2.

1 LITERATURE REVIEW

In western culture, differences between people are preferred to similarities, possibly because
of the importance give to the individual right from a very young age and his/ her values. The
process of stereotyping tends to categorize which is basically homogenisation. The issues of
accuracy and error have a long history in social psychology.

In the paper on Ethnic stereotypes in American Films by students pursuing Arts at the Yale
University it is quoted that, ‘Mainstream films perpetuate in-group perceptions about out-
group members, both consciously and unconsciously, even when trying to be liberal-minded.
By making specific casting decisions, filmmakers designate the ethnicity of characters that
either reinforce the audience's opinions of the ethnicity represented or provide individual
exceptions to the accepted stereotypes. Such representations can have a powerful effect on
audiences of all races. Stereotypes in some form are almost impossible to avoid, whether they
are examples of institutionalized racism (intentional or involuntary) or attempts to counteract
prejudice.’

According to the eminent psychologists, Mowlana & Wilson ‘There is a greater flow of
information from the first to third world countries but very little representation of the third
world in the first world. This imbalance in information flow, the lack of accurate and diverse
sources of information, and the absence of racial minorities in the Western media workforce
have been cited as some of the possible sources for the problem of misrepresentation of these
people in the West.’ This stereotyping is prevalent not just in their films, but books, theatre,
television and to a certain extent in news coverage as well.

Srividya Ramasubramanian, in her thesis titled, a content analysis on the portrayal of India
in films produced in the west, says ‘Films play an important role in shaping ethnic and
national identities, especially in the absence of much face-to-face interactions with certain
groups. Our understanding about other cultures and nations around the world is often
coloured by our memory of these places that we have received through mediated visual
information. They help to create and perpetuate national stereotypes.’

Over a period of time, through repeated exposure to the stereotypical depictions across films
and across narratives in different media sites, we unintentionally and often unconsciously
start accumulating these bits and pieces of information about the social group in such a way
that we develop a ‘schema’ or a quick short-cut reference for the social group. Not
surprisingly, when asked to recall the attributes of the social group, people might recall
scenes, characters, lines, settings, and actors from various films in an attempt to grab
whatever little information we can get to make quick judgments in interpersonal situations.

Social Stereotypes may be viewed as popular beliefs about distributions of characteristics

within social groups. Thus, social stereotypes have the logical status of prior possibilities for
social judgements about particular members of these social groups. The most striking
example of this kind of reasoning is that social stereotypes exert a pervasive and powerful an
effect on social judgement as has been traditionally assumed. Such stereotyping ends up
affecting the judgement of how a group of people or community as a whole is viewed by an
individual. Social stereotyping, more often than not leads to a slight trace of prejudice.

In a recent news story in the Iran Times on this recurring trend in Western films it was
reported that ‘There is a move underway in Hollywood to attack American film stereotypes
of Muslims—and the effort is not being mounted by Muslims. The campaign has been
launched by the Writers Guild in Hollywood, in conjunction with the Brookings Institution, a
Washington think-tank, and television producer and political fund-raiser Haim Saban, who
happens to be Jewish.

They recently hosted a panel of writers, producers and filmmakers to discuss ways of
breaking the media cycle of negatively stereotyping Muslims. The forum, which was called,
Rewriting the Divide: Hollywood and the Muslim World, addressed ways in which
Hollywood could break its cycle of stereotyping. As described recently in The National, the
brand new English language daily published in Abu Dhabi, the consensus at the forum was
clear: Hollywood has been promoting stereotypes for too long, just as previous generations of
filmmakers stereotyped Italians as gangsters and blacks as criminals.’

Many analysts say the stereotyping is not the fault of Hollywood and instead point to the
American news media for propagating stereotypes, but others argue the average American
film or television viewer is exposed to relentless labelling and negative images of minority
groups and Asian nations.

Portrayal of people- their customs, practices and beliefs- if not your own always leaves scope
for misconstruction and depiction in a manner that is not so close to the truth. An interesting
observation by eminent American author and social critic, Camille Paglia is ‘Feminism often
proclaims “out with stereotypes.” But they are the west’s stunning sexual persona- the vehicle
of art’s continuous assault against nature; the moment there is cinema, there is imagination-
the moment there is imagination, there is myth!’

