces in the ocean, resulting in ocean swell reaching the
shore line and causing surface waves, which are the breakers pushing water up onto the beach; or
waves may also form in any open water from the force of wind velocity, distance traveled over
open water (referred to as ‘Fetch”), and the duration of the blow. These two mechanisms can
produce waves of great size and force, but are predicable and movement within them is possible
for the rescue swimmer.
Surf is the breaking of waves either over a

submerged object or onto a beach. Surf has
unpredictable shape and force, therefore must be
approach with caution and observation in all
circumstances.
There are a number of different types of wave

forms; we will consider three of the more
common forms here. Spilling waves are formed
Figure 2-3 by swells as they move over the ocean floor that
ascends gradually beneath them, with the crest
of the wave spilling onto the face of the wave. Plunging waves, also known as “Shore Break”,
are formed when a swell suddenly strikes a shallow bottom or reef and breaks with flying spray.
The Plunging wave expends most of its energy at this point and may transform into a spilling
wave at this point for the rest of the travel into shore. Shore break can occur at the beach during
high tide when heavy surf conditions cause large waves to break on the beach with little or no
water under them. Shore break can be particularly dangerous to a swimmer who is caught in
such a wave because they can be slammed directly onto the beach with significant force.
Surging waves are created when water is deep adjacent to shoreline cliffs, reef, or steep beaches,
with the waves keeping their trochoidal form until they crash against the shoreline barrier.

Ocean Currents:
The USLA estimates that 80% of the rescues performed at surf beaches in the United States are a
result of rip currents. While we will discuss the concepts of rip currents here, as well as several
other current types, many more exist than can be covered here.
1. Backwash:
Backwash is most noticeable on steeply inclined beaches
around the time of high tide. Backwash occurs when the water
remaining on the beach returns forcefully to the surf beneath
later incoming waves. Even in the short distance between
breaking waves and deep water, backwash is powerful enough
to knock people off their feet and send them into direct contact
with waves of deep water.
2. Lateral Currents
Lateral (also known as “long shore currents”) currents flow
parallel to the beach. These currents are frequently caused by
waves coming from an angle into the beach and pushing
water along it. They range in speed from fast-flowing to
subtle movement and may sweep swimmers along at a fairly
fast speed and may feed into a rip current.
3. Rip Currents
Rip currents are often referred to as the “Drowning Machine” due to their mechanical ability to
tire swimmers and result in their death. Rip currents are also dangerous because the untrained
eye can see them as an attractive area to swim or not see it at all. Rips are characterized by a
strong flow of water rushing back out to sea. Rip currents occur when large amounts of water
accumulate near shore due to natural wave action.
Since water seeks its own level, the water takes the
path of least resistance. This can result in a very
powerful flow of water into deep water. Generally,
the size and strength of the rip currents are in
proportion to the size and frequency of the wave
action - the larger the waves, the stronger the rip
currents. Rip currents may pull continuously, but
they can suddenly appear or intensify after a set of
waves, or when there is a breach in an offshore
sandbar. Depending on lateral currents, rip currents can be fixed at one location or can occur at
more than one point along the beach. Large rip currents can be recognized by the sandy
discoloration of the water. Additionally, waves usually do not break as readily in a rip current as
in adjacent water.

Inshore Holes:
Inshore holes are depressions up to several yards in diameter
dug into the beach by wave action. Inshore holes can cause
difficulty for children and weak adults, as well as presenting
a hazard to the rescuer. These holes should be identified and
searched when necessary for subjects, as well as considered
when swimming subjects back to shore, since waves may
break in the hole while you are in it!
Sandbars:
Sandbars are also referred to as “sloughs” and can be found
where persistent lateral current has cut a channel into the
bottom near the beach. The shape of the channels will vary,
but may be as much as eight to ten feet deep and run
hundreds of yards parallel to the beach before turning
seaward. Waders and swimmers can be carried along at high
speed and fed into a rip or exhausted fighting the lateral
current. Sandbars are attractive nuisance and will cause
weak swimmers and non-swimmers to attempt to wade out to
them or park water craft on them.
Hazards on the open water environment:

• Rip current
• Surf
• Reefs
• Jetties and Groins
• Topography (steepness, gullies, bottom configuration)
• Caves
• Man made trap points (swim platforms, sewer outfalls, pipelines,
etc…)
• Weather (wind, rain, fog, lightning, storms)
• Marine Life
While all of the above hazards are problematic in the open water
environment, it is important to remember that the places where moving
water is possible (rips, surf, waves) and weather is present tend to present the
greatest danger.

Some Advice for Swimming in Open Water Situations:
• Observe the water to identify any dangerous currents.
• When swimming in large waves or swell, always keep your position relative to shore
and/or boats in mind.
• Always enter the water with a floatation device in the rescue setting.
• When in high levels of spray and heavy water vapor, concentrate on breathing to avoid
flush drowning.
• If caught in a rip current, try to relax. A rip current will not pull you under. Do not try to
swim against the current as this is very difficult, even for an experienced swimmer. If you can do
so, tread water and float for a moment to get your bearings, and then begin a ferry angle swim
out of the rip current.
• A similar technique can be used with lateral current, float and get your bearings to shore
or boat, and then begin a ferry angle swim toward shore.
• Whenever possible, do not swim alone use the buddy system or an observer system.
• Never overestimate your swimming ability, especially when the lives of others are also
involved. Do not hesitate to use one of your flotation aids (can, tube, PFD) as conditions worsen.
• Swimming ability is severely decreased in cold water, high waves and high wind.
• Never dive into shallow water, or water of unknown depth, use proper entry techniques.
• When confronted by a large wave, without enough time to move away, dive underneath
the wave. Once under, keep your body as low as possible until the wave passes over. Timing is
critical, dive into the base of the wave just before it breaks. If the water is too shallow, don’t
dive, crouch and keep a low body profile.
• When surfing into shore, do not ride waves in a straight line toward shore. Surf at an
angle to the waves and stay away from the white water in the wave center to avoid severe drops
over the wave face.
• Use the Beaufort Wind Scale to estimate potential difficulty from wind influence and
fetch.

Beaufort Wind Scale:
This system of estimating wind strength was developed by Admiral Sir Francis Beaufort of the
British Royal Navy in 1805. It was based on his long years of observation of the effects of wind
and stands as an excellent tool to this day.
Beaufort Wind Speed Wave

Wind
number height Effects observed on the sea
knots mph description
(force) (feet)
0 under 1 under 1 - Calm Sea is like a mirror
1 1-3 1-3 0.25 Light air Ripples with appearance of
scales; no foam crests
2 4-6 4-7 0.5 - 1 Light Small wavelets; crests of
breeze glassy appearance, not
breaking
3 7 - 10 8 - 12 2-3 Gentle Large wavelets; crests begin
breeze to break; scattered whitecaps
4 11-16 13-18 3½ - 5 Moderate Small waves, becoming
breeze longer; numerous whitecaps
5 17-21 19-24 6-8 Fresh Moderate waves, taking
breeze longer form; many whitecaps;
some spray
6 22-27 25-31 9½-13 Strong Larger waves forming;
breeze whitecaps everywhere; more
spray
7 28-33 32-38 13½-19 Near gale Sea heaps up; white foam
from breaking waves begins
to be blown in streaks
8 34-40 39-46 18-25 Gale Moderately high waves of
greater length; edges of crests
begin to break into spindrift;
foam is blown in well-marked
streaks
9 41-47 47-54 23-32 Strong gale High waves; sea begins to
roll; dense streaks of foam;
spray may begin to reduce
visibility

10 48-55 55-63 29-41 Storm Very high waves with
overhanging crests; sea takes
white appearance as foam is
blown in very dense streaks;
rolling is heavy and visibility
is reduced
11 56-63 64-72 37-52 Violent Exceptionally high waves; sea
storm covered with white foam
patches; visibility further
reduced
12 64 and 73 and 45 and Hurricane Air filled with foam; sea
over over over completely white with driving
spray; visibility greatly
reduced

Characteristics of Moving Water Environments:
Moving water, generally referred to as “swiftwater”, encompasses a vast array of conditions,

from rivers and streams to flood conditions. The rescuer must understand the differences
between open water conditions and moving water conditions. The risk to the rescuer in
swiftwater is equal to, or exceeds, that of the rescuer in severe rip or surf conditions in open
water and must be considered a potentially life threatening situation at all times during rescue
operations.
Moving water’s current force increases as the square of its speed. This results in fast moving
swiftwater or flood water capable of carrying any heavy object, as the current speed decreases
these objects begin to settle out of the current and come to rest.
As an example, if you review the following table, you will find that the force and power of
swiftwater is frightening, but can be understood and worked with in some situations
Current Velocity Pressure On Legs Pressure on Body On Swamped

Small Boat
3 mph 16 lb 33 lb 168 lb
6 mph 67 lb 134 lb 672 lb
9 mph 151 lb 302 lb 1512 lb
12 mph 269 lb 538 lb 2688 lb
Adapted from Ohio Department of Natural Resources materials
As you can see, the swamped small boat with a 9 mph current against it, in the picture above
could have as much as 1512 pounds of pressure on the vessel. The likelihood of a rescuer simply
freeing the vessel with arm strength alone is zero, so safety and understanding of the forces
involved is paramount in this situation.
Unlike ocean waves, which break and ebb, river and flood currents push against an object
continuously with the force that is predictable, as in the chart above. Once in the current of a
river or flood, there can be no expectation of the force or continuous nature of the current
reducing, unless the rescuer utilizes river features or navigation techniques to remove themselves
from the current force.
The encouraging part of understanding swiftwater is the fact that it remains relatively predictable
in all circumstances. River and flood conditions may seem chaotic and random, but they are not;
swiftwater hydraulics are orderly, predictable and remains the same whether it is a peaceful
brook or a large river.
In order to “sing from the same sheet of music” a few items must be considered common
concepts. First the concept of river locations relative to you and second the International River
Rating System. These allow us to compare apples to apples and understand where we are
located relative to the river.

When referring to direction in swiftwater terminology, we always use these four terms,
regardless of our position at the time we are describing something. When communicating in
swiftwater situations, all communication is relative to the flow of the current and stated as if you
were facing downstream.
“River Right” This is the descriptor to reference a location to the side of the river, such
as “the rock on river right”. The rock is on the right side of the river, as
you face downstream. Even if you are facing upstream and the rock is on
your left, it is still described at being “river right”.
“River Left” This is the descriptor to reference a location to the side of the river, such
as “the rock on river left”. The rock is on the left side of the river, as you
face downstream. Even if you are facing upstream and the rock is on your
right, it is still described at being “river left”.
“Up River” References something that is up current from a position.
“Down River” References something that is down current from a position.
When describing the level of difficulty or intensity of a river or section of swiftwater, the
International River Rating System (IRRS) is utilized. Following is a shortened version of the
IRRS Scale for you to review.
International River Rating System Scale:

Class 1: Easy. Fast moving water with small waves. Few obstructions, all obvious & easily
missed with little training. Risk to swimmers is slight; self-rescue is easy.
Class 2: Novice. Easy rapids with obvious wide, clear channels, no scouting. Occasional
maneuvering required, but rocks & waves are easily missed by trained paddlers.
Swimmers seldom injured & group assistance seldom needed. Rapids at upper
end of rating are Class 2+.
Class 3: Intermediate. Rapids with moderate, irregular waves; may be difficult to avoid,
can swamp an open canoe. Complex maneuvers in fast current & good boat
control in tight passages or around ledges required; large waves or strainers are
present but easily avoided. Strong eddies & powerful current effects.
Inexperienced should scout. Injuries to swimmers rare; self-rescue possible but
group assistance may be required to avoid long swims. Rapids at lower/upper end
are Class 3- or Class 3+.
Class 4: Advanced. Intense, powerful but predictable rapids requiring precise boat
handling in turbulent water. May be large, unavoidable waves & holes or
constricted passages demanding fast maneuvers under pressure. A fast, reliable
eddy turn needed for maneuvers, scout rapids, or rest. Rapids require must moves
above dangerous hazards. Scouting necessary first time. Risk of injury to
swimmers moderate to high, & water conditions may make self-rescue difficult.
Group assistance for rescue is often essential but requires practiced skills. Rapids
at upper/lower end are Class 4- or Class 4+.
Class 5: Expert. Extremely long, obstructed, or very violent rapids which expose a paddler
to added risk. Drops may contain large, unavoidable waves & holes or steep,
congested chutes with complex, demanding routes. Rapids may continue for long
distances between pools, demanding a high level of fitness. What eddies exist

may be small, turbulent, or difficult to reach. At the high end of the scale, several
of these factors may be combined. Scouting recommended but may be difficult.
Swims are dangerous, and rescue is often difficult even for experts. Proper
equipment, extensive experience, & practiced rescue skills are essential. Rapids at
the upper end are classed as 5.1, 5.2, etc.
Class 6: Extreme and Exploratory. These runs have almost never been attempted and often
exemplify the extremes of difficulty, unpredictability and danger. The
consequences of errors are very severe and rescue may be impossible. For teams
of experts only, at favorable water levels, after close personal inspection and
taking all precautions. After a Class VI rapid has been run many times, its rating
may be changed to an appropriate Class 5.x rating.
Much like the world of rock climbing and mountaineering, the IRRS Scale is developed to allow
river users a common language to gauge difficulty and predict resource needs.
Estimating the Speed of Water:

Estimating the speed of water is important to the rescuer for the purposes of determining how
difficult the swim will be and how fast the subject will move down stream. To estimate the
speed of water, you can mark off a 100 foot section of river and drop a floating object in the
water. Time how long it takes the object to travel 100 feet. To then estimate the speed of the
water, divide 68.18 (a constant when using 100 feet) by the seconds it took your object to float
the 100 feet.
For example:
A. If it took 5 seconds for the object to float 100 feet, then 68.18 divided by 5 is 13.6 miles
per hour current speed.
B. If it took 12 seconds for the object to float 100 feet, then 68.18 divided by 12 is 5.7 miles
per hour current speed.
Calculating Travel Time:

Travel time is important to the rescuer, because it allows the rescuer to estimate how long it will
take the subject to get to a particular position. To correctly calculate the travel time, you do need
to have landmark distances documented ahead of time. To calculate travel time you need the
distance the subject must travel, divided by the speed of the water, and then multiply by 60. This
will give you the travel time in calculated minutes.
For example:
A. The subject will cover ½ mile and the water speed is 14 miles per hour. 0.5 divided
by 14 is 0.0357, which is multiplied by 60 to reach the time of 2.14 minutes to travel the ½ mile.
B. The subject will cover 1/4 mile and the water speed is 7 miles per hour. 0.25 divided
by 7 is 0.035, which is multiplied by 60 to reach the time of 2.1 minutes to travel the 1/4 mile.

