The Superstring Theory

Superstrings, a way to the

Theory of Everything ?

Introduction

Brian Greene, professor in mathematics and physichs at the Coumbia University published in
1999 the book “ The Elegant Universe” with the undertitle “Superstrings, Hidden Dimensions
and the Quest for the Ultimate Theory”. This book achieved to become finalist to the Pulitzer
Price. In addition the book got the Aventis Price, the highest british distinction for a scientific
book. Later on came his book “The Fabric of the Cosmos,
space. time and texture of reality”.
Brian Greene is concidered to be the leading physicist,
having the String Theory as speciality.

Greene manage to give the common technical interested

reader a good comprehension to what is related to the use
of physical and mathematical conceptions for the theorie of
strings, without beeing too difficult to understand. He use
practical analogics, a very good facility when so many
complicated and unaccustomed concepts shows up.

Mainly, my impressions from reading “The Elegant

Univers” and looking at a TV program
(Sweedish STV2, Vetenskapens Värld, Video Captures,
still pictures) had been the basis for my article.

The Theory of Everything (TOE) , what does it really mean ?

An important target for cosmologic physics is to develop a unniform theory, including

electromagnetisme, strong and the weak forces in the atomic nuclear and gravitation. A kind
of approaches between the theories electromagnetisme and the general relativity has been
achieved, but still there seems to be some inconsistance between the quantum mechanics in
the microworld and the relativity theory in the great cosmos.

When now gravitation is taken in

concideration, the problems seems strongly to
accumulate. The electromagnetic and the
nuclear forces are so incomprehencible much
stronger than gravitation that it seems
impossible to summarize these phenomena in
a common,universal theory. It seems to exist
an endless gap between gravitation and the
other forces. When physicists and
mathematicians try to combine the equations,
all seems to crack
The way to the seductive “Theory of Everything “ is evidently far from ended, but in later
years a new and revolutionary vision has established in the scientific world. While scientists
earlier regarded all elementar particles beeing indivisable, they now seriously discuss whether
all nuclear particles, from the smallest (gravitons, fotons) to the greatest, (protons, neutrons
and their building blocks quarks) could be based on smaller structures, called Strings or
Superstrings.
Such strings could have different
shaping, may be existing like loops or
unfold like enormous, thin membranes.
Commonly, the are concidered to
vibrate, and their frequencies and kind
of it determine what type of nuclear
particle they represent. Such strings wil
be extreemly small and thin, and
“seeing” them is quite out of question.
Any how, their existance could look
like an impossibility. The mathematics
needed to create a Unified Theory
looks to be extreemly complicated, and
perhaps necessitate the use of eleven
dimensions, which means seven new ones in addition to the familiar with, height and time.
Quite a challenge for future physicists and mathematicans.

Edward Witten, nestor in the development of the

string theory, and to day considered to become the
great name after Albert Einstein, wrote the
following about this theory :
It may take 10 years or hundreds before this
theory is completely developed and understood,
but nevertheless is a complete and quantitative
understanding of the string theory now much
closer than we earlier believed was possible.
Still many researchers are doubtful to the string
theory. Some suggests the theory as well could be a pilosophical theory, others suggest that
the risk for a pure fisco exist.

Newton, Maxwell and Einsteins contributions.

Isaac Newton launched for about 300 years ago his gravitation
theory, and his equations was so correct that they could be used
in the calculations for Apollo voyages to the moon in the
beginning of 1970.
James Maxwell was an outstanding scotch mathematician and
physicist. In 1873 he presented four equations which elegant
attached electrisity and magnetism. With that, he laid an
important foundation for the Unified Theory.

Albert Einstein worked in his later years with a unifying

theory, able to combine the electromagnetic forces and the
gravitation, but he never succeeded. Einstein launched his
first relativity theory in 1905, which he called “The
special” . The second came in 1915 and got the name “The
general”. In his special theory he stated that the speed of
light never could exceed 300 000 km / sec. He foresaw the
time paradox which arise if a human beeing could be
brought close up to the speed of light. Einstein also stated
that gravitation, or more precisly waves of gravity, moves
with the same speed as light. This last statement has long
since been proved.
Einstein also stated that mass and energy are equivalent,
beeing expressed in the equation E= mc2 . The dramatic
contents of this equation became reality with the atomic
bomb. Even though only 1 % of the one kilogram Uran 235
in the bomb over Hiroshima was transformed to energy, this detonation corresponded to
15 000 tons of TNT.
Due to the general relativity theory a gravitation field is comparable to an acceleration field ,
said Einstein. Gravitation is actually no attraction force, but a result of the f act that the
universe constitute a space – time network , where great masses like suns, planets and moons
create a torsion or curving in this imaginary network. Around the sun a planet will be kept in
its orbit because of the curving the sun creates in the net. A proof for his general theory was
discovered during a solar eclipse in 1919, and was descreibed as a scientific revolution in
London Times.
In 1930 Einstein had not got any closer to his dream of a unified theory, but the developments
in nuclear physics and quantum mechanics had accelerated. In the nuclear physics scientists
operated with weak and strong forces, and the number of new particles increased. Einstein
realized now that it was an enormeous distance in the strengt of nuclear and electromagnetic
foces on the one side, and gravitation on the other side, and this was in the magnitude of many
billions. Such a gap made it impossible for him to find a physical and mathematic foundation
for his unified theory.