This view is further propagated by the Canadian film-maker and screen writer David
Cronenberg, ‘All stereotypes turn out to be a mirror of the truth, and this is a horrifying fact
about life. All those things you argue against as a youth: you eventually begin to realise they
are stereotypes because they are true portrayal.’

A research study on the enculturation and acculturation of television use among Asian
Indians in the US by Doctor of Philosophy, Indira S Somani reveals the following result that
‘today, most audience members are media literate and know when their culture is being portrayed
inaccurately. These stereotypes can be both positive as well as negative, although ethnocentrism is a
very distinct feature in Hollywood films where other cultures are sometimes treated with contempt.

Audiences are also able to see the differences between programmes that are created with a White
Eurocentric perspective and those that are created by producers from the region of origin.
Programmes that empower cultural identity are mostly welcomed by ethnic groups; which in turn
leads to a loyal and consistent audience group.’

The study on stereotyping of Indians by western film-makers will remain incomplete without
proper understanding of the trait of ethnocentrism. This belief in self-superiority is a very
predominant ingredient in their screenplay and scripts. Ethnocentrism as defined by two of
the most coherent research analysts, Gerald Wing Sue & David Sue in Counselling the
Culturally Different, ‘it is primarily a product of enculturation. Five aspects of this
unconscious belief system which can be particularly damaging to ethnic minorities and is
portrayed in movies are as follows:

- A strong belief in the superiority of your own group's cultural heritage- history,
values, language, traditions, arts and crafts.
- There is a belief in the inferiority of all other group’s cultural heritage which extends
to their customs, values, traditions and language. Often others are considered pagan,
primitive or uncivilized.
- Backed by the power to impose standards.
- Manifestation in institutions like education and management systems.
- The invisible veil- since people are all products of cultural conditioning, their values
and beliefs represent an invisible veil that operates outside the level of conscious
 awareness. As a result people assume universality: that the nature of reality and truth
are shared by everyone regardless of race, culture, ethnicity or gender.

It's not hard to see how these unconscious belief systems result in two divided groups of
people who do not understand each other at all.

Till the 80s, Indian character sketches in almost all movies were pretty much the same, with
minor difference in roles. They were generally depicted as loud, uncouth, aloof, immature,
talking with an exaggerated accent. An inside joke in the industry was that it would be a
challenge to make an Indian character who wasn't either the savage that must be eliminated,
the force of nature that's blocking the way for industrial progress, or the noble innocent who
acts like he knows-it-all.

John A Price, professor at the York University, in his article on the stereotyping of Indians in
Motion pictures says, ‘The portrayal of Indians in motion pictures has seen roughly 22 years
in the formation of negative stereotypes in the days of silent films, 18 years of the use of
extremely negative stereotypes especially in serials and then over 25 years of an unsuccessful
attempt at breaking down the stereotypes.’

In the thesis study by American University students on Indians in American films it is

reported that ‘Indians have been active and outspoken in their efforts to reverse stereotypical
portrayals of them in mainstream cinema. The National Film Committee and the American
Indian Historical Society and Indian actors associations have fought for accurate
representation of Indians. Both the marginalized and mainstream populations are undermined
by this stereotypical portrayal of Indians. Various mythologies of Indians are depicted
without analyzing the practices from their root of origin. Even in the present day, these
depictions are alive in mainstream contemporary cinema.’