Swiftwater Currents:
Moving water has current and these currents are both predictable and constant. Here we will
discuss a number of the current types; this is by no means a complete explanation of currents in
moving water. We will simply be discussing some of the more common and significant current
types.
River current happens when water flows down river. As water flows down, it seeks the easiest
way, which amounts to the steepest, most direct, and clearest route. The current's velocity is
affected by the volume of water coming downstream, the river width and the gradient (or slope).
The volume is the amount of flowing water. It is often expressed in cubic feet per second (cfs).
The greater the volume of water, the faster it flows. A narrow river constricts the water, forcing it
to pile up and move faster. The converging currents meet and often create some kind of
turbulence. Wider rivers may have slower, calmer currents. A rapid generally has a steep slope,
fast-moving current and shallow water. A pool generally has a flatter slope, slower-moving
current and deeper water.
In a river, water moves slower near the bottom of the riverbed because of friction. The faster
water is near the surface. This layering effect is called laminar flow. The edge of the river often
shows a spiral movement called helical flow from the friction of the banks. The slower water
around the banks is drawn into the faster surface water toward the middle of the river. This
current then spirals down toward the river bottom and then toward shore-like a spring. On a
river bend, the water tends to move faster and is deeper toward the outside of the curve. The
water piles up on the outside of the bend, cutting into the bank. Debris such as fallen trees and
brush also piles up in these areas. The inside of the river bend commonly has the slowest-
moving water. However, it is often very shallow.
Water flows downstream by choosing the easiest route possible until it meets an obstacle and is
diverted in another direction. The contours of the riverbed and the geology of the area define the
local river. Rivers winding through farmlands are different from the raging rapids rushing over
craggy rocks and through narrow hillsides. River channels are created as water bounces off
obstacles and flows around them. In channels with deep water, a downstream "V" is formed as
the currents meet in the channel. Rocks or shallow areas are off to the sides, allowing a safe
channel down the middle of the downstream V. An upstream V is formed when the water runs
into an obstacle and is forced around it.
A rock just above the surface forces the current to flow around it, creating an area of calm water
behind it. This calm water is really a slow reversal current. This calm water behind the obstacle
is called an "eddy." These eddies provide resting spots out of the main current. As water flows
over the top of a rock just under the surface, it creates a small wave. This is called a "pillow"
because of the smooth, glassy water pouring over the rock. As water flows over a rock just
under the surface in faster-moving water, it creates a standing wave, or haystack, just
downstream. These waves are really just "standing water," moving neither upstream nor
downstream. A large obstacle in fast-moving water, forcing water to drop steeply over it, causes
a hole, or hydraulic. This water gets trapped in the hole, or depression, and recirculates. As this
water recirculates, it can trap and hold solid objects.

Focus on Waves, Holes, and Hydraulics:
Standing Waves, also known as River Waves, are a
wave or series of waves in a river. The wave can be
caused by convergence of main channel currents,
underwater obstacles or ledges, or an increasing river
speed/gradient which converts the hydraulic energy of
the river into a wave or series of waves, typically
these waves diminishing in size as they continue to
form in a line downstream.
A hole is a river wave, usually caused by an

underwater obstacle, which breaks back
upstream. There is little sub-surface force and
the upper laminar layers simply re-circulate
upstream. If one were to become stuck in a hole
while paddling, simply falling over would result
in the paddler being pulled out and downstream
by the laminar currents below the surface.
Hydraulics are a vertical reversal of water flow. This happens when the pressure of the current
falling over a gradient (such as a dam or large rock) causes the water at the base of the gradient
to be forced downward into a loop style
reversal and back to the surface. Part of
the water continues downstream and part
reverses back upstream to the base of the
gradient, resulting in a re-circulating flow.
This situation is very dangerous for the
individual who becomes trapped within a
hydraulic, since the swimmer or boater has little chance of exiting the hydraulic under their own
power hydraulic. There is some chance that the swimmer could submerge themselves to the
bottom and “crawl” out of the reversal along the bottom and then surface down stream of the
hydraulic.
Focus on Whirlpools
All of us have read the stories of ocean going ships drawn under by a huge whirlpool at sea.
Well, this may or may not be a true open sea phenomenon. Whirlpools do exist in rivers and
moving water, but not on the grand scale of the sea stories. You cannot compress water, so the
water trapped in the river bed must move up or down, the whirlpool forms to provide a path for
the water’s energy to move down. Whirlpools are generally a transient and brief phenomenon.
Generally there are two types of whirlpools described in the moving water environment. The
small whirlpools that form along eddy lines as shear forces of water oppose each other, creating
a small whirlpool that exists for a short time as it moves downstream in the current. The second
type, which is not obstruction based and found in higher volume rivers at the bottom of large
rapids where the energy of the falling water meets up with a pool of slower moving water. The
second type of whirlpool can be quite large and powerful, but again is a transient phenomenon.

Focus on Eddies and other features:
Eddies occur on the downstream side of obstacles and may represent “calm water”, which is
moving in opposition to the main current. In heavy water conditions and strong current, there
may be large eddy lines or fences at the perimeter of the eddy. This does cause the rescuer
difficulty, since the rescuer must “dig” for the calm water on the opposite side of the eddy line or
fence from the main current to pull him/her into the eddy.
About Strainers, Debris Sieves, and Boulder Sieves:

• Strainers are any river obstacle that allows water to pass through, but traps solid objects
either within the strainer or on the up stream side of the strainer. Examples of strainers include
trees laying on the surface, overhangs, and surface features laying at the surface.
• Debris sieves are created when water becomes laden with debris which collect against
strainers, boulders, river bends, and bridges.
• Boulder sieves are created when the water flows through a collection of closely located
boulders or a field of boulders, but the boulders are close enough that they do not allow solid
objects to pass through.
Strainers and sieves are extremely dangerous since a swimmer or paddler can become trapped
against or under the strainer/sieve with little hope of self rescue with significant current present.
Strainers and sieves also represent a significant contributing factor to drowning in swiftwater and
present so high a risk that rescuers should consider performing a rescue in this situation only
after all options have been exhausted and the risk/benefit analysis warrants the action.
Man Made Hazards:

• Man Made Debris
o Come in all shapes and sizes, but constitute a significant threat. Old cars and
construction can create dangerous strainers or entrapment points for the swimmer or
boater to become entangled in and drown.
• Bridge Abutments
o Bridge abutments are designed to allow water to slip around with minimum friction.
Because of this design, a swimmer or boat trapped against a bridge abutment is not he
same as against a natural feature. This can be a very dangerous situation and a serious
pin situation with no downstream eddy present with an abutment.
• Low Head Dams
o A dam does not have to be high to be dangerous. A dam with even a short waterfall can
kill. Water going over a dam creates a back current, or undertow, that can pull a boat or
swimmer into the turbulence. This hydraulic can trap and hold any item. Many dams
are not marked and are almost impossible to see from upstream. Know the rivers you
plan to travel and always scout ahead.
• Flood Channels
o Flood channels are extremely dangerous locations for anyone, on or under the water.
The channel is designed to allow water to run with the minimum friction possible,
thereby allowing speeds that are sometimes as fast as 35 mph! Additionally, many
flood channels have grates, abutments, underground passages, or gates which will cause

injury or death to the rescuer. In some areas of the U.S. the underground passages are
miles in length and designed to fill completely.
Some Advice for Swimming in Swiftwater Situations:

• Observe the water to identify any dangerous currents, hazards, or conditions.
• Always remember to utilize a ferry angle of 300-450 degrees to the current with head up
stream, when swimming across swiftwater. Always preplan your start to place you into the
correct alignment to reach your goal.
• Safe Swimming Position is the baseline approach when swimming swiftwater; this is
where the swimmer’s feet are positioned near the surface and downstream with your hands and
arms out to the side to “scull”.
• When swimming in current, use a “ferry angle” toward the shore you are going to for
advantage against the current.
• When swimming in waves, always keep your position relative to shore and/or boats in
mind.
• When swimming river waves, always adopt the method of “Breath, Relax, Observe” to
avoid flush drowning or loss of control. This allows you to breath relax and pass through the
wave, and then observe for hazards and the next wave prior to your next breath.
• Always enter the water with a personal flotation device (PFD) in the rescue setting.
There should never be a time a rescuer is along the water’s edge or in the water without a PFD in
place.
• Use of a helmet in swiftwater is always advisable, when you are not intimately familiar
with the location or water conditions.
• When in highly aerated and having difficulty remaining on the surface or swimming,
consider sinking to the bottom and “walking or crawling” along the bottom to “heavy” water,
and then swimming to the surface.
• Whenever possible, do not swim alone use the buddy system or an observer system.
• Never overestimate your swimming ability, especially when the lives of others are also
involved. Do not hesitate to use additional flotation aids (can, tube, kayak, paddle board, river
board, etc…) as conditions worsen.
• Swimming ability is severely decreased in cold water, waves and fast current.
• Never dive into shallow water, or water of unknown depth, use proper entry techniques.
• Use your feet to “walk around boulders and large trees”, but be prepared to maneuver
into a head downstream swimming position to go up and over strainers at the surface.
• If caught in a whirlpool, remain calm and hold your breath. With time, the swimmer will
be ejected out the bottom of the whirlpool. Once out, move away from the bottom of the feature
and swim back to the surface.

Personal Protective Equipment and Rescue Equipment
There is a myriad of manufactures and individual devices for personal

protection and rescue in the aquatic environment. In this section we will be
discussing the core equipment for personal protection and the basic
equipment for water rescue. The equipment will be discussed in brief, since
further learning and specifics will occur as part of a professional course of
instruction in this area.
Protective equipment in the water rescue environment is vitally important to

the rescuer. The presence of the equipment, properly utilized and fitted can
make the difference between death and a minor inconvenience for the
rescuer. In general, rescuers should not allow a time to occur when they do
not have their basic PPE on and fitted properly. It is simply too important
to allow this to slip by the wayside or take second place to any other
consideration.
Personal Flotation Device (PFD):

The PFD is a critical lifesaving device and is required when working on, in, or near moving
water. Of course they are also required whenever the rescuer is in a water vessel of any kind.
Identifying which type of rescue PFD you will use is a difficult task, matching types and
suitability to the broadest number of people or to individual tasks can be an intricate process.
The PFD is a key piece of rescuer equipment, without it the rescuer has little chance of surviving
difficult and turbulent swiftwater. The PFD assists the wearer in a number of ways:
• Provides cushioning
• Provides some thermal protection
• Provides flotation to obtain air
• Improves visibility
• Improves swimming and maneuverability in current
• Allows for tethered swimmer technique (with quick release harness
system)
• Allows for a point of attachment for items when swimming, such as knives, throw bags,
whistle, etc…
One of the most important considerations in selection of a rescue PFD is fit. A poorly fitted PFD
can be a hindrance to the wearer, if not a danger. A correctly fitted PFD is one that does not
“ride up” the wearer’s torso when they are in the water. The wearer must have unrestricted
mobility of their arms and torso when wearing the device, so they can swim freely and perform
rescue tasks. Additionally, the wearer should not have their vision or airway impeded by the
PFD riding up their torso, nor should their in water breathing be dramatically affected by strap
tightening.