The quantum mechanics, creating a revolution among physicians and turned things upside-
down about nuclear particles movements, Einstein would never accept. When the danish
physicist Niels Bohr in 1920 stated his quantum mechanics, and the german Werner
Heisenberg later stated his princip of uncertainty, the good Einsten said stop. That the
universe should be goverend by coincidence he could never accept : “ God doesn’t play
dies”.
Einstein gradually distanced from the general development, and worked further on with his
evaluations and equations. In 1929 he meant he was on the right track, and the newspapers
announced that Einstein was close up to solve the universal puzzle with his new theory. This
created such a attraction around his person that he had to hide for some time, but it was all
false alarm. Einstein had to admit his failure, and he said to Wolfgang Pauli, who had
rejected his theories : “ You was right, you rascal “. In spite of his defeat, Einstein continued
his work on the unified theory till his end. He died in USA on 18. april 1955, and the person
who rised highest among scientists in our time, was gone.

Bohr, Heisenberg and Schwarzscild’s contributions.

In 1920 Niels Bohr ( 1885 – 1962) introduced his quantum mechanics. According to his
theory, nothing can be predicted in the world of the atoms. There is only a certain degree of
probability that something happens.
Earlier , Werner Heisenberg in 1927 stated his uncertainty princip, where he postulated that
we can’t get simalteous measurements of speed and position for a single electron. We must
merely choose the one or the other. No wonder that many scientists wondered about such
uncertainty and disorder in microcosmos. Maybee had Einstein right when he denied to
believe that God played dies ?

The german Karl Schwarzschield (1873 -1916) was a lonely

mathematician, became only 43 years. Like so many other
young men he had to partipicate in the combats on the west
front in the first world war. As a pastime in quiet hours on the
front he liked to solve Maxwells complicated equations . When
Einstein stated his general theory, Schwarzshield defined the
conditions necessary for a black hole to be formed in the centre
of a very large star, and his calculations showed that the
gravitation could be so strong that even light could not escape
from this black hole. He had disclosed a kind of connection
between gravitation and light particles, the so called photons.
About 1928 most of the mathematics around the quantum
mechanics was in place, but far from all researchers liked this
theory. In was not easy to understand, and a capacity like the
physicist Richard Feldman(1918 – 1988) once said :
No one understand the quantum theory, It describes the
nature as absurd, seen with our eyes, and experiments
confirm this. Therefore I realize that I must accept the nature
as it is, namely quite absurd.

The astronom Edwin Hubble (1889 -1953) stated his theory

about the expansion of the universe, a quite revolutionary
statement, completely changing our vision of cosmos. A new
paradox, linked to the property of light, showed also up.
Light could be both a particle stream of photons, and contemparary act like a wave motion.
Newton had declared that light was a stream of particles, but Huygens said that this could not
be correct, it could as well be a wavelike motion.
Thomas Young could later prove that they both were wrong. Light could act in both
conditions, more like waves of photons.

The string theory showes up.

In 1968 an italian, Gabrielle Veneziano, ( connected to Cern)

among old and dusty mathematic books found one with the title
The History of Mathematics by the swiss mathematician Lehonard
Euler (1707 – 1783) , 200 years ago. Euler had presented a very
special equation, which later got the name Eulers gamma equation.
Veneziano searched in reality
for an equation which could
be adapted to the strong
nuclear force, the one that
keeps nuclear particles
together, and generate
enormous energy when the nucleus was split. The
equation he now looked at, had for a long time been
regarded as a mathematic curiosity, but Veneziano saw that it , strange to say, described what
he searched for, namely the strong nuclear force.
He published it, and it was well accepted in scientific circles. He meant that Eulers gamma-
equation was a result of much work , and that this could be the start of the unified theory.