Srividya Ramasubramanian in her paper further adds, ‘On one hand, films focused on
depicting India in condescending ways dealing with ‘clashes of civilizations’ where Western
characters ‘saved’ India from ancient religious practices such as voodoo and sorcery, natural
disasters such as floods and epidemics, as well as social injustices such as sati and poverty.
On the other hand, there has also been a tendency for certain films produced in the West to
depict India in a dream-like, utopian manner where India is often represented as the land of
milk and honey where overindulgences, excesses, and vices are an integral part of the
culture.’
According to Eugene M. Makar, in his book, the American’s guide to doing business in India,
the traditional Indian culture is defined by relatively strict social hierarchy. He also mentions
that from an early age, children are reminded of their roles and places in society. This is
reinforced by that many believe gods and spirits have integral and functional role in
determining their life. Several differences such as religion divide culture. However, far more
powerful division is the traditional Hindu bifurcation into non-polluting and polluting
occupations. Strict social taboos have governed these groups for thousands of years. In recent
years, particularly in cities, some of these lines have blurred and sometimes even
disappeared. Nuclear family is central to Indian culture.

Overall, the imagery of India seems to be created to make clear-cut distinctions to

emphatically categorize it as an out-group. Such biased portrayals are not limited to specific
movies but are often repeated across the narrative. Therefore, these stereotypical portrayals
are not reflections of the idiosyncratic preferences of individual creators of media content but
seem to be a part of the larger societal meanings and myths existing in the West about
Indian-ness. Some analysts also argue that it is possible that negative stereotypes in media
serve as a means of downward social comparisons in order to boost the self-image of Western
audience.

The values, beliefs, and customs of the dominant group in society are often reinforced by
social institutions like the government, business, education and the media. The establishment
of images in the media reinforces the values of the dominant group in the society. When
immigrant groups or other cultures are portrayed in the media, quite often their representation
is portrayed as somehow inferior to the superior portrayals of the dominant cultural group.
Racism, prejudice and discrimination often lead to stereotypical representation of immigrant
groups as a means of affirming the superior nature of the dominant group and is used as
justification for its greater resources, power and control.

In the research paper on Asians and Hispanics in the US media it says that historically the
representation of Asians and Hispanics has largely been stereotypical, often containing
derogatory images that serve to reinforce the image of dominant groups as justified in their
class privileges. From news reels in the 1920s and 1930s to current Hollywood films, the
media has largely been guilty of reinforcing stereotypical and negative representations of
minorities, especially those of the Hispanics and Asians.’
An interesting observation here is that the perception of these stereotypes by the viewers also
matters to a large extent. The manner in which this portrayal is linked or compared to reality
and the context in which the semiotic meaning is derived differs amongst individuals. The
narrative, a particular scene or dialogue could offend one segment of the audience, while the
other tends to brush it off either in humour or indifference.

Susan T Fiske, the professor of psychology at Harvard University adds that ‘The most
pressing human problems of yesterday and today involve people’s bias and judgement against
one another, some of which tends to humiliate while others might lead to violence. However,
this process of stereotyping is necessary for interaction; people should have the better sense
to rely on such stereotypes only when it is most required or appropriate.’

Stereotyping people to some degree is done in order to grasp a better understanding of the
world. Filmmakers often rely heavily on stereotypes, because they're a quick and simple way
to establish a movie character's traits. Stereotypes are not only the natural result of the
categorization process, of the individual need to organize and simplify the environment, but
they also fulfil a social function which is to explain social events and to justify the group’s
actions. Stereotypes will be especially prevalent when intergroup discussion is unstable.

The western film industry today is marginally more sensitive to issues of culture and gender
than it once was; but many movies still perpetuate common misconceptions about certain
groups of people. Such oversimplified and inaccurate portrayals can profoundly affect how
the countries of the world perceive one another, how people interact and relate to each other
and how individuals value themselves.

2.2 HYPOTHESES

- The different stereotypes in imagery that is common in western films about India and
its culture, often reveals a slight mockery or contempt regarding the same.

- Ethnocentrism is a common element in these films

- Portrayal of both positive and negative elements of culture, language, social practices
and behaviour is present
- Usage of terms like ‘exotic’, ‘strange’, ‘rustic’, ‘queer’, ‘different’ and ‘traditional’ to
depict Indian locales, life and characters is observed through-out the selected sample.

- The negative portrayal is more predominant than positive depiction in most of the
films and majority of the scenes

- Western films, especially European and American have dealt with portrayal of
Hispanics, South Asians and Indians in a mildly derogatory manner