A correct fit and buoyancy can be achieved when the PFD is adequately shaped to the wearer
and has an adequate number of straps (waist, sternum, and chest) to allow for proper fit. The
correct buoyancy for swift water should be calculated at twice the minimum (12.25kg), a PFD
with only the minimum buoyancy (2.125kg) is inadequate for swiftwater environments. Even
with twice the minimum buoyancy in the vest and 50% of the buoyancy distributed in the front
section, the wearer should expect to encounter frequent periods underwater due to hydraulic
effects in the environment.
The rescue PFD should be highly visible during day or night time conditions, the use of
reflective tape or light will help during night periods. The PFD will provide the wearer with
increased safety for torso impacts, some areas report the majority of rescuer injuries occurring
within 10 feet of the water’s edge, making the PFD excellent torso protection; in addition
swimming in swiftwater frequently results in impact with submerged objects. Pockets on the
PFD are a useful addition to the device and should be made of permeable material and
incorporate a drain system. Check the PFD to assure the rescuer can actually use the pockets
when wearing the device. The PFD should also have an attachment system to allow for the
attachment of knives, whistles, and other devices.
The rescue PFD should incorporate the Quick Release Harness

System (QRHS). This system is designed to allow a rescuer to
be tethered during a rescue, but if required, the rescuer can
release the tether system under tension by opening the cam
buckle on the system. This allows the rescuer to immediately
go to a swimming mode with their buoyancy intact in the event
the rope is caught or fouled. The QRHS should be on the PFD
nearer the rescuers sternum than waist. This allows the rescuer
to “plane” on the water when held against the water force and not place the rescuer in a “bent
over” position.
Every rescue PFD should have a very loud whistle attached to the PFD in a location that is easy
to reach and extend to the mouth when in the water. Additionally, each PFD should have a good
quality knife attached in a protective sheath that is easily reached; a blunt tip is sometimes
preferred to reduce the possibility of injury. The knife should be secured to prevent accidental
lose. Many personnel also prefer to have a set of swim goggles in the pocket of their PFD for
use when in the water and a small light for signaling at dusk.
Rescue Buoyancy Compensator Device:

The Rescue BCD is an excellent option for those personnel performing daily
activities in the recreational dive environment, allowing for flexibility to
transition to a rescue posture with little effort when already in the water for
recreational dive purposes. The Amer-Sea Search TCB-25 BCD pictured here
is a good choice for a rescue BCD and provides distinctive visibility to dive
clients when you are leading dives.
A Rescue BCD should have a number of features to make it useful in the rescue
environment, including: high levels of lift capacity, air cell protection with

dense materials, snag protection, double tank bands, bright coloring for easy visibility,
attachment points for tools and equipment, large pockets for ease of use, and leg loops to reduce
any vertical movement of the BCD when engaged in rough movements or conditions.
Thermal Protection
Water has a much higher heat transmission than air. As the body cools down to temperatures
lower than 36 degrees Celsius dangerous injuries can result. Proper thermal protection will not
only allow the rescuer to maintain their core temperature, but will also reduce potential for injury
and improve athletic performance. While debate continues over whether the “best” thermal
protection is a wetsuit or a dry suit, this discussion will not take side in that debate. Simply put,
both have advantages and disadvantages to their use; examples of this include the decreased
thermal protection of the wetsuit and the decreased swimming ability while in a dry suit.
Wetsuits:
A wetsuit is a close fitting neoprene suit. Water settles between the skin and the neoprene,
allowing body warmth to heat up the trapped water, thus keeping the wearer warm. But the suit
must be fitted well and of good construction. Wetsuits are the most common thermal protection
worn by water recreationalists. In water temperatures as cold as 40° they perform well, keeping
in mind the issues of time on task and activity level. Unlike a dry suit, which offers protection at
lower temperatures, wetsuits do not need to be equalized with air to prevent suit squeeze and
they allow for freer movement when swimming than does a dry suit. Minor punctures or tears in
wetsuits are easily fixed and are not usually severe enough to stop an activity, additionally
wetsuit costs less to buy and maintain than do dry suit systems. But keep in mind that as water
temperatures drop below the 500F mark, wetsuits perform less well than dry suits as thermal
protection.
Anticipated water temperature and work rate should be the factors considered when choosing a
wetsuit. For example, personnel who use a 3mm suit in 500F water temperature and are
acclimatized to that environment will often need a thicker wetsuit for use in colder water and
longer time at task situations. The realization of acclimatization is more obvious for a rescuer
making the transition from cold to warm water. Before buying a suit, check where you will most
likely operate. This is one of the main criteria for the correct choice. In general, the following are
the guidelines for selection:
720F and above: 3mm wetsuit is usually sufficient

600F to 720F: 3-6mm wetsuit, depending on personal comfort and time on task
500F to 600F: 5-8mm layered wetsuit, depending on personal comfort and time
on task
400F to 500F: 14-16mm layered wetsuit, depending on personal comfort and time
on task
If you will be in multiple water conditions, you should consider owning a variety of wetsuits, or
perhaps a wetsuit for warmer conditions and a dry suit for cold water conditions.
Ideally a wetsuit will be made from a combination of neoprene thicknesses not exceeding 5mm
to allow for freedom of movement in the water. The thicker the suit the more warmth and

buoyancy is attained. Top wetsuit manufacturers have spent a great deal of time researching
different materials and designs, specifically in the extreme sports environment to give the best
possible protection. All seams should be double glued and reinforced with stitching or thermal
tape on the inside, or a combination of the two. This prevents water flushing through the suit.
The neoprene should feel soft and stretchy to the touch. The fit and cut of the suit is of
significant importance to preventing water circulation within the suit.
The suit must fit the body; not too tight but in every, case not too loose, since every fold can
contain water. In particular, arm, leg and neck openings must fit tightly to prevent water flush
when swimming. However, a suit that fits too tightly is dangerous; it decreases blood circulation
and generates extensive stress on the material.
Any rubber outer on a wetsuit is susceptible to damage by sharp objects; care should be taken in
the use and storage of the suit. Rinse the suit in fresh water after use and hang inside out on a
padded hanger allowing plenty of air to circulate around it, if you avoid drying it in the sun, you
will double its life. Never roll a suit and keep it stored this way, as it can permanently damage
the neoprene. If you see a problem, get it fixed, minor repairs are fairly easy to undertake
yourself; a small tube of neoprene glue and seaming tape is a good investment for small nicks.
Dry Suits:
A dry suit is simply a waterproof membrane garment with gaskets to prevent water from entering
that is worn over thermal protective clothing while in the water environment. There are a large
number of dry suit manufactures who develop suits for a variety of uses. A dry suit designed for
the diver differs from those designed for general water rescue purposes in two ways. First the
material is typically of different thickness, while secondly, the suit is not designed for
manipulation of air within the suit. What characteristic makes a dry suit different from a wetsuit,
the simple answer is because you stay warmer and expend fewer calories in cold water.
Water sucks heat from your body 25 times faster than air. With its system of zippers, attached
boots, and seals at the neck and wrists, a dry suit keeps out water, leaving you surrounded by air
which your body heats to maintain temperature. Most surface water rescue personnel chose to
utilize a shell type dry suit, allowing them to choose what thermal wear they will have on
beneath the suit for their comfort level. The fit of the dry suit must be tight enough to prevent
large amounts of loose fabric and folds appearing during use, thereby allowing moving water to
catch them and increase drag in the water. But the suit must also be loose enough to allow for
freedom of movement and effective swimming in current.
The fabric and rubber gaskets on a dry suit are susceptible to damage by mildew and sharp
objects; care should be taken in the use and storage of the suit. Rinse the suit in fresh water after
use and hang inside out on a padded hanger allowing plenty of air to circulate around it, avoid
drying it in the sun. Never roll a suit and keep it stored for long periods, as it can permanently
damage the suit. If you see a problem, get it fixed, by a qualified repair specialist.
Helmets:
Use of a helmet in the water rescue environment is a vital aspect of rescuer safety. In the
absence of a helmet, the rescuer is at risk for a blow to the head resulting in altered mental status

or unconsciousness, leading to drowning. The helmet must offer basic features of high-density
molded shell, an interior fit system to provide more comfort and shock absorption, flow
vents/drainage to take water out of the helmet, fully adjustable retention straps, and no brim to
allow water to force head into any direction.
Footwear and Handwear:

Gloves are an important item for the swiftwater rescuer, specifically in colder conditions. Using
gloves will allow for longer working time at fine motor skills and improve grip strength when
cold. Gloves should be a close fitting style with a improved grip palm and adequate insulative
properties for the temperatures to be encountered. Loose fitting or poorly constructed gloves
will cause more difficultly than the value added having them.
Footwear is a must for the rescuer
Fins:
Many water rescue personnel prefer the use of fins for in water rescue work. While this is a
personal choice, all rescuers should be comfortable in the water without fins and demonstrate
their swimming ability without fins on a regular basis. Fins can add ability to the in water
rescuer, with increased propulsion and maneuverability. When selecting fins for use in moving
water a short, stiff fin is generally preferred by most swimmers; swiftwater fins generate more
than adequate force in a small over all size, while not allowing the current to drag the swimmer
by increasing surface area or increase entrapment risk.
Goggles, Mask, and/or Snorkel:

While not all surface rescue personnel utilize or value the use of swim goggles or a mask and
snorkel, they can add great benefit to the rescuer. They allow for clearer vision below the
surface and allow the rescuer to keep their eyes open during periods they would reflex close
then, such as splashing, waves, and surface disturbances. This can be a great advantage in some
circumstances. A wide variety of swim goggles are on the market, simply finding a pair that is
comfortable for the wearer is all that is necessary. A good quality diving mask and snorkel are
well worth the investment to gain comfort and good range of vision. Consider keeping a bottle
of anti-fog solution with the mask at all times for extended use. Practice is required to be
proficient with mask and snorkel, particularly in moving water conditions.
Throw Bags:
Rope is a most useful rescue tool for extricating people
from the water; it is such a primary item for water rescue
that the throw bag has become the equivalent of the
infantry man’s rifle for water rescue. You simply can’t
leave home without it.
Today, there vast numbers of throw bag styles and types.

Generally the bag is simply a stuff sack of the right size
for the rope contained within and an anchor tab or hole at the bottom of the bag to attach the rope
to or through. Rope lengths are generally 50-75 feet and 6mm to 9mm in diameter. Ideally the
rope should be positively buoyant or neutral for ease of use. The bags themselves can be of any

configuration and style. Bags should have an integrated drain system for water to flow out and a
secure closure to retain the rope in the bag.
Multiple bags can be tied together to string out a long safety line. The rope can also be used to
belay people working at the edge of the water. Having multiple ropes available is necessary for
tethered swimmer technique and large numbers of personnel.
One method for use is to open the drawstring at the top and pull out a few feet of rope, retain a
grip on the free end of rope. Hold the bag at a comfortable point and throw with an underhand
motion to the person in the water. If you miss, use a second throw bag or try pulling the bag back
and allow the rope to pile up at your feet. Fill the bag with water and throw it again. Once the
person in the water grabs the rope, begin pulling, while allowing water pressure to swing the
person toward shore.
Rescue Can and Rescue Tube:

The rescue tube and rescue can have been a staple of the lifeguard profession for decades and
their use can also be valuable in all water rescue environments. Both devices allow for towing of
the victim by a rescue swimmer or paddler, and in addition, are an excellent tool to float a rope
to a subject and provide both flotation and the ability to perform a line recovery.
The rescue tube is a flexible, usually red, neoprene flotation device with typically a 3 meter
section of webbing run through the device from end to end and continued out one end to a large
loop attachment point. The device is designed to wrap around the subject and be secured with a
clip, then allow the rescuer to tow the subject behind them either swimming or paddling. The
rescue tube is adequate for single subject situations and has the advantage of being soft and
flexible at all times, making subject injury for the tube unlikely. The tube also allows the subject
to float face up and not have to hold onto the tube to assure it stays in place, just keep their arms
down to avoid it slipping off.
The rescue can is generally somewhat bullet shaped, usually red, with handles on the sides and
end of the can. It is constructed of rigid plastic and is not flexible, nor will it deform easily. The
large size can has the advantage of providing enough flotation to keep two swimmers afloat for a
period of time, as well as being rigid enough to use as a directional aid to move subjects away
from the rescuer. The can does require the subject to be able to maintain a secure grasp of the
can for use as a towing adjunct and it cannot be wrapped around a subject for flotation when the
subject is unconscious.
Both the rescue tube and rescue can have advantages and disadvantages, which in many cases
becomes an agency decision on which device to use for their personnel.
Signal Devices and Marker Buoys:

A signal device, such as dye, smoke, or flare can be extremely useful in the rescue environment
for attraction and basic signaling between the rescuer and vessels or aircraft. Of the devices
available, a smoke marker is the easiest to see over the widest number of conditions.

A small marker buoy is a vital piece of equipment for the search environment; it allows the
rescuer to drop the thin line and weight, leaving the small buoy on the surface from which other
rescuers can begin search procedures.
A rescuer in the dive environment should not be in the water without a safety sausage, preferably
international orange in color and at least six feet in length.
Kayaks and paddle boats:

The use of open deck kayaks and many other paddled water craft for surface rescue is a time
proven technique with excellent efficiency. The skills and techniques for paddling water craft
are an entire course in themselves, with many texts on the subject. For more information on
training in surface craft skills from professional instructors and courses in your area, please
contact American Canoe Association.
There are a number of good craft for rescue purposes and they can fulfill a significant area of
response, allowing for transport of the subject, search platform, direct contact rescue, and
equipment transport. As well as, use as a safety boat for divers in swiftwater, allowing for close
following of the diver without risk of mechanical failure or injury from a large boat. Another
very good application for the kayak is use as a towing device for subjects who can manage their
own airway and hold onto a flotation aid.
Sun Protection:
With the ever increasing rates of skin cancer and adverse affects of sun exposure over time, it is
necessary that water rescue professionals take steps to provide themselves sun protection. The
use of high spf sun block is a requirement in most water rescue standby and lifeguard services as
a prevention measure. While the use of sun glasses is absolutely necessary to prevent sun
blindness, improve vision in the reflective environment, and with polarization improvement in
vision into the water is gained.