In 1973 the swiss mathematicist Leonard Susskind by

Stanford Universitey took a new look at the gamma-
equation. He saw that it could describe the strong force,
but he saw someting more : It could describe a type of
elements like elastic strings or bonds, and if one
thought them beeing small, vibrating strings, their
movements could accurately be described from Eulers
equation.

Susskind wrote a report of his discovery, and wantet it published in a scientific forum, but his
report was rejected. He declared later that he had hoped to become a new Einstein.
Still the physisists opinion was that it had to be particles who constituted the building stones
in microcosmos, and operated with what was called the. Standard Model for the universal
theory. This had the three well known forces electromagnetism, weak and strong forces, and it
was stated that quantum mechanics functioned in microcosmos.
But still the gravitation force missed. Nevertheless, physicists like Sheldon Lashow, Abdul
Salaam and Steven Weinberg was honored with the Nobel Price for their works on the
Standard Model.

The physcist John Schwarz was the first to declared that it had to be a string theory which
could bring a solution for the unified theory, even though it operated with a particle moving
above the speed of light , a so called takyon, and in addition it presupposed the use of eleven
dimensions.
His contribution started about 1974, and i four years Schwarz tried
to find sensible answers from his equation. Suddenly he observed
that a manipulation gave the answer he for long had searched for,
namely the so called graviton. He also stated that the size for such
“strings” could be only a hundred of billions of billions of an
atoms diameter.
Schwarz published his epoch-.making theory , but obtained no
positive reaction. But Schwarz realized that if his strings described
gravitation on quantum level,. this must be the key to a unification
of the four forces.

Now he got help from one who was wiling to risk his
career , namelig the physicist Michael Green. The
biggest problem they had to solve was some
mathematical anomalies or contradistions in the
equations. With these anomalies the string theory could
never be accepted.
In five years, until 1984 , they worked on it, and at last
only two quite unlike and very important equations had
to be solved. If the numerical value of the two answers
was the same, the theory could be established. The
numerical value for the first equation was 496, and
when the second equation gave precicely the same
value , the string theory was in reality proved. Green
tells about this moment :

We stood there before the great blackboard and worked , and

outside was a thunderstorm passing Aspen. It felt like some
gods would try to stop oue calculations, but we complated
our task, and our numbers agreeded.
After this followed a time called the superstrings first
revolution. Over three thousand scientidic articles was
published about this new theory.
How can we imagine superstrings !

In the starting point, a string is a one-dimentional, vibrating filament. The length of such a
string is so small that it correspondss to what in the physics is called Plancks Length. This
enter into all nuclear particles, both those with mass or those with only energy , and are all
particles building stones. In the quantum mechanics is Plancks lengt defined to be 10-33 cm. .
Different vibration pattern will decide what kind of elementary particles with different mass
or charge they represent. The higher the frequence, the higher the energy. And as we know
from Einstein, is energy and mass equivalent , given by the equation E= m c2. Heavy
particles are built up from strings with higher frequency and energy.

And another thing to remark: Each elementary particle is built up from equal, closed strings,
vibrating in its special way. And talking about vibrations, this means that there must be
unlike types of resonnance in the system. Here comes indeed analogies to the music, just ac
Michale Green emphasized.

Superstrings, close up.

Due to the new theory energy in a closed string or loop depends of two important
circumstances. The first is what type of resonance there is in the string, the second the stretch
tension. One should immediately expect that smaller and veaker vibrations would lower the
energy proportionaly, but this is in conflict with the quantum physics. Energy can only exist
in small and discrete portions, so called quantums, and the energy representing a string will
always be the sum of quantums.
The stretch tension is in a range far above what we can imagine. In 1974 Schenck and
Schwarz calculated that a string with vibrations corresponding to a graviton (the hypotetical
gravity particle) would have a stretch tension of 10 19 tons. Such a tension should draw
together a string and give it the same length as the Planck lenght, namely 10-33 cm.
It’s tempting to compare this enormeous forces in the nucleous with the forces beeing
released in the detonation of an atomoic bomb.

The minimum energy for a string is calculated to be 1019 times greater than a protons, but how
can lighter particles like electrons and photons exist ? The answer can be found in the laws
for the quantum mechanichs. The splitting up of the vibrating effect that the quantum flimmer
causes, follows what the physcists call a canceling, strongly reduceing the effect. Yes, such
cancelling can be so strong that a string almost without mass or energy can exist. The so
called graviton come into this category. Another extremity is the greatest quarks, having a
mass 189 times the protons. These can show up when a corresponding balanse between
resonans and tension is present.

