COMPUTERS AND

STATISTICS IN
ARCHAEOLOGY

Week 4. Geographic
Information Systems (GIS) - 2
© Richard Haddlesey www.medievalarchitecture.net
 Aims
● WEEK 4
● Examine the differences between vector and raster graphics
● Discuss which data types are best represented by each
● Examine how ArcGIS treats vector graphics
● Outline vector data sources
● Create new vector themes by digitising in ArcGIS

● WEEK 5
● Discuss the use of photography and satellite date in GIS
● Outline raster data sources
● Load and geo-reference aerial photographs in ArcGIS
● Examine different display options when using raster images in ArcGIS
 Key text
 Conolly J, Lake M 2006. Geographical Information
Systems in Archaeology: Cambridge Manuals in
Archaeology. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge

 Geographical Information Systems are a

powerful technology that offer a host of
analytical possibilities for investigating the
spatial organisation of cultural and human-
environment relationships (p31)
 Data models
 Data models and data structures:
[are] the digital representation of
spatial phenomena

 A GIS works by manipulating the

digital representations of real world
entities…[this is known as a]
data model

(Conolly and Lake, 2006: 24)

 Two main types of Data
models in GIS
● Vector
– Objects represented as nodes (X,Y points)
and connecting lines, attributes of objects
attached as database tables
● Raster
– Geographical space represented as a grid of
cells, numerical values represent attributes of
each cell
Vector and Raster GIS
Vector Raster

Forest Lake Grassland

Site Road
 Strengths
Vector Raster
● Spatial precision ● Analytical capabilities
● Compact data storage ● Surfaces
● Scalable presentation ● Continuous quantities
● Object based ● Pixellated data
● Database linkage ● Photographs
 Vector applications
 Spatially referenced database
applications (information about
objects):
• Location maps
• Sites and Monuments
• Artefacts
 Mapping applications
 Triangulated Irregular Network (TIN)
elevation models
 Vector applications
 Downside:
• Very CPU intensive
• Boundedness
• Elevation is hard to express without a
TIN
 Raster applications
 Each cell can be given:
• A quantitative value that signals the mean
elevation
• a single attribute
 This is simple, in comparison to a vector,
but that is it’s strength:
• It can be mathematically manipulated and
displayed much quicker than a vector
 Fuzzy boundaries
 Map algebra
(Conolly and Lake, 2006: 28)
 Raster applications

 Downside:
• Fixed resolution (not multiscalar)
• It’s difficulty in representing discrete
entities (too blocky)
• Limited ability to handle multiple
attribute data through a DBMS

(Conolly and Lake, 2006: 30-1)

 The good news:
Hybridisation
Vector/raster systems
● Most modern GIS software packages combine both
vector and raster capabilities

● Image processing
● Aerial and satellite integration

● ESRI desktop GIS suite

● ArcView

● ArcCatalog and ArcMap

The good news: Hybridisation
 Vector/raster systems

 Most modern GIS software packages combine both vector

and raster capabilities

 Image processing
• Aerial and satellite integration
• DBMS integration

 ESRI desktop GIS suite (www.esri.com)

• Arc Info
• ArcEditor
• ArcView
 ArcCatalog and ArcMap
• ArcReader
• ArcGIS extensions
Hybridisation through layers in
ArcView

MSc lecture notes 2005/6

 Software
● CAD/CAM
• AutoCAD, Microstation
● Image processing
• MicroBrain, ERDAS Imagine
● Raster GIS
• Idrisi, Grass (Unix), Grassland,
Spans, MapII (Mac)
● Vector GIS
• ArcInfo, ArcGIS, MGE
● Desktop mapping
• ArcView ≤3, MapInfo
 Map objects
● Point

● Line/Polyline

● Area/Region/Polygon

● Text ABC
 Database linkage
Map objects = attributes
 Mapping to Database
● Most mapping applications are intimately
linked with a database of objects:
Attributes
• Territories
• Historical records
• Sites
• Museum objects
• Features
• Excavated/collected artefacts

Graphical objects
Layers / themes
 Why themes?
● Logical breakdown of data - related
objects in each theme
● Assemble maps for different purposes
by combining themes
● Examine interaction between themes,
create new themes
Paper maps use symbolism to distinguish
between layers, to compensate for the
limitations of the technology
 Data collection (1)
● Conventional databases
• Point data
• Attributes for line & area objects
● Digital vector data sources
• Geographically referenced
– Worldwide, DCW
– BGS
– National (e.g. Ordnance Survey)
– Other e.g. Developers plans etc
• Drafting / surveyors’ plans (DXF)
 Data collection (2)
● Map digitising
● Considerations:
• Accuracy, costs, heads-up/down
• Projection, geodetic system, topology
• Topographic / projected
• Plans / unprojected
• Historical maps & plans
 Data collection (3)
● EDM, GPS & conventional survey
• Architectural survey
● Field survey & recording
• Sites
• Survey units / material count
• Individual artefact locations
● Surface collection
● Excavation
– Units & features as objects
– 3D / volumetric systems / voxels
• Vastly increased data requirements
– Artefacts