Rescue Swimmer Communications
Communication is vital to the rescuer, being able to indicate actions and conditions to personnel
on shore, in boats, in aircraft, and other rescuers is a requirement that cannot be overlooked. Due
to the nature of the environment, simple signals using hands or whistles are the baseline
communication in the aquatic environment. Both the United States Coast Guard and the United
States Lifesaving Association have developed standard signals for the rescue swimmer. These
signals are listed below.
Whistle Signals:
ONE WHISTLE BLAST = Look at me or attention here
TWO WHISTLE BLASTS = Look down current
THREE WHISTLE BLASTS = Look up current
THREE WHISTLE BLASTS FAST = HELP or DANGER!

AND REPEATING
Daylight Hand Signals:

In day light conditions, the following hand signals are utilized for basic communications.
“I’m OKAY”
“I need Assistance”, or “You can pick

me up”, or “You can throw the line”
“I am in trouble” or “Patient is a resuscitation case”
“I have just lost the subject” or “I will begin searching here”
Night and Poor Visibility Hand Signals:

In poor visibility and night conditions, the rescue swimmer must normally utilize a light source
for communication, in conjunction with hand signals.
“OKAY”: Light stationary in raised hand
“MOVE IN”: Light in hand waving slowly
“I’M IN TROUBLE”: Strobe activated

Water Rescue Tactics
such, the basic lecture slides have been provided for the participant, with space available for note
taking and alternate slides.
Slide 1: Basic Water Rescue Philosophy

Christie - 2004
Slide 2: Building Blocks for Successful Rescue

Judgment
Experience
Practice
Training
Slide 3: Lowest Risk Option for Situation

Dry Rescue
Throw a rope or flotation to subject
Boat Based Rescues
Using the boat for rescue requires much greater skill from the rescuers and
caution with people in water
In Water Contact Rescues
Highest level of skill from the rescuer and the highest level of danger
Slide 4: RETHROG
Reach
Throw
Row/Boat
Go/Tow
Helo
Slide 5: Common Mistakes

Stretching a line at right angles across a current
Rescuers or subjects tying themselves to a rope
Hanging a rescuer from a object to catch a subject
Allowing a subject to get down current of the last rescue system
Allowing compassion to overcome safety and limits
Slide 6: Weighing Rescue Options

Using the lowest risk option is our goal, but there are considerations:
The time it takes to set up and operate a given system
Available resources
Rescuer training and experience

A swimming rescue might be high risk for a firefighter, but low to medium risk
for a dive leader or river technician.
Slide 7: Working With Rescue Swimmers
Slide 8: Working With Rescue Swimmers

As part of the rescue boat crew the rescue swimmer has a pivotal responsibility.
Most of the time the rescue swimmer needs to carry out his/her task alone, under
cold and extreme conditions. Especially with high waves and heavy wind the
rescue swimmer is called to the scene, because it's too dangerous for a boat to
approach the victim, boat or life raft.
The rescue swimmer must be able to function in physiologically demanding
environments at sea, in rivers, in lakes, or on land during day or night operations.
Slide 9: Working With Rescue Swimmers - Continued

Rescue Swimmers in the boat based situation should be able to:
Act as boat crew
Swim access subjects to assess for hazards and perform initial stabilization
(PFD, Tether, Medical, etc…)
Participants will be able to perform the following water rescue techniques
in a variety of conditions in day light:
Throw bag use and recovery of subject
Contact rescue with device (rescue tube and can)
Contact rescue without device
Live Bait from Boat
Slide 10: Search

Search high POA points first
Consider use of Boats, spotters, probes, paddlers, and swimmers in initial attack
Slide 11: What Would You Do #1?

Priorities?
Initial Attack?

Priorities?
Initial Attack?

Priorities?
Initial Attack?
Slide 14: Questions and Round Table Time

Basic Open Water Rescue Techniques
such, the basic lecture slide outline has been provided for the participant, with space available for
note taking and alternate slides.
Slide 1: Basic Water Rescue Techniques
Slide 2: Components of a Rescue

Recognize and Respond
Contact and Control
Signal and Save
Slide 3: Recognize and Respond

Recognize distress
Give Verbal Direction
Alert backup
Select equipment
Enter Water
Slide 4: Contact and Control

Approach subject
Contact subject
Stabilize subject
Assess subject
Slide 5: Signal and Save

Signal backup as able
Retrieve subject
Remove subject
Assess subject
Slide 6: Physiological Response and Behavioral Sequences in Victim Recognition

Distress
Panic
Submersion
Slide 7: Maintaining a position of safety when effecting a rescue
Slide 8: Advantages and disadvantages of reaching and throwing assists

Is rescuer safety an issue from water hazards?
Can the rescuer maintain control of situation?
Is Subject unconscious or unable to help themselves?
Subject submerged or out of reach?
Bad or unknown bottom and/or shore terrain

Slide 9: Throw Bag Techniques
Initial Throw Methods
Underhand
Sidearm
Overhand
Second Throw Method
Coil throw
Water in bag throw
Stuffing issues
Slide 10: Methods of entry for various types of water conditions

Shallow water
Running entry with chest first surface slide
Giant stride
Boat Swivel
Deep water
High entry with cross leg bullet entry.
Unfamiliar water
Releasing devices in air
Slide 11: Appropriate victim approach for different rescue situations

Front surface
Rear surface
Underwater
Slide 12: Considerations when making contact with a victim
Slide 13: Use of an equipment or cross chest carry for a given rescue situation
Slide 14: The need to assess for spinal injury prior to effecting a rescue or moving a
victim
All of the following REQUIRE Spinal Precautions:
Subject floating face down in water;
Witnessed trauma;
Neck or back pain;
Lacerations or abrasion or bleeding;
Inability to speak, loss of function or sensation
Sudden surface inactivity following activity.
Slide 15: In Water Spinal Holds

Deep Water (Red Cross) Method
“C-Clamp” Method
Slide 16: Towing the Subject

BCD or Lifejacket Grab Tow
Device to PFD Tether Tow

Device Tow
Slide 17: Advantages and Disadvantages of Assistive Rescue Devices

The Rescue Tube
The Rescue Can
The Ring
Paddle Board
Kayak
Slide 18: Tethered Swimmer Technique

Use as a last resort
High Risk
Significant Potential Injury
Only Experienced Personnel
Minimum of 3 Personnel required for boat based operation
Follow Job Aid for process
Slide 19: Principles of defense, release, and escape from a panicked victim
Slide 20: Priorities of resuscitation over removal of a victim from the water
Prevent further harm
Remove subject prior to treating injuries
Airway support\rescue breathing
Slide 21: Appropriate methods of lifting and removing a victim from the water
Subject able to climb out on own
Shallow water assist
Longitudinal drag
1-2 person carry
Boat lift
Slide 22: Questions and Review

MEDICAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE RESCUER
The whole purpose of the water rescue is the patient who will be cared for in the end. The
proper medical care and packaging of the patient will play a major role in determining patient
outcome. Whether the patient is harmed further by the rescue and if he survives the injuries is
completely in the hands of the rescue team and medical personnel at the incident site.
This section is arranged to assist the rescuer with developing their approach to the patient in the
water rescue situation and is not meant to provide specific protocols for the care of the patient.
For detailed guidance on medical care contact your local emergency medical services authority.
The Drowning Patient:

Drowning is defined as death by submersion in a liquid medium, while Near-Drowning is
defined as a submersion episode with at least transient recovery. Every year thousands of people
drown in the United States and around the world. Drowning is the third leading cause of
accidental death and the second leading cause of unintentional death in people age 5-44 years of
age.
The Centers for Disease Control and the National Safety Council estimate the costs per drowning
at $1,250,000. The number of young, severely brain-damaged near-drowning victims has
increased rapidly in recent years. Residential care of these victims averages $125,000 annually
per child, and is the leading cause of admission to state hospitals.
Swimming, boating, Scuba Diving, and diving from heights are all activities strongly associated
with drowning; all of these activities coupled with alcohol consumption simply increases the
likelihood of a drowning incident. Males, specifically young male swimmers and boaters, lead
females by as much as 14:1 in drowning incidents.
The Drowning Process:

The United States Lifesaving Association considers the drowning process to have three stages
(Brewster, 2000):
1. Distress
There is a period of increasing distress prior to the actual onset of the emergency
situation. During a distress situation, swimmers are able to support themselves in the
water with swimming/floating skills or a floatation device, but have difficulty reaching
safety. They may be able to call or wave for help. Some distressed swimmers do not
realize they are in trouble and may swim against current without realizing they are
making no progress. This presentation may go on for seconds, minutes, or even hours in
some cases. In water distress is serious, but may not always occur, but when recognized
should be dealt with quickly. If intervention is quick, the swimmer may suffer no ill
effects and may even go on to complete their day of recreation.

2. Panic
The panic stage of the drowning process may develop from the distress stage or may
begin immediately upon the subject’s immersion in water. In the panic stage, the subject
is no longer able to maintain buoyancy; perhaps from lack of swimming skills, loss of
floatation, fatigue, or other physical problem. Generally, there is little evidence of an
effective supporting kick, the head and face are low in the water, usually the chin is
extended, and the subject is focusing all energy on breaths of air. Due to this there is
usually no call for help or other attention getting maneuver. The panic stage cannot last
long, since the subjects actions are generally ineffective and will progress to submersion
if no intervention is taken.
3. Submersion
Unlike Hollywood portrayals, drowning subjects do not wind up face down with their
arms extended on the surface of the water. Even in saltwater, subjects without a
floatation device rapidly submerge and sink, once buoyancy is lost. In fresh water,
submersion can occur very rapidly and the subject may hit bottom quickly in water
without current. Submersion itself is not fatal to the subject, assuming rapid intervention
is done and ventilation restored quickly. Based on the experience of USLA members, the
USLA believes there is a two minute window of enhanced opportunity for successful
recovery and resuscitation of submerged subjects (Brewster, 2000). Thereafter, the
chances of successful recovery decline very quickly. In cold water, less than 450
Fahrenheit, successful recoveries have been documented in the pediatric population; but
this is extremely rare on an international basis. Indeed, the likelihood of successful
resuscitation after 8-10 minutes of submersion in water warmer than 450 Fahrenheit is
very unlikely.
Physiology of Drowning:
Drowning subjects typically do attempt to prevent water from entering their mouth, but
eventually all drowning subjects get water into their mouth. Many subjects cough and gasp.
Once in the mouth, the subject may ingest or aspirate the water. Ingestion is the swallowing of
the water into the stomach, while aspiration is the inhaling of the water into the lungs. Normally,
a much more significant amount of water is ingested.
Drowning subjects will begin to loose consciousness at some point and will usually try to breathe
underwater at some point. The larynx senses the intrusion of water and closes in laryngeal
spasm. While some small volume of water may have been aspirated into the lungs prior to
laryngeal spasm, once begun there will be no further aspiration of water until extended
submersion and the death process allows the spasm to relax, thereby allowing water into the
lungs, generally after death. Although this may not always be the case and some subjects have
been found after extended submersion with little or not water in the lungs.
Drowning or Near-drowning is not a simple case of suffocation. In most cases the lungs are
traumatized by aspiration of water, even if the subject is rescued and/or revived it may case
complications and poor outcomes.