A peculiar thing comes in here. It has been detected that all the known or assumed 21
elementary particles call for a string-energy that lyes inn the bottom of the field of rest energy,
beeing the result of the quantum cancelling . From this place and up it should (theoretical) be
place for infinite possible elementary particles. Where have they gone ?
Why do we need more dimensions?

The german mathematician Theodor Kaluza (1885-1954) studied

in 1919 Einstein’s gravity theory with the common dimensions and
time, and derivaded. The result was identical to Einsteins, but if he
put in an extra dimension and derivaded, he got some extra
equations. When he scrutinized them he found to his great surprise
that they were the samen as Maxwell described in 1880. By
introducing a new dimension to Einstein’s general relativity
theory, Kaluza had in a way managed to combine the theory
mathematicaly to the electro-magnmetisme.

The sweedish physicist Oscar Klein stated in 1926 that such a fifth
dimension had to be coiled up like a curl or loop, and could never
be seen because it would be so inconceivable small. Kaluza had suggested a size about
Plancks length, something like 19-33 cm.

In the further developing of the string theory , the demand for

more dimensions increased., and to day is the number 11
dimensions , which is seven more than our usual width, height,
length and time. Without to grip more deeply into the
mathematics, this is the most difficult thing to explain in the
string theory.

The british Ernest Rutherford once said : “If you can not explain
a result in a simple, and not in a technical way, the you really has
not understood it”.

So wrong is it hardly, but many of the problems that have piled

up are due to very complicated matematics, connected to the new
equations. They are so complicated that one must put in simplifications to some of the
vaiable to come a bit further. This gives only partly correct solutions, but by later stepvise
putting in corrections on single variables, so called perbutations, one can make a step forward
in the calculation..

What does superstrings look like ?

The picture of strings which has manifested

today is probably the so called Calabio-Yan
figure. It is a (thought) 6-dimentional
geometric figure, getting it’s name from the
two matematicans who launches it, namely
Eugenio Calabi ( University of
Pennsylvania) and Shing-Tu-Yau (Harward
University).
The form of the Calabi-Yau can theoreticaly
be changed endlessly. Those shown here are
only one of ten thousands of posssible forms to accomodate the sufficient number of
dimension. The Calabi-Yau-form will allow the rolled up dimensions to enter into new , extra
dimensions by continued rolling, like winding a bigger spiral from an existing, smaller spiral.

How small could such strings be ?

If one thinks an atom beeing enlarged to cover our complete solar system, such a string would
be in the size of an average tree.

Supersymmetry, spinn and superpartners

Early in the 1970 years the science found out that the nature is supersymmetrick, meaning that
all particles, without regard to type, always will appear two and two, In the new world of
superstrings this means two and two vibrating strings, the so called superpartner strings,

And more than that. Such couples of mass- or energy particles has a spin or rotation around
its own axis in a fixed way. Those with a spin called -½ will always live tohether with a string
called -1 . As this alone was’nt enough
complicated, they found out that none of the
particles for matter and energy, up to now, and
beeing 21 of them, lived together in such a
superpartner relations. It had to be other,
unknown partners having a spinn of ½ with its
partner, and f ar heavier. For such hypotetical
particles one found a practical way to keep them
apart from their counterpart, and added the type s
before. So the hypotetical electron partner got the
name selectron, and all of them called sparticles.

The five different theories

In 1985 five different theories existed for how supersymmetry could be incorporated in the
string theory. Edward Witten expressed the confusion in his special way : If one of these
five theories only show us five different ways to describe our univers, where are the the other
four ? The situation was simply embarrassing, could there be five variants of the unified
theory ?
No, fortunately not. In the great String 95 conference Witten launched his new M-theory, and
comes with the following statement : The five unlike theories shows only different ways to go
to describe one and the same superior theory. Again the string theory was seemingly on the
safe ground.

What is now aimed for ?

The most sentral point is of course to find the basic structure for all elementary particles,
based on how the strings build them up. All their different constants , caracterizing the
elementary particles, has to find a relevant explanation in the strings behaviour.
The unlike properties to the particles are goverend by 20 different nature constants, and these
constants must exact acommodate the equations. And just her comes the great problem :
Namely to adjust seven curled up dimensions in the same equation system, just where they
belong !

Another important prove

The real existance of new dimensons is of the utmost interest. In the Fermi lab in USA and
CERN in Switzerland, plans are ready for experiments with their great particle accelerators.
They will make collisions between particles and hope to create a new particle, called the
graviton. If this particle disappears to another dimension one could have a proof for both
exsistance of a graviton and for hidden dimensions.

The state to day.

The string physicists doesn’t exclude the existance of membranes or branes, in stead of
strings. They realize that the universe could be far more complicated to comprehend than
they had imagined. We live perhaps in a three-dimentional brane in a more-dimensional
room, and other worlds could be parallell universes, like slice of bread.

One can’t exclude that there could come rupture in a nettwork of strings, creating a kind of
“cross-cut”, so called “wormhole” between two universes , and make it possible for people to
be transfered to a second universe, perhaps in few seconds. The universe is perhaps even
more dynamic than Einstein realized.

The physicists has still a faith on that det greatest and the smallest one dag could be unified ,
and the theory of everything become a reality, byt the problem is monumental. Strings or
branes , swinging in a universe with many dimensions should be part of this system. The
physisist indicate that perhaps one must go further down in size, under the so called Plansk’s
constant where neither room nor time exist, to find the definitely starting point.

If the string theory can be certified, it will stay as a monumental evidence for human
intelligens and its will to comprehension.

Skien, 14.mars 2004

Kjell W. Tveten
The situation for The Superstring Theory in 2005.

Searches on Internet for the status, now mostly called the M-theory, has given me the
following impression:
A kind of trench warfare seems still to go on between those who are confident to the M-theory
and it’s further develpoment, and those doubting that this is the right way to get a unified
theory. The supporters stand firm in their faith for the theory, and want more time for
mathematicians and physicists for coming years. The opponents claim that it’s ridiculous to
say that one has an outstanding scientific theory without beeing able to concretisize any thing,
and besides declere a paradigm shift. They come with evident sarcasm, and insist on hefty
proofs, something they so far not have seen.
In universities in USA and Canada the interest for the M-theory is still great. A program
called The Geometry of String Theory 2005 Conference will give lectures with scientists from
universities, both from USA and outside America. The objectives was expressed like this:

The program will be devoted to mathematical subjects motivated by string theory, and to
recent develpoments in string theory and related physical fields which are of strong
mathematical interest. On the mathematical side, the aims is to foster interaction between
such areas of mathematics as derived categories, elliptic cohomology. differential geomerty,
varieties with special holonomy and of special Lagrangian varieties.

This tells us what problems is lying ahead for those who must bring the theory further on. It
is quite obvious that the mathematics needed will be quite central, and a gigant achievment
stands before the mathematicians. A solution for a long row of nonlinear differential
equations are waiting, very, very difficult to solve.

Skien 20. november 2005

Substracts from Internet, january 2010

New Scientist brought in july 2009 (Jessica Griggs) an article with the heading : What string
theory is really good for, and she writes : A string theory, you love it or loathe it. To some it
represents our best hope for a route to a “theory of everything”,others portray it as anything
from a mathematically obtuse minefiled to a quasi religion that has precious little to do with
science. There might be a middle way. String theory’s mathematical tools were designed to
unlock the most profound secrets of the cosmos, but they could have a far less esoteric
purpose : to tease out the properties of some of the most complex et useful types of material in
the Earth. The string theory staged a dramatic comeback. Gravity had resisted incorporation
into the standard model, still beeing desribed in Einsteins general theory of relativity, a
resolutely non-quantum theory. In the 1980s, it became clear that certain features of strings
correspond perfectly to properties predicted for the graviton, a hypotetical quantum particle
that would transmit gravitational force. Suddenly it looked as thuogh string theory could
unite all nature’s working into one grand quantum –physical scheme.

To day , a mighty hope exist for the results achieved by the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) in
Cern. Phyicists hope that the LHC will help answer the most fundamental questions in
physics, questions concerning the interactions and forces among elementary objects, the deep
structure of space and time, especially regarding the intersection of quantum mechanics and
general relativity, where current theories are unclear or break down altogether.

From Wikipedia: Is the Higgs mecanism for generating elementary particle masses via
electroweak symmetry breaking indeed realism in nature ? It is anticipated that the collider
will either demonstrate (or rule out) the existance of the elusive Higgs boson(s), completing
(or refuting) the Standard Model. In supersymmetri, an extensionof the Standard Model and
Poincaré system, realised in nature, implying tha all known particles have supersymmetric
partners ? This may clear up the mystery of dark matter. Are there extra dimensions, as
predicted by variuos models inspired bt the String Theory, ans cab we detect them ?

The Large Hadron Collider may probably be ready for new investigations in februar 2101.

Skien, 2.februar 2010

Kjell W. Tveten