While most drowning cases occur with the standard process, there are a few drownings that are
referred to as Sudden Drowning Syndrome. In Sudden Drowning Syndrome, there is sudden
death present caused by illness, injury, or pre-disposing chronic illness. Sudden Drowning
Syndrome is very difficult to prevent because it may occur with no sign of struggle whatsoever.
The subject may be fine one moment and suddenly sinks below the surface the next. This
situation is also very difficult to impossible for the rescuer to observe in crowded conditions.
Secondary Drowning:
Secondary drowning is also known as “parking lot drowning” and near drowning with delayed
complications. In this situation, the subject reaches safety or is rescued after they have aspirated
water. Although the danger of death has been averted, physiological complications result. The
aspirated water in the lungs can cause lung tissue damage, Bronchospasm, and/or acidosis
resulting in severe medical complications for the subject.
Adult respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) or renal failure often occur post-resuscitation in 8-
24hours. Cases have been documented as much as 96 hours post near-drowning event. It has
been estimated that 5% of all near-drowning patients will develop secondary drowning and 25%
of these patients will die as a result (Brewster, 2000). Consequently, all persons who have had a
near drowning experience, especially those who exhibit any coughing or other signs of
aspiration, must be evaluated in a hospital emergency department for secondary drowning.
Drowning/Near-Drowning Treatment:
• Assure an open and clear airway
o Initially with jaw thrust and manual spinal immobilization in the unconscious
patient, progressing to advanced airway interventions such as endotracheal intubation.
o Use of Capnography with intubation is highly recommended.
o There is questionable scientific data to support prophylactic abdominal thrusts; it
is not advisable to perform them.
• Ventilation via Mouth to Mask in water (if possible), then progressing to Bag-valve-mask
(BVM) or Bag-valve-ET tube (BVET) ventilation
• Oxygen at 100% via non-rebreather mask or through BVM or BVET
• Trauma considerations
o Immersion episode of unknown etiology warrants trauma management and full
spinal immobilization at scene.
• Hypothermic considerations in near-drowning
o Common concomitant syndrome
o May be organ protective in cold-water near-drowning
o Always treat hypoxia first
o Treat all near-drowning patients for hypothermia
• All near-drowning patients should be transported for evaluation
• Post-resuscitation complications
o Adult respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) or renal failure often occur post-
resuscitation
o Symptoms may not appear for 24 hours or more, post-resuscitation

Diving Emergencies:
Diving emergencies are a relatively common issue in the water recreation community, although
typically associated with open water environments. Following is an outline of issues related to
diving emergencies for the water rescuer:
Application of gas laws:

• Boyle's law (Volume of gas is inversely proportional to it’s pressure at a given
temperature
• Dalton's law (Pressure exerted by each gas in mix is the same as if alone)
• Henry's law (The amount of gas dissolved in a given volume of fluid is proportional to
the pressure of the gas with which it is in equilibrium)
Pathophysiology
• Increased pressure dissolves gases into blood
• Oxygen metabolizes
• Nitrogen dissolves
• Primary etiology is too rapid an ascent from depth
Decompression illnesses
• Excess nitrogen bubbles out of solution on depressurization
• Collects in joints, tendons, spinal cord, skin, brain, inner ear
• Occludes circulation
• Principal signs and symptoms
• Joint pain
• Fatigue
• Paresthesias
• CNS disturbances
• Specific treatment
o High flow oxygen
o Treat for shock
o IV initiation
o Transport for Hyperbaric oxygen therapy (HBO)
Pulmonary over-pressure accidents

• Air trapped in lungs by: (1) Breath holding (2) Bronchospasm (3) Mucous plug
• Shallow depths (<6') most dangerous
• Volume increases on ascent
• Lung tissue ruptures in severe cases, producing a pneumothorax
• Respiratory distress
• Substernal chest pain
• Diminished breath sounds
• Specific Treatment

o Rest
o Supplemental oxygen
o HBO not usually required
o Treatment is the same as for pneumothorax of any etiology
Air emboli
• Pressure decrease on ascent
• Emboli form in blood stream if ascent is too rapid
• access to pulmonary circulation from ruptured alveoli
• entrance to central circulation via left atrium
• Occlusion of small vessels occurs
• Cardiac compromise
• Pulmonary compromise
• Cerebral compromise
o Appear within 10 minutes of surfacing most commonly within 2 minutes
o Varies according to organ system that is principally affected
o Most common presentation is similar to cerebral vascular accident hemispheric
presentations are rare
o Vertigo
o Confusion
o Loss of consciousness
o Visual disturbances
• Air emboli - Specific Treatment
o High flow oxygen
o Transport supine, not in Trendelenberg
o Immediate HBO
o Treat as for near drowning
o Treat according to other symptoms
o Attempt to keep the patient at or below the altitude of the injury during transport
Nitrogen narcosis
• Excess nitrogen dissolved in blood stream under pressure
• Most common appearance is at depths of 70-100 ft
• Gas anesthetic effect due to lipid solubility
• Result is intoxication
• Accidents at depth often result from impaired judgment
o Intoxication, impaired judgment
o Altered level of consciousness
• Specific treatment
o Self-resolving upon ascent
o Return to shallow depths

Other diving related illnesses
• Oxygen toxicity (usually seen only with prolonged exposure or excess concentration)
• Contaminated gases
• Hypercapnia
• Hyperventilation
Divers Alert Network

• Non-profit organization operated by Duke University Medical Center
• Specializes in diving related illnesses
• Available for consultation and referral: (919) 684-8111
Spinal Injury:
Spinal injury must be an assumption in the patient involved in a swift water accident. Below is
an outline of issues related to spinal injury in these patients:
History:
Gather the history of the incident with a focus on the mechanism of injury and the patient’s past
medical history.
Specific physical findings to identify and assess:

• Level of consciousness/Glasgow Coma Scale.
• Vital signs.
• Other trauma.
• Paralysis, weakness, numbness, and/or tingling.
• Point tenderness, deformity, and/or guarding along spinal column.
• Lung examination.
Treatment Recommendations:
1. Initial spinal immobilization through in water spinal holds and maneuvers.
2. Immobilize cervical spine with rigid extrication collar and maintain with manual in-line
support, then immobilize patient to long spine board and utilize a tape/head support
combination to secure head. Alternatively, if the patient is in a setting which is not
conducive to use of a long board, the patient may be immobilized with a combination of rigid
cervical collar, spinal immobilization device (i.e. KED, OSS, etc...), and then place patient in
a litter and strap into place.
3. Secure the patient’s airway as necessary
4. Establish large bore IV line, if patient is hypotensive and without other injury, follow agency
shock protocols for distributive shock.
5. If with patient greater than 2 hours, measure and record all urine output.
Specific precautions and considerations:

1. Vomiting should be expected in head injury patients; therefore the patient must be securely
immobilized to long board for the purposes of rolling the board during emesis. Consider
Zofran. Chin straps and tape should be avoided, as well as removing any leg loops after use.

2. All geriatric patients should have a high suspicion of possible spinal injury.
Criteria to withhold spinal immobilization (patient must have all six below):
1. Minor mechanism of injury.
2. Entirely normal mental status.
3. No evidence of intoxicants.
4. No neck tenderness.
5. No neurological deficits.
6. No competing injuries such as a long bone fracture.
Before you go:

The preparation to care for the perhaps severely injured patient in the SAR situation is as vital to
the success of the rescue as the time spent learning the mechanics of the rope rescue system.
There are a few considerations the rescue/medical personnel should plan for prior to the incident:
A. Training:
All personnel involved in rescue cannot be qualified at the highest medical level possible; the
rescue team should attempt to develop a resource for medical care in the rescue environment.
The personnel used in this role should have advanced training, proper medical direction, and
practice in advanced skills.
B. Medical Equipment and Supplies:

The process of creating a medical kit for the high angle environment is one that requires serious
thought. The kit(s) should be prepared according to the provider’s level of certification or
license. The kit must be usable while in water situations and difficult terrain and weather. The
kit must be complete, yet pared down to minimums for weight and packaging considerations.
C. Familiarity:
Personnel entering the environment for medical care, must be extremely familiar with water
rescue, but also familiar with performing their medical skills in that environment

Media Tips for Water Rescuers
It may be a superb fantasy to believe you will never have to speak with the press, but the reality
of the situation is entirely different. If you have an accident, your future and that of the
organization may depend on your responsiveness to the media.
A Bit of Wisdom:
“Learn your clichés. Study them. Know them. They're your
friends.”
"We gotta play 'em one day at a time."
"I'm just happy to be here and hope I can help the ball club."
“I just wanta give It my best shot, and,”
“Good Lord willing, things'll work out."
By Kevin Costner in “Bull Durham”
Remember:
• IT’S ABOUT PREVENTION, RESCUE, AND RESPONSIBLE PUBLIC IMAGE!
• Perception and Fact is not the same thing!
• Eight seconds is the average length of a TV sound bite.
Some Do’s
• Do find out who you are talking to. Ask for name, publication or broadcast station and their
phone number. Ask what their story is and how you can help them? What is their deadline?
• Do find out if you are the right person to be interview.
• Do prepare for the interview. Anticipate questions, the hard ones. What are your key
messages?
• Do be simple and brief: Short, simple answers are better than long answers (less chance of
being misquoted).
• Do avoid technical terms or jargon.
• Do repeat yourself.
• Do make eye contact with the reporter.
• Do be careful. Everything said within earshot is fair game for the story. The second a
microphone is attached to your lapel or shirt pocket, assume it is recording.
• Do encourage a person-to-person interview. Try to see the reporter in person rather than
talking over the phone. Distance and deadlines usually make this impossible, and it may
take more of your time, but a face-to-face interview is preferable.
Some Don’ts
• Don’t accept a reporter’s facts or characterizations of others.
• Don’t say "off the record", such a thing doesn’t exist.
• Don’t say "no comment”; you appear to be hiding something or evading the question,
explain why you cannot comment.
• Don’t answer hypotheticals.
• Don’t be afraid to say you don’t know the answer to the question.

• Don’t be afraid to say you need to verify the facts and call back.
• Don’t be compelled to say more than you need to; an interview is not a conversation.
• Don’t allow yourself to be provoked.
• Don’t lie or mislead.
• Don’t joke.
• Don’t ask to see the story before it’s published. It conflicts with journalistic ethics and
professionalism. If you are concerned, ask the reporter to read back your quotes or read to
you only your quotes once the story has been written. If you fear a point has not been
understood, ask the reporter to review it "one more time." Invite the reporter to call you
back for further clarification or additional information if needed.
• Don’t fire off a letter to the editor if you’re unhappy with the story.
• Don’t call the editor or publisher. If you're misquoted, contact the reporter, not the editor.
But don't overreact, especially if the error is minor or not quite the choice of words you
would have used.
Television interview tips:

• Take the time to look in the mirror. Straighten your hair, tie or scarf. You don’t want
viewers to be distracted by a crooked tie and miss hearing your words.
• Dark clothes look best on TV. Blue shirts look better than white. Avoid checkered shirts.
• Remember you are representing the organization. Don’t wear clothes with the insignia of
another organization.
• Note whether the backdrop is appropriate.
• Talk with the reporter about the interview before its starts. Find out what the questions will
be so you can prepare your response.
• Sit if possible, don’t stand.
• Look at the reporter, not into the camera.
• Talk clearly in short phrases. Try not to talk too fast.
• Don’t repeat a reporter’s negative terms or phrasing. You don’t want that to be the clip that
shows up on TV.
• If a reporter asks a negative question, you don’t have to answer it.
• If you are asked to "chat" while the cameraman shoots "B" roll (non-interview footage,
cutaway shots, etc), be sure your body language and comments are appropriate.

Documentation
Documentation in the field of rescue is a requirement, not an option. Simply stated, once review
of your actions has begun; only your documentation can provide you with correct recall, accurate
facts, and relevant data as to the events of the day. In addition to legal issues surrounding
documentation, there should be a clear orientation toward though documentation of events,
missions, and patient care; this not only clearly helps with legal issues, but is of enormous value
for research and data collection. Some still foolishly believe that “if it isn’t written down, it
didn’t happen”; well what that really means is that if it wasn’t written down, someone else gets
to make up what happened! Do not let yourself be placed into that situation.
In general, every service should have the following minimum documentation processes in place:
1. Rescue Data Sheet
The Rescue data sheet is a detailed record of the incident, it includes who, what, why,
where, and how. This document should not have specific patient care information, as that
is protected under federal and state laws and this document may become public record if
part of a Search and Rescue reporting process or legal action.
2. Daily Activity Record
This document is designed to give the agency some idea of the activities accomplished
during daily operations. This should include information on the numbers of people
served, public contacts, minor assistance provided, prevention messages, and other data
oriented information. This document provides the organization with excellent records in
the event actions or events are called into question.
3. Training and Drill Record
A simple training and drill record should be completed for every session done by the
team. While the attendance information should be recorded in individual training
records, this document actually focuses on the instructional aspects of the event, how the
event was implemented, and the results of the event.
A sample of some standard documents follows in this section. These are by no means perfect
examples, but are good basic documents that each organization could utilize and refine in the
absence of their own documents for use.

SAMPLE - RESCUE DATA SHEET
Agency Incident # __________________ SAR Agency #: ________________
DATE OPENED: _________________ TIME: ___________
DATE CLOSED: _________________ TIME: ___________
AREA OF RESCUE: __________________________________________________________
Mark all that apply:

TYPE OF MISSION: MISSION SUBJECT: ACCESSIBILITY:
__ SEARCH __ SWIMMER __ EASY
__ RESCUE __ SNORKLER __ MODERATE
__ RECOVERY __ SCUBA __ DIFFICULT
__ ASSIST __ Other (___________) __ VERY DIFFICULT
WEATHER: TERRAIN SITUATION:

__ SUNNY __ Open Water __ LOST
__ RAIN __ Class I __ ACCIDENT
__ SNOW __ Class II __ STRANDED
__ WIND __ Class III __ ILLNESS
__ CLOUDY __ Class IV __ INJURY
__ FOGGY __ Class V __ EQUIPMENT
__ WHITEOUT __ Class VI __ NOT FOUND
REASON FOR SITUATION: HOW RESCUED OR ASSISTED:

__ UNDERESTIMATED TIME/DISTANCE __ THROW BAG
__ INJURY/ILLNESS __ FLOTATION & LINE RETREVEAL
__ WEATHER __ IN WATER ASSIST w/ FLOTATION
__ UNDERESTIMATED CURRENT __ IN WATER CONTACT
__ DISORIENTED __ OTHER (__________________)
__ CARELESSNESS __ SIGNALED BOAT W/ ____________
__ OTHER (________________) __ NOT RESCUED
SUBJECT INFORMATION:
SUBJECT(S) NAME PHONE DOB SEX ADDRESS
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________

SUBJECT PROFILE INFORMATION:
BEHAVIOR: EXPERIENCE (self stated): KNOWLEDGE OF AREA:
__ STAYED PUT __ INEXPERIENCED __ NONE
__ WANDERED __ INTERMEDIATE __ SOME
__ WENT w/ Current __ EXPERIENCED __ EXTENSIVE
CLOTHING: EQUIPMENT:
__ SWIM SUIT __ WEARING PFD
__ WET SUIT __ WEARING BCD and SCUBA Unit
__ DRY SUIT __ WEARING SNORKLE EQUPMENT
__ NONE __ HAD SIGNAL DEVICE (____________)
__ Other (_____________) __ Other (_______________________)
CONDITION WHEN FOUND:

__ MOBILE __ ALERT __ ORIENTED
__ INCOHERENT __ CONFUSED __ UNCONSCIOUS
__ IMMOBILE __ ILLNESS (___________________)
__ INJURED (________________) __ UNINJURED
EXTENT OF INJURIES OR ILLNESS AND MEDICAL CARE GIVEN (brief summary):

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
OTHER FACTORS:
DISTANCE COVERED IN AREA: _____________________________ miles
SEA STATE: ____________________
WIND FACTOR: _____________________________ mph
WATER DEPTH: _____________________________ ft
WATER TEMPRATURE: ______________
AIR TEMPERATURE: _________

MISSION SYNOPSIS
(Brief summary - How, What, Why, Where, How, significant information, times, and
conclusions. Include map if possible. Use additional paper if needed):
NAME: _________________________________________________ TITLE: __________
SIGNATURE: ____________________________________________ DATE: __________

SAMPLE - DAILY ACTIVITY LOG
Date: ____________ Personnel on Duty: ____________________________________

Shift Start/End: ________/________ Start Location: _____________________
ENVIRONMENTAL EVALUATION:
Weather Evaluation: ____________________________________________________
Surface Craft Evaluation: _________________________________________________
In Water Evaluation: _________________________________________________
Water Temperature: ____________ Time: _______ hrs
EQUIPMENT:
Time medical supplies inventoried/checked ________ hrs
Time rescue equipment inventoried/checked: ________ hrs
Time rescuer PPE checked: ________ hrs
WATER ACTIVITY CENSUS:

Number of Clients for Activity: Activity: ______________ #:___ Time: _____
Activity Location(s): ____________________________
RESCUES & ASSISTS (MUST have additional documentation):

RESCUES: ______ ASSISTS: ______
MINOR MEDICAL ENCOUNTERS:

Name: Address: Age: Complaint: Treatment:
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Crew #1 Signature: ____________ Crew #2 Signature: _____________ Crew #3 Signature: ______________

SAMPLE - CONTACT LOG
Use multiple forms if needed
Name/Gender: __________________ Age: _____ Phone: _________________
Address/City: ______________________________________________________________
Contact was for (circle): Prevention, PFD Advisory, At Risk Behavior, Safe Swimming,
Unsafe Action, Swimmer Assist, Media, Other: ______________
Action Taken/Discussion Issues: _______________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
Time: ______ hrs Crew: _____________________

Address/City: ______________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
Time: ______ hrs Crew: _____________________

Address/City: ______________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
Time: ______ hrs Crew: _____________________

Address/City: ______________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
Time: ______ hrs Crew: _____________________

SAMPLE
Drill or Training Session Record Sheet
DATE: _______ LOCATION: _______________________
START TIME: ________________ END TIME: ______________
DRILL LEADER: ______________________________________________
DRILL SITE DESCRIPTION: ____________________________________
SITE HAZARDS IDENTIFIED: __________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
SAFETY PLAN AND PRECAUTIONS IMPLEMENTED: _____________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
PERSONNEL PARTICIPATING: ______________________________
_____________________________________________________________
DRILL OBJECTIVE: _________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
DESCRIBE DRILL DELIEVRY: ______________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

EVALUATION OF DRILL PERFORMANCE:
Areas of excellence: ___________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
Areas for improvement: _________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
Individualized Remediation Performed:

Done with: _______________ Performed By: _________________
Remedial Activity Included: _____________________________________
Any Specific Remedial Direction Provided: _________________________
Drill Leader Signature: _______________________ Date: _________

Glossary of Terms
Abaft Aft of, to rear of
Abeam on the side of the vessel, amidships, at right angles to
About To go on the opposite tack, change directions
Abyss An extraordinary deep area of the ocean
Accretion Gradual buildup of sand or shoreline due to current or tidal action
Adrift Floating at the mercy of wind or current
Advisory: Official information issued by tropical cyclone warning centers describing all
tropical cyclone watches and warnings in effect along with details concerning
tropical cyclone locations, intensity and movement, and precautions that
should be taken.
Aft Toward the stern of a vessel
Air Embolism In Scuba Diving, a serious disorder caused by rapid expansion of air in the
lungs during fast ascent. As air pressure increases, the air goes through the
walls of the alveoli, causing bubbles to form in the bloodstream, and can then
travel throughout the circulatory system resulting in blockages and
complications.
Amidships Middle point of a vessel between the bow and stern
Ash Breeze Absence of wind; calm
Aspirate To inhale a substance into the lungs.
Aspirator A tool to clear fluid or food regurgitation from the air passages of a non-
breathing patient.
Astern Behind a vessel
Atmosphere A unit of pressure equal to the air pressure at sea level; pressure at sea level
(one atmosphere) is 14.7 pounds per square inch (psi), but doubles at 33 feet
of water depth (two atmosphere), triples at 66 feet (three atmosphere), and
quadruples at 99 feet in depth (one atmosphere).
Awash Covered by water; usually the state of a vessel overcome by waves or tide.
Backboard See spine board

Backup Safety personnel who respond in order to assist or stand by at a rescue
operation
Backwash Backwash occurs when the water remaining on the beach returns forcefully to
the surf beneath later incoming waves
Backwater Water turned back by an obstruction, opposing the current; OR to propel a

rowboat or dory in a stern first direction using a reverse rowing or boating
stroke
Bag Valve Mask (BVM) A hand held ventilation device used to ventilate a patient by
applying a “C” clamp hand hold over mask, against face, then squeeze self-
inflating bag to positive pressure air into the patients lungs.
Bar Submerged or emerged embankment of sand, gravel, or mud on the sea floor
in shallow water, built by waves and currents.
Barometer Instrument for measuring atmospheric pressure
Beach Break Waves breaking in long lines on a sharply sloping sand beach
Beam A vessel’s maximum width, OR the side of a vessel
Beam Sea Wind at right angles to a vessel’s keel
Bearing Direction of an object from an observer or from another object
Beaufort Wind Scale: This system of estimating wind strength was developed by Admiral Sir
Francis Beaufort of the British Royal Navy in 1805. It was based on his
long years of observation of the effects of wind and stands as an excellent
tool to this day.
Becalm Sailing vessel when there is no wind adequate to propel the vessel forward.
Also known as being “in irons”.
Bends A severe condition that can occur when scuba diving by ascending too
rapidly, thereby trapping nitrogen bubbles in body tissues and cells.
Bilge Lower, internal part of a vessel’s hull
Billow Usually a great wave or surge of water
Bitt Vertical post fitted into a vessel’s deck for securing lines for towing, mooring,
or other tie purposes.

Blind Rollers Long, high swells that have increased in height almost to the breaking point as
they pass over shoals or rum in shoaling water.
Blown Out State of waves which have been knocked down by wind.
Board Surfing Any activity that involves riding waves with the use of a surfboard, or being
carried along or propelled by the action of the waves with the use or aid of a
surfboard. Also known as surfing, riding, etc…
Boat Tow A short length of line with a fastener at each end that enables a swimmer to
tow a boat in distress. One end is secured to the eye on the bow of the boat,
while the other end is secured to the rescue buoy.
Body Surfing Riding a wave without the aid of a floating device.
Boils: Ascending currents that rise above surface level unpredictably.
Boil Line A white frothy upwelling of water at the base of a river hydraulic.
Boogie Board Small surfboard or similar inflexible board ridden in the surf in the prone
position. Also known as a belly board and a body board.
Bottom Load One of three river loads. Objects in the bottom load are pushed along the river
bottom by the current.
Boulder Sieve A collection of boulders in the river’s current that act as a strainer, allowing
water to pass through but not solid objects like trees, boats, or people.
Bow Forward part of a vessel.
Breaker Wave breaking on the shore, over a shoal water or reef; a wave which makes
an audible noise as it spills over, also known as a crasher.
Breakwater Structure protecting a shore area, harbor, anchorage, or basin from waves or
current; also known as a seawall or jetty
Broach To veer sideways to the wind or swell
Bulkhead Upright partition separating compartments on a vessel; OR, a wall or

embankment for holding back earth and protecting a shoreline from erosion
due to wave or current action.
Buoy Line Line supported by buoys, used to delineate a boundary in the water; OR,
separated buoys placed in a line to delineate a water boundary.

Buoyancy Compensator (BC) An inflatable vest like device used by scuba divers to compensate
for changing buoyancy when descending and ascending; most can be filled by
breathing into a mouth piece or directly filling from scuba tank by an inflating
valve. Sometime have a CO2 cartridge which will fully inflate the vest
instantly in an emergency by pulling a cord. Also known as a Buoyancy
Compensator Device (BCD)
Center: Generally speaking, the vertical axis of a tropical cyclone, usually defined by
the location of minimum wind or minimum pressure. The cyclone center
position can vary with altitude. In advisory products, refers to the center
position at the surface.
Chute A clear tongue of water flowing between two obstacles, or a narrow

constricted portion of the river
Clean: Used to describe a route through a rapid that is free of obstructions.
Cyclone: An atmospheric closed circulation rotating counter-clockwise in the Northern

Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere.
Downstream ‘V’ Hydraulic effect in the shape of a “V” pointing downstream, caused by the
convergence of downstream water flow in the channels of least resistance.
The largest V pointing downstream indicates the main channel.
Drop: A steep, sudden change in the level of the river bottom (6'+ drops called falls)
Eddy Horizontal reversal of water flow where the differential between the current’s
pressure on the upstream and down stream sides of an obstacle causes the
water behind the obstacle to flow upstream.
Eddy Line Also known as an “eddy Fence or Eddy Wall”. An obvious line in the river
where the current moves in opposite directions on either side. The current
differential between the eddy and the downstream current ranges from a
surface line (Eddy line) to a wall of water dropping around the obstacle and
recirculating horizontally (eddy fence).
Eddy Turn The maneuver by which a boat leaves the main current and enters an eddy.
Entrapment The process whereby an extremity or the entire body is forces into a crack,
crevice, or undercut in an obstacle or the river bed and held there.
Extratropical: A term used in advisories and tropical summaries to indicate that a cyclone
has lost its "tropical" characteristics. The term implies both poleward
displacement of the cyclone and the conversion of the cyclone's primary
energy source from the release of latent heat of condensation to baroclinic (the
temperature contrast between warm and cold air masses) processes. It is

important to note that cyclones can become extratropical and still retain winds
of hurricane or tropical storm force.
Eye: The roughly circular area of comparatively light winds that encompasses the
center of a severe tropical cyclone. The eye is either completely or partially
surrounded by the eyewall cloud.
Ferry The process by which a boat or person moves across the current without going
downstream
Flood Channel An artificial channel constructed for the purpose of moving floodwaters out of
urban areas.
Flush Drowning Drowning by aspiration while swimming through big water.
Fujiwhara Effect: The tendency of two nearby tropical cyclones to rotate cyclonically about
each other.
Gale Warning: A warning of 1-minute sustained surface winds in the range 34 kt (39 mph or
63 km/hr) to 47 kt (54 mph or 87 km/hr) inclusive, either predicted or
occurring and not directly associated with tropical cyclones.
Gradient The amount of elevation loss between two given points. Usually expressed as
feet per mile or as a percentage.
Helical Flow The corkscrewing flow of the water between the banks and the main current.
High Side Shifting the weight of the boat crew to the high side of the boat to avoid
flipping.
High Wind Warning: A high wind warning is defined as 1-minute average surface winds of 35
kt (40 mph or 64 km/hr) or greater lasting for 1 hour or longer, or winds
gusting to 50 kt (58 mph or 93 km/hr) or greater regardless of duration that
are either expected or observed over land.
Hole A river wave, usually caused by an underwater obstacle, which breaks back
upstream.
Hurricane / Typhoon: A tropical cyclone in which the maximum sustained surface wind (using
the U.S. 1-minute average) is 64 kt (74 mph or 119 km/hr) or more. The
term hurricane is used for Northern Hemisphere tropical cyclones east of
the International Dateline to the Greenwich Meridian. The term typhoon is
used for Pacific tropical cyclones north of the Equator west of the
International Dateline.

Hurricane Season: The portion of the year having a relatively high incidence of hurricanes.
The hurricane season in the Atlantic, Caribbean, and Gulf of Mexico runs
from June 1 to November 30. The hurricane season in the Eastern Pacific
basin runs from May 15 to November 30. The hurricane season in the
Central Pacific basin runs from June 1 to November 30.
Hurricane Warning: A warning that sustained winds 64 kt (74 mph or 119 km/hr) or higher
associated with a hurricane are expected in a specified coastal area in 24
hours or less. A hurricane warning can remain in effect when dangerously
high water or a combination of dangerously high water and exceptionally
high waves continue, even though winds may be less than hurricane force.
Hurricane Watch: An announcement for specific coastal areas that hurricane conditions are
possible within 36 hours.
Hydraulic A vertical reversal of water flow where the pressure of the current falling over
a gradient (such as a dam or large rock) causes the water at the base of the
gradient to be forced downward into a loop style reversal and back to the
surface. Part of the water continues downstream and part reverses back
upstream to the base of the gradient, resulting in a recirculating flow.
Hydraulic Effect A movement of water caused by pressure
Hypothermia A lowering of the body’s core temperature, coupled with the body’s inability
to produce enough heat to support itself.
Hypothermia Induces Debility Loss of body strength and function caused by chilling of the
extremities. With immersion hypothermia, patients may
experience this rapidly making it impossible for them to swim
or assist with their own rescue efforts.
International River Rating System (IRRS):

The scale developed to allow river rating internationally and all river users to
compare information on an identical basis.
Keeper: A large hole or reversal that can keep and hold a raft or swimmer for an
extended period of time. Generally a known location by river users.
Laminar Flow The layered, downstream flow of the river’s main current. The layer in the
center of the current, just below the surface moves fastest, while each other
layer slows somewhat from friction.
Lateral Currents Lateral (also known as "littoral") currents flow parallel to the ocean beach.
Low Head Dam An artificial constriction in the river for flood control, irrigation or power
generation.

Peel Out A maneuver in which a boat leaves an eddy and enters the main current
Pillow A reaction feature that forms upstream of a river obstacle. The water pushes
up into a rounded shape, many times higher than the surrounding water.
Pinning Caused when a water craft is pushed against the upstream side of a river
obstacle and held there.
Pool-drop: A river type consisting of intermittent rapids followed by long, easy sections
of calm water
Put-in: The location where river trips start, sometimes established boat ramps or
recreational sites with facilities.
Rapid: A location where the river leaves its two-dimensional state & enters a three-
dimensional state with faster currents, rocks, & various types of liquid surface
features
Rapids Rating System An internationally recognized system in which all river rapids are rated
on a scale from I to IV.
Rip Currents Characterized by a strong flow of water rushing back out to sea. Rip currents
occur when large amounts of water accumulate near shore due to natural wave
action. As water seeks its own level, the broken waves take the path of least
resistance.
River Left The left bank of the river looking downstream
River Right The right bank of the river looking downstream
Safe Swimming Position

A river swimming position where the swimmer’s feet are positioned near the
surface and downstream.
Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale

Is a 1-5 rating based on the hurricane's present intensity. This is used to give
an estimate of the potential property damage and flooding expected along the
coast from a hurricane landfall. Wind speed is the determining factor in the
scale, as storm surge values are highly dependent on the slope of the
continental shelf in the landfall region
Scouting Looking at a rapid before running it.
Shore Break Shore break can occur at high tide when heavy surf conditions cause large
waves to break on the beach with little or no water under them.

Standing Wave A wave or series of waves in a river, caused by convergence of main channel
currents, underwater obstacles or ledges, or an increasing river speed/gradient
which converts the hydraulic energy of the river into a wave or series of
waves, diminishing in size as they form downstream.
Strainer Any river obstacle that allows water to pass through, but not solid objects.
Storm Surge: An abnormal rise in sea level accompanying a hurricane or other intense
storm, and whose height is the difference between the observed level of the
sea surface and the level that would have occurred in the absence of the
cyclone. Storm surge is usually estimated by subtracting the normal or
astronomic high tide from the observed storm tide.
Storm Tide: The actual level of sea water resulting from the astronomic tide combined
with the storm surge.
Storm Warning: A warning of 1-minute sustained surface winds of 48 kt (55 mph or 88 km/hr)
or greater, either predicted or occurring, not directly associated with tropical
cyclones.
Subtropical Cyclone: A non-frontal low pressure system that has characteristics of both
tropical and extratropical cyclones. The most common type is an
upper-level cold low with circulation extending to the surface layer
and maximum sustained winds generally occurring at a radius of about
100 miles or more from the center. In comparison to tropical cyclones,
such systems have a relatively broad zone of maximum winds that is
located farther from the center, and typically have a less symmetric
wind field and distribution of convection. A second type of subtropical
cyclone is a mesoscale low originating in or near a frontolyzing zone
of horizontal wind shear, with radius of maximum sustained winds
generally less than 30 miles. The entire circulation may initially have a
diameter of less than 100 miles. These generally short-lived systems
may be either cold core or warm core.
Subtropical Depression: A subtropical cyclone in which the maximum sustained surface wind
speed (using the U.S. 1-minute average) is 33 kt (38 mph or 62 km/hr)
or less.
Subtropical Storm: A subtropical cyclone in which the maximum sustained surface wind
speed (using the U.S. 1-minute average) is 34 kt (39 mph or 63 km/hr)
or more.
Suspended Load That part of the river’s load that is suspended in the current.

Take-out: The location where river trips ends, sometimes established boat ramps or
recreational sites with facilities.
Technical: Rapids containing many obstacles and requiring constant maneuvering to

paddle or maneuver safely.
Throw bag: A bag that holds a long coiled rope, used as a rescue device to be tossed to
swimmers or boaters.
Tongue A roughly triangular shaped flow of water, often raised above the level of the
adjacent water, which marks the main current flowing downstream in an
obstructed section.
Top Load That part of the river’s load that floats on top of the water.
Tropical Cyclone: A warm-core non-frontal synoptic-scale cyclone, originating over tropical or

subtropical waters, with organized deep convection and a closed surface wind
circulation about a well-defined center. Once formed, a tropical cyclone is
maintained by the extraction of heat energy from the ocean at high
temperature and heat export at the low temperatures of the upper troposphere.
In this they differ from extratropical cyclones, which derive their energy from
horizontal temperature contrasts in the atmosphere (baroclinic effects).
Tropical Depression: A tropical cyclone in which the maximum sustained surface wind speed
(using the U.S. 1-minute average) is 33 kt (38 mph or 62 km/hr) or less.
Tropical Disturbance: A discrete tropical weather system of apparently organized convection,

generally 100 to 300 nautical miles (nmi) in diameter, originating in the
tropics or subtropics, having a nonfrontal migratory character, and
maintaining its identity for 24 hours or more. It may or may not be
associated with a detectable perturbation of the wind field.
Tropical Storm: A tropical cyclone in which the maximum sustained surface wind speed
(using the U.S. 1-minute average) ranges from 34 kt (39 mph or 63 km/hr)
to 63 kt (73 mph or 118 km/hr).
Tropical Storm Warning: A warning that sustained winds within the range of 34 to 63 kt (39
to 73 mph or 63 to 118 km/hr) associated with a tropical cyclone are
expected in a specified coastal area within 24 hours or less.
Undercut A rock or ledge in the current that is cut away under the surface.
Upstream V A hydraulic effect in the form of a “V” pointing upstream, caused by

downstream water flowing around an obstacle.

Volume The amount of water in a river, defined as the amount of water flowing by a
given point in one second. Usually reported as cubic feet per second (cfs)
Trochoidal Exhibiting rotation about a central axis.
Waves Are the result of either cyclic forces in the ocean, resulting in ocean swell
reaching the shore line and causing surface waves. Or waves may also form
in any open water from the force of wind velocity, distance traveled over open
water (referred to as ‘Fetch”), and the duration of the blow.
This glossary was compiled from original material from Swiftwater Rescue by Slim Ray, the
USLA Manual of Open Water Lifesaving, Webster’s Dictionary, National Atmospheric and
Oceanic Administration, the National Hurricane Center, American Canoe Association, and the
U.S. Coast Guard ASM 3 Manual.

Bibliography
Brewster, et al; Manual of Open Water Lifesaving, December 2000; Brady Publishing, New
York, NY
Christie, Michael; RAT Training Manual; September 1993; Revolution Publishing, Portland, OR
Christie, Michael; River Rescue Training Manual; May 1999; Revolution Publishing, Portland,
OR
David M.D. et al; Experienced Scuba Divers in Australia and the United States Suffer
Considerable Injury and Morbidity; Wilderness and Environmental Medicine:
Vol. 14, No. 2, pp. 83–88.
Divers Alert Network; Annual Diving Report – 2006 Edition; DAN, Duke University Medical
Center, Durham, North Carolina.
Gentry, R.C., 1966: Nature and Scope of Hurricane Damage, American Society for
Oceanography, Hurricane Symposium, Publication Number One, 344p.
Jarrell, Et Al; The Deadliest, Costliest, and Most Intense United States Hurricanes From 1900 to
2000; October 2001; NOAA/AOML/Hurricane Research Division, Miami,
Florida.
Ray, Slim; Swiftwater Rescue, 1997, CFS Press, Ashville, NC
U.S. DOT; Helicopter Rescue Swimmer Manual, COMDINST M3710.4

Appendix 1
Training Job Aids

PARTICIPANT SKILLS CHECK SHEET
PARTICIPANT NAME: COURSE LOCATION: ____
DATE(s): PROCTOR NAME:
RESCUE SKILL: Completed Instructor
on: Signature
Participant demonstrates reading open water for hazards
Participant demonstrates ability to identify water conditions present on request
Participant demonstrates the ability to swim rough water conditions successfully to a safe
zone
Participant demonstrates ability to perform self extricating from obstruction while
swimming
Participant demonstrates the ability to giant stride entry water from boat in motion
Participant demonstrates ability to perform recovery to a boat in open water conditions
Participant demonstrates ability to survival floating in rough conditions
Participant demonstrates the ability to utilize and done rescue equipment and PPE
Participant demonstrates ability to voice direct a subject
Participant demonstrates the ability to use a throw bag to recover a subject
Participant demonstrates ability to utilize a flotation aid to accomplish a rescue in open

water
Participant demonstrates the ability to perform a contact rescue with a device (rescue tube
or can) to recover a subject in open water
Participant demonstrates the ability to perform a contact rescue without a device to
recover a subject in swiftwater
Participant demonstrates the ability to perform a contact rescue without a device to
recover a subject in open water
Participant demonstrates the ability to establish appropriate safety procedures when
working in two and three person teams.
Participant will demonstrate ability to function as boat crew, including:
• Safety checks and communication skills
• Preplanning vessel loading and unloading to mitigate emergent situations
• Recovery of subjects into the boat
• Deploying swimmers from a boat
• Basic vessel movement strategies to facilitate rescue
Participant will demonstrate ability to function as boat based rescue swimmer, including:
• Recovering a subject to boat
• Deploying from a boat underway
• Communication with boat operator while in the water
Participant will demonstrate rescue swimmer communication during simulations
Participant will demonstrate spinal precautions on a subject in the water
Participant will be able to resolve rescue simulations delivered by the instructor staff

Boat Swimmer Deployment Technique
Training Job Aid
Purpose: This document is meant as a guide for boat swimmer deployment training exercises.
The guide is a step-by-step process for training exercises to accomplish safe training
for the deployment of rescue swimmers.
Exercise: Placement of one swimmer to a subject in rough water. The drill will be done with a
clear area down current of subject without hazards.
Time: Action: Delivered or

oversight by:
10 min Establish training site and clearly identify location, winds, Instructor or
and hazards qualified designee
10 min Place all equipment for drill onto clear surface and Participants
inventory. Equipment should include:
• Full PPE for each person involved
• Gloves for all participants
• Minimum of 2 throw bags, each a minimum of 50
feet of rope, all of same diameter with two
carabineers per bag for use in technique
5 min Training leader and participants introduce themselves Instructor
15 min Review exercise steps, communication, and safety Instructor and
precautions participants
5 min Safety person, rescuer, instructor, and Vessel Operator take Safety and Operator
their positions. Remaining personnel assume safe position
out of the way of the exercise.
5 min 1. Vessel operator places boat into correct position to Operator
intercept the subject and throttles back to 1-2 knots
forward motion then give command – “Rescuer Ready”
2. Rescuer responds – “Rescuer Ready”
3. Operator gives command – “Go”
4. Rescuer states “Going” and deploys into water
5 min Rescuer swims to subject, takes control of subject, places Practice Subject
subject in tow position, explains to subject they will be
going to boat and to follow all direction.
Vessel operator continues past subject and deployed rescuer
to place boat into pick up position and provide operator the
ability to make visual contact with rescuer
5 min 1. Rescue makes hand signal for pick up Instructor
2. Operator moves vessel into position for pick onto rear of
vessel, once close, operator power to props.
3. Safety deploys throw bag to rescuer and swings rescuer
and subject to boarding ladder or step.
10 min The instructor leads the group in a critique of the process Instructor
and areas for improvement

Tethered Swimmer Technique
Training Job Aid
Purpose: This document is meant as a guide for tethered swimmer training exercises. The
guide is a step-by-step process for training exercises to accomplish safe training for
the deployment of rescue swimmers with tethered swimmer technique.
Exercise: Placement of one tethered swimmer to a subject on an obstacle in a current stream.

The drill will be done with a clear area downstream of obstacle and an obstacle
without entrapment risk.
Time: Action: Delivered or

oversight by:
15 min Establish training site and clearly identify location, Instructor or
winds, and river hazards qualified designee
15 min Place all equipment for drill onto clear surface and Participants
inventory. Equipment should include:
• Full swiftwater PPE for each person involved
• Leather gloves for all participants
• Minimum of 6 throw bags, each a minimum of
50 feet of rope, all of same diameter with two
carabineers per bag for use in technique
• Two throw bags of at least 75 feet for down
river safety
10 min Training leader and participants introduce themselves Instructor
15 min Review training exercise steps and safety precautions Instructor
15 min Downcurrent safety person and rescue swimmer Downstream safety
assume their position in sight of exercise location, but
downstream of site. When ready, they signal to
instructor with one whistle blast. At any sign of
trouble during the exercise, these personnel will take
over and provide verbal direction and deploy
themselves to save the personnel involved. The
personnel (minimum of 4) are drilled on feeding line
out, then retrieving the line with the rescuer and subject
on it. Special care is taken to keep line out of the water
until the last possible moment the rescuer is in the
proper current line.
20 min With the personnel remaining at exercise site, the Instructor
instructor will perform a dry land walk through of the
procedure, including the rescuer releasing from the
tether a minimum of three times prior to deployment
into the water. Instructor also goes through the
procedure with the rescuer to release and the criteria
being anytime the rescuer feels pain or fear to release.

15 min The “Subject” swims to obstacle and assumes position. Practice Subject
When ready, signals with one whistle blast or hand
signal of “okay”
10 min With all personnel in position, the instructor gives the Instructor
rescuer the signal to enter the water, assuring that the
rescuer swims to the correct current line, and then
assumes the “safe swimmer position” from there
forward.
10 min Once at the obstacle, the rescuer gives the “okay” Rescuer/line team
signal and is held in position, the rescuer secures the
subject into the rescue tube and signals for the line to
be pulled back. At anytime, if the pressure is not
tolerable, the rescuer should release and follow the
directions of the downstream safety.
10 min The Line Team hauls back on the rope in a steady and Line Team
consistent fashion. Once the rescuer has reached
shallow water, the line is held until the rescuer signals
“okay”
15 min The instructor leads the group in a critique of the Instructor
process and areas for improvement

Appendix 2
Sample Course Outline

Dive Operator Casualty Prevention and Response
Workshop
ATREC Inc.
Sample Outline
PURPOSE:
Provide participants with skills associated with surface swimmer rescue technique. This
workshop provides personnel with additional training and hands-on experience in incident
prevention, emergency medical skills, rescue equipment, water entries, rescue tactics, boat
operations and hazard identification. Participants will undergo rigorous simulations throughout
the workshop to advance their ability to manage difficult prevention and response situations.
WORKSHOP OBJECTIVES:
1. Participants will be familiar with and demonstrate accident prevention techniques.
2. Participants will be familiar with recognition of drowning subjects and prevention actions
upon recognition.
3. Participants will become familiar with reading ocean, lake, and river areas for hazards.
4. Participants will be able to identify water conditions and river conditions present.
5. Participants will be able to recognize and list hazards present.
6. Participants will demonstrate the ability to swim rough water conditions successfully to a
safe zone.
7. Participants will be able to perform self rescue techniques while swimming; including
self extricating from obstructions, recovery to a boat, and survival floating in rough
conditions
8. Participants will be able to perform the following water rescue techniques in a variety of
conditions in day light:
• Throw bag use and recovery of subject,
• Deployment of flotation devices,
• Voice direction to subject,
• In water contact rescue with device,
• In water contact rescue without device, and,
• Deployment from boat to subject for in water contact rescue.
9. The participants will be able to establish appropriate safety procedures when working in
two and three person teams.
10. Participants will be familiar with boat operations, including:
• Safety checks,
• Basic boat piloting considerations in river, swell, and wave conditions,
• Vessel loading and unloading,
• Recovery of subjects into the boat,
• Deploying and recovering swimmers from a boat,
• Communication with boat operator when in water, and,
• On water safety considerations.
11. Participants will understand basic whistle and hand signal communication,

12. Participants will understand basic boat rescue techniques and strategies.
13. Participants will be familiar with basic subject search strategies
14. Participants will demonstrate proper documentation skills for rescue, daily log, and
medical incident documentation.
15. Participants will be familiar with patient transportation and medical considerations.
16. Participants will be able to solve rescue scenarios posed by the instructor staff.
COURSE LENGTH: 30 hours
COURSE SIZE: Minimum of 2 participants, maximum of 16 (8:1 instructor ratio)
PARTICIPANT PRE-REQUIREMENTS:
• Participants must be certified at the dive coordinator, dive master or above level.
• Participants must acknowledge participation is at one’s own risk and complete the
workshop participation waiver.
• Participants must be able to swim 400 meters without stopping for rest.
• All participants must provide the following personal equipment:
 Full Wetsuit
 Water shoes or sandals
 Water gloves
 Personal Flotation Device
 Water sport or multi-sport helmet w/o brim
 One locking carabineer
 Pair of Fins
 Water proof light
Note: Limited supplies of rental items are available through ATREC for the workshop
WORKSHOP SCHEDULE:
(Day 1)
0800-0830 Introductions, equipment check, and course introduction
0830-0930 Review of ocean, lake, and river hydrology and hazards
0930-0945 Break
0945-1100 Recognition of drowning subjects, prevention activities, and daily documentation.
1100-1200 Philosophy of Basic Open Water Rescue
1200-1300 Lunch (on your own)
1300-1400 Rescue equipment and Personal Protective Equipment overview
1400-1430 Rescuer and Team communication
1430-1500 Travel to training site
1500-1730 Practical skills at training site:
• Identifying water
conditions and river conditions present
• Ability to
recognize and list hazards present
• Throw bag use

• Basic voice
direction of the subject
• Basic Swimming
in current
• Basic water entry
and approach to subject
1730-1800 Participant Circle and homework assignment
(Day 2)
0800-0830 Contact rescue lecture
0830-0930 Boat operations lecture
• Safety checks
• Actions to
minimize injuries and confusion onboard
• Basic boat
piloting considerations in river, swell, and wave conditions
• Preplanning
vessel loading and unloading for emergent circumstances
• Team
communication for operator and rescuer, for on board and off board situations
• Recovery of
subjects into the boat
• Deploying
swimmers from a boat
0930-1015 Search methods and techniques
 Methods for establishing landmarks in searches for submerged victims.
 Usefulness and limitations of the line sweep and circular sweep search
patterns.
 Line and shore signals for search and recovery.
 Use of range marks and buoys in fixing the "last known point" of the
victim prior to submersion.
 Search priorities
 Prevention of search events through briefing divers
1015-1100 Self rescue techniques lecture
1100-1200 Travel to training site/bring sack lunch
1200-1700 Practical skills session
• Boat safety checks
and load preplanning
• Basic boat
piloting considerations to set up rescue approach
• Communication
with boat operator when in and out of the water
• Deploying and
recovering swimmers from a boat

• Recovering
subjects to boat
• Open water swim
and subject retrieval
• Spinal precaution
and roll - Red cross method
and roll – ‘C-Clamp’ method
and roll - Swim step method
• Search for a
subject, employing both vessel and swimmers
1700-1730 Travel back from training site
1730-1800 Participant Circle
(Day 3)
0800-0900 Medical Considerations
• Drowning
• Hypothermia and
cold stress
• Trauma
• Spinal trauma
• Head trauma
0900-1000 Travel to training site/Bring sack lunch
1000-1500 Rescue and prevention simulations for participants
Discussion of post incident media management during lunch break
1500-1600 Travel back, clean up, rehab
1600-1730 Written evaluation and Workshop wrap up
POST WORKSHOP RECOMMENDATIONS:

1. Participants must maintain physical fitness level
2. Participants should drill on skills bi-monthly
3. Participants should received 15 hours of continuing education per year
WORKSHOP REQUIREMENTS LOCAL SPONSOR:

1. Accept and secure shipment of workshop materials from ATREC Inc.
2. Provide dive boat capable of transporting workshop participants with operator, preferably
this vessel should be one that is commonly used in local operations.
3. Provide class room for didactic portions of workshop.
4. Ocean training sites with appropriate clearances for training use
Note: Course can and will be delivered along side normal dive operations of the sponsor,
assuming there is room for both the workshop participants and dive clients on provided
vessel. Additionally, the workshop hours can be adjusted to accomplish field activities
outside of dive client hours.

Appendix 3 – About the developers
Mike Christie:
Currently, the President of ATREC Inc, he manages a wide variety of client needs. Mr. Christie has 25 years
experience in a variety of EMS and rescue roles, from rescue/paramedic to training officer, FTO, and regional
training coordinator. Mr. Christie also has 25 years experience and training in mountain rescue, water rescue,
high angle rescue, avalanche evaluation and rescue, search and rescue (SAR) coordination, air rescue, dive
rescue, and EMS. In addition to serving as a mountain rescue, air rescue, SAR medicine, avalanche, ocean
rescue, swiftwater rescue, wilderness skills, and climbing instructor since 1979; has also served as Training
Director for Portland Mountain Rescue, the Washoe/Tahoe Mountain Rescue Team, and the American
Medical Response - Reach and Treat (RAT) Program in Oregon, as well as, numerous smaller organizations.
Mr. Christie originated the RAT rescue concept as well as developing the American Medical Response -
Wildfire and Public Health Response Team, the training standards for mountain rescue members, water
rescue personnel, and the PSDA swiftwater rescue program. Mr. Christie developed the first river lifeguard
program in North America and has been instrumental in the development of water rescue task forces in
Southern Oregon. He recently developed, managed, and implemented an air rescue system for support of
personnel in the Southern Philippines. He is an active rescue paramedic, master diver, climber and kayaker,
with experience in the mountain ranges of Alaska, Washington, Oregon, Nevada, and California; as well as
the waters of the Western US and Alaska. Mr. Christie has contributed to Response magazine, JEMS
magazine, Wilderness Medicine Newsletter, Rescue magazine, Journal of Academic Emergency Medicine,
and Prehospital Emergency Care; as well as serving as a frequent speaker at regional and national
conferences. Mr. Christie has lead and/or participated in over 1000 SAR missions in the USA and
Philippines. Mr. Christie was Educated at the University of Nevada – Reno, Concordia University, Bedford
University, and the Oregon Health Sciences University - Advanced Paramedic Training Program.
Sara Christie:
Ms. Christie is a critical care and flight nurse with 20 years of experience in those areas. Educated at
Oregon Health Sciences University, she has functioned in all areas of nursing, from field nurse and
emergency nurse, to nurse educator and nursing administrator. She is a multidisciplinary nursing
instructor with broad experience with different learning types. As a field provider she has over 20 years
experience in search and rescue, mountain rescue, water rescue, rescue management, and air rescue. She
has been a contributor to several scientific publications with original research and given numerous
lectures in advanced care and burn medicine to physicians, nurses, and paramedics in the USA and the
Philippines. An active master diver and paddler, Ms. Christie has experience throughout the Pacific
Ocean, the Caribbean Sea, the Philippine Sea, and the Great Barrier Reef.

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The Dive Operator

Casualty Prevention and Response

Copyright ATREC Inc. - February, 2005

Copyright ATREC Inc 2007 1

Risk Assessment and Program Development 5

Recognition of Potential Drowning Subjects and Prevention Activities 9

Open Water and Swiftwater Hydrology 13

Personal Protective and Rescue Equipment 27

Water Rescue Philosophy 35

Basic Open Water Rescue Techniques 37

Appendix 1 – Training Job Aids 68

Appendix 2 – Sample Course Outline 73

Copyright ATREC Inc 2007 2

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Copyright ATREC Inc 2007 6

A risk management plan is a proactive approach to managing risk. While it is virtually

Copyright ATREC Inc 2007 7

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Slide 1: Recognition and Prevention Issues

Slide 2: Primary and secondary functions of a water rescue professional.

Slide 3: Recognition and Assessment of Drowning Potential

Slide 4: Recognition and Assessment of Drowning Potential

Slide 5: Recognition and Assessment of Drowning Potential – Pre-Dive Observations

Copyright ATREC Inc 2007 9

Slide 6: Recognition and Assessment of Drowning Potential – Dry Land Observations

Slide 7: Recognition and Assessment of Drowning Potential – Pre Dive Observations

Slide 8: Recognition and Assessment of Drowning Potential – Swimmer/Diver

Copyright ATREC Inc 2007 10

Slide 9: Recognition and Assessment of Drowning Potential – Swimmer Observations

Slide 10: Recognition and Assessment of Drowning Potential – Swimmer Observations

Slide 11: Recognition and Assessment of Drowning Potential – Drowning Observations

Slide 12: Prevention Activities

Copyright ATREC Inc 2007 11

Slide 13: Prevention Messages.

Slide 14: When Communicating with the Customer or Public

Slide 16: Promote Prevention through In-service training processes

Slide 17: Promote Personal Safety

Slide 18: That’s It Folks - Questions?

Copyright ATREC Inc 2007 12

There is tremendous power in any water environment

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Characteristics of Open Water Environments:

Surf is the breaking of waves either over a

There are a number of different types of wave

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Hazards on the open water environment:

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Beaufort Wind Speed Wave

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Moving water, generally referred to as “swiftwater”, encompasses a vast array of conditions,

Current Velocity Pressure On Legs Pressure on Body On Swamped

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International River Rating System Scale:

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Estimating the Speed of Water:

Calculating Travel Time